Özbeg Khan
| Öz Beg اوزبیک | |
|---|---|
| Khan | |
 Mikhail of Tverbefore Uzbeg Khan,byVasili Vereshchagin. | |
| Khan of the Golden Horde Western Half (Blue Horde) | |
| Reign | 1313–1341 |
| Predecessor | Toqta |
| Successor | Tini Beg |
| Born | 1282 Golden Horde |
| Died | 1341 (aged 58–59) Sarai |
| Spouse |
|
| Issue | |
| House | Borjigin |
| Dynasty | Golden Horde |
| Father | Togrilcha |
| Religion | Sunni Islam |
Giyasuddin Muhammad Uzbek Khan(Turki/KypchakandPersian:غیاث الدین محمد اوزبیک خان,Ğiyāsuddin Muḥammad Özbäk Khān), better known asUzbeg,UzbekorOzbeg(1282–1341), was the longest-reigningkhanof theGolden Horde(1313–1341), under whose rule the state reached its zenith.[1]He was succeeded by his sonTini Beg.He was the son of Toghrilcha and grandson ofMengu-Timur,who had been khan of the Golden Horde from 1267 to 1280.
Uzbek Khan moved his residence toMukhsha(today a village ofNarovchatinPenza Oblast).
Biography
[edit]
Öz Beg's fatherTogrilchawas one of theGenghisidprinces that overthrewTode-Mengu(r. 1280–1287). Later, he was executed by his brotherToqta(1291–1312). Toqta took Togrilcha's widow for wife and sent his son Öz Beg to exile in a distant region of the Golden Horde: eitherKhorazmor the country ofCircassians.
Converted to Islam byIbn Abdul Hamid,aSunniSufiBukharansayyidandsheikhof theYasaviorder, Öz Beg assumed the throne upon the death of his uncle Toqta in January 1313 with the help of the former Khans'vizierTemur Qutlughand of Bulaghan (or Bayalun)khatun.His conversion is also mentioned in Russian chronicles, but without any detailed information; the standard entry notes that the khan Toqta died in the year 6821 (1313) and the new khan Öz Beg took the throne and "became a Muslim" (obesermenilsia).[2]
At first, many Mongol nobles were against him and organized a plot to kill the new khan. Öz Beg discovered the plot and crushed the rebels.[3]His adoption ofIslamas astate religionled to a conspiracy ofShamanistandBuddhistprinces, whom he subdued severely. Öz Beg determinedly spread Islam among the Golden Horde and allowed missionary activities to expand in the surrounding regions. Öz Beg found out that his competitor was backed by the envoys of theGreat KhanAyurbarwada Buyantuand this fact helped deteriorate his relationship with theYuan dynasty.[4]The last of his rebellious relatives was shamanistIlbasanof the eastern half of the Golden Horde, who was murdered in 1320. Öz Beg installed the MuslimMubarak Khwajaas a replacement to the throne of the White Horde, but he discouraged their independence. In the long run, Islam enabled the Khan to eliminate inter-factional struggles in the Horde and to stabilize state institutions. Russian scholarLev Gumilevwrote that in this manner was Öz Beg able to turn thekhanateinto asultanate.[5]From Öz Beg onwards, the khans of the Golden Horde were all Muslim.[6][failed verification]
Öz Beg was very tolerant of Christians as exemplified by a letter of thanks he received fromPope John XXIIin which the Christian leader thanked Öz Beg for his kind treatment of Christians.[7]Öz Beg had sent a letter to theMetropolitan Peterwhich stated:
By the will and power, the greatness and most high! Let no man insult the metropolitan church of which Peter is head, or his service or his churchman; let no man seize their property, goods or people, let no man meddle in the affairs of the church...Their laws, their churches and monasteries and chapels shall be respected; whoever condemns or blames this religion, shall not be allowed to excuse himself under any pretext, but shall be punished with death.[7]
Reign
[edit]
Military and politics
[edit]Öz Beg maintained one of the largest armies in the world, which exceeded 300,000 warriors. He employed his military clout to conduct campaigns against theIlkhanateinAzerbaijanin 1319, 1325 and 1335. Ilkhanid commanderChupanrepulsed one Öz Beg's first two attempts and even invaded deep into the Jochid Ulus in 1325. Öz Beg found an ally against the Ilkhanids inMamlukEgypt;indeed, one ofCairo's squares was named after him. The Khan had the daughter of previous Khan's sister, Princess Tulunbuya, married to a Mamluk sultan, but she died in a few years. The khan instructed his merchants to lend 27,000 dinars to the Mamluk ambassador in order to finance the feast for the bride at Sarai.[8]Soon after Öz Beg was disappointed with the Mamluk sultan's divorce with Tulunbuya and indecisiveness regarding the joint invasion of Ilkhanate. In 1323, a peace treaty was signed between Egypt and the Ilkhanate. This situation nullified the alliance and the Mamluks refused to invade the Ilkhanate. Öz Beg's next incursion coincided withAbu Said's death. However, the weather turned bad and the new IlkhanArpa Ke'uncame with a large force; Öz Beg's army was forced to withdraw.
Prior to and during theEsen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war,Chagatai KhanEsen Buqa Iattempted to gain the support of Öz Beg Khan againstAyurbarwada Buyantu Khan,the Great Khan of the Mongol Empire and the Emperor of theYuan dynasty,in 1313 and 1316. Esen Buqa warned Öz Beg that the Great Khan would overthrow him from the throne of the Horde and install another Khan from the Jochids instead. But Öz Beg's vizier convinced him not to believe this and the Khan refused to help Esen Buqa. Nevertheless, remembering their support for the rival claimant to his throne, Öz Beg tried his best to eliminate every influence and inspiration of the Yuan dynasty on the Golden Horde in the early part of his reign. The Khan's diplomatic relationship with the Yuan, however, improved in 1324.[9]Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan granted him thede jurerights to rule the Golden Horde (Ulus of Jochi in the Yuan sources).[10]By the 1330s, Öz Beg had begun sending tribute to the Mongol Yuan Emperors and received his share from Jochid possessions inChinaandMongoliain exchange.[4]
Öz Beg was engaged in wars withBulgariaand theByzantine Empirefrom 1320 to 1332. He repeatedly raidedThrace,partly in service of tsarMichael Shishmanof Bulgaria war against both Byzantium andSerbiathat began in 1319. His armies pillaged Thrace for 40 days in 1324 and for 15 days in 1337, taking 300,000 captives.[11]After Öz Beg's death in 1341, his successors did not continue his aggressive policy and contact with Bulgaria lapsed.[12]His attempt to reassert Mongol control over Serbia was unsuccessful in 1330. Byzantine EmperorAndronikos IIIpurportedly gave his illegitimate daughter in marriage to Öz Beg[13][14]but relations turned sour at the end of Andronikos's reign, and the Mongols mounted raids on Thrace between 1320 and 1324 until the Byzantine port of Vicina Macaria was occupied by the Mongols. Andronikos's daughter, who adopted the name Bayalun, managed to escape back to the Byzantine Empire, apparently fearing her forced conversion to Islam.[14][15]In the south-east of the Kingdom of Hungary,Wallachiaand its rulerBasarab Ibecame an independent power with the support of Öz Beg after 1324.
Öz Beg allowedGenoesemerchants and mariners, who had been harassed by Tokhta, to settle inCrimea.But the Mongols sackedSudakunder Khan Öz Beg in 1322 as a result of a clash betweenChristiansandMuslimsin the city. The Genoese merchants in the other towns were not molested in 1322. ThePopehimself intervened and asked Öz Beg to restore theRoman Catholicchurchesthat were destroyed in revenge, because of the Christian clash against Muslims in the city. Öz Beg was friendly towards the Pope and exchanged letters and gifts. Khan Öz Beg signed a new trade treaty with the Genoese in 1339 and allowed them to rebuild the walls ofCaffa.In 1332 he had allowed theVenetiansto establish a colony atTanaison theDon.
New Sarai
[edit]During the reign of Öz Beg,Sarai(literally meaning "palace" in Turkish and Uzbek, and a hotel / inn / temporary residence in Persian and Urdu) was more quickly becoming a main commercial center and industrial trading center of the country rather than just a political center. The expression of Mongol camp mentality, following Ash and the nearby absence of some structures.
To successfully spreadIslam,it was necessary to build amosqueand other "elaborate places" like baths, an important element ofMuslim culture.Sarai attracted merchants fromEuropean,Asianand Islamic countries as well asMiddle East.Slave trade flourished due to strengthening ties withMamluk Sultanate.Successful commercial revolutions require new markets and caravans: "places where merchants find their way." Growth of wealth and increasing needs of production always stimulate population growth. This did not suffice solely in Sarai. The accretion of the dwellings in the region transformed the capital into the center of a large Muslim government, giving it the appropriate aspect and status. Öz Beg actually came to build a new city, which received the official name Saray al-Jedid or New Sarai.
Relationship with Russian princes
[edit]Öz Beg supported the earliest princes ofMuscovy—his brother-in-lawYury of Moscow(or Yuri) and Yury's successorIvan Kalita(or Ivan Daniilovich, later, Ivan I of Moscow)—against their relatives, the westward-leaning Princes ofTver.Four of these latter rulers—Mikhail of Tver,his sonsDmitry(or Dmitri; nicknamedThe Terrible Eyes) andAlexander Mikhailovich,(or Aleksandr) and his grandson Theodor (or Fyodor)—were all killed inSaraiat Öz Beg's behest.
In 1317,Mikhail Yaroslavichdefeated Yuri at a village called Bortenevo. Mikhail captured Yuri's wife, Konchaka, who was the Khan's sister. Unluckily, Konchaka died when she was in the custody of Mikhail; Yuri announced to the Khan that she had been poisoned by order of Mikhail. He and Yuri were summoned to the court of Golden Horde for a trial, after which Mikhail was beheaded in November 1318.[16]
Following Yury's machinations, which prompted the Khan to grant the yarlik (patent of office for the title of Grand Prince of Vladimir) toMoscowand led to their father's execution by the Horde,Dmitryand his brother, Alexander, fought a series of battles with Yury and intrigued against him at the Horde, culminating in Dmitry's acquisition of the yarlik of office for the grand princely throne in 1322, after he had persuaded the khan that Yury had appropriated a large portion of the tribute due to the Horde. Yury was summoned to the Horde in Sarai for a trial but, before any formal investigation, was killed by Dmitry, November 21, 1325. Öz Beg waited to punish Dmitri and eventually he arrested thePrince of Tverfor the murder, executing him in 1326.
When the Khan's cousin, thebaskakShevkal, and hisTatarswere killed in Tver and a rebellion erupted there in mid-August 1327, Dmitry's successor as Prince of Tver and Grand Prince ofVladimir-Suzdal,his brotherAlexander Mikhailovich,fled first toNovgorod—which turned him away—and then toPskov—which made him its Prince—in order to escape apunitive expeditionof 50,000 Mongol-Tatars & Muscovites, which was headed by his cousin, Yury's brother & successorIvan Daniilovich.Tver's uprising against the Horde was bloodily suppressed by the Muscovite andTatarforces in 1327. Öz Beg appointed Ivan to position ofGrand DukeofVladimirin 1332; that marked the true beginning of the rise of the Muscovites. Alexander, after many travails, including exile in Sweden &Lithuania,eventually prospered in Pskov, under the patronage ofGediminas, Grand Duke of Lithuania. He sent his son Fyodor to the Horde, with tribute and seeking forgiveness, in 1335; the Khan pardoned Alexander and he was given the princely yarlik to Tver once again in 1337. Unfortunately, his greatest enemy, his cousin Ivan, once more set the Horde's Khan against him with the aid of intrigue. Alexander was summoned to the Horde again and was executed at the hand of Khan Öz Beg; Tver was then pillaged and many of its citizens massacred.
Öz Beg welcomed Ivan's sons and madeSimeonGrand Prince (duke) in 1340. Simeon was given more powers by the Khan to counter Lithuania's growing power. Öz Beg also launched military expeditions into Lithuania, as it was clear that it threatenedMongoldominance in Russia.
Relationship with Ruthenian princes
[edit]After Öz Beg's army killedLev IIand his brotherAndrey(co-kings ofGalicia-Volhynia,and last of theRurikid dynasty) in 1323, theGrand Duchy of Lithuaniaand theKingdom of Polandhad access to control over Galicia-Volhynia. The Lithuanians defeated theRus'boyarsand occupiedKievand its surrounding areas. In 1337, the joint Russian and Horde army penetrated to Lublin. At the request of the Galician noblemanDmytro Dedko,the khan sent 40,000 cavalries against King Casimir III, which was divided into the Vistula.[17]
Family
[edit]
Öz Beg married several wives and concubines. It is not always possible to determine which mother gave birth to which child.
Wives:
- Bulughan Khatun (c. 1312) — widow of Toghrilcha andToqta
- Bayalun Khatun the Elder (d. 1323)[18]
- Taydula Khatun(d. 1360)[19]— originally aChristian?[20]
- Kebek Khatun — daughter of Amir Nanghiday[21]
- Bayalun Khatun the Younger — (likely illegitimate) daughter ofAndronikos III Palaiologos[22]
- Orduja Khatun — daughter ofamir-e ulusIsa Beg[23][24]
- Sheritumgha Khatun[25]
Sons:
- Timur Beg (d. 1330)[26]
- Tini Beg(r. 1341–1342) (by Taydula Khatun)[27]
- Jani Beg(r. 1342–1357) (by Taydula Khatun)[27]
- Khiḍr Beg (d. 1342)[28]
- Tulun Beg[29]
- Iran Beg (father ofKildi Beg)[30]
Daughters:
- İt Küchüjük (by Bayalun Khatun the Elder)[31]— married toamir-e ulusIsa Beg[24]
- A daughter (by Bayalun Khatun the Elder?) — married to Amir Ali b. Arzaq
- A daughter (by Taydula Khatun?) — married to Harun Beg, son of Amir Qutlu Temür
Personality
[edit]
ManyArabandPersianauthors of the 14th–15th centuries described Öz Beg Khan as an able statesman and a good-hearted, caring person.Ibn Battuta,for instance, who was granted a personal audience with him in 1333, highly praised the Khan and wrote the following: "He is one of those seven kings who are the greatest and most powerful kings of the world." Historian al-Mufaddal described him as a young man of good appearance, excellent character, a fineMuslim,brave and energetic. Geographer and historianAl-Ayniwrote: "He was a brave and courageous man, religious and pious, revered jurists, loved scientists, listened to them, trusted them, was merciful to them, visited the sheikhs and did good deeds to them."[32]
Al-Birzali, for example, wrote: "When this kingTokhtadied, Öz Beg Khan, a man of about thirty years old, reigned after him. He professedIslam,was distinguished by his intelligence, good looks and figure. "He also wrote:" a young man of good appearance, good temper, an excellent Muslim and a brave man. "TurkmenhistorianAdh-Dhahabispeaks of him in the same manner: "... a brave hero, handsome in appearance, a Muslim, who destroyed many emirs and wizards." Even the Persian historianWassaf,who is thought to have been unfriendly to Öz Beg Khan, spoke of him with great praise: "The pious prince Öz Beg... possesses divine faith and royal splendor."[33]
The name "Öz Beg" was of Turkic origin and had been mentioned in theMiddle Easteven before the campaigns ofGenghis Khan.This name is found inOsama Bin Munqidh's "Book of Edification" that describes the events that took place inIranunder theSeljuqs.Author notes that one of the generals of the army of the ruler ofHamadan,Bursuq, in 1115–1116, was the "emir of the troops" – Öz Beg – the ruler ofMosul.[34]According toRashid al-Din Hamadani,the last representative of theIldegizidTurkic dynasty, who ruled inTabriz,was called Öz Beg Muzaffar (1210–1225).[35]
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]- ^Sinor, 178.
- ^DeWeese, Devin (1 November 2010).Islamization and Native Religion in the Golden Horde: Baba TŸkles and Conversion to Islam in Historical and Epic Tradition.Penn State Press. p. 93.ISBN978-0-271-04445-3.
- ^Rene Grousset – Central Asia: Empire of Steppes
- ^abEncyclopedia of Mongolia and Mongol Empire,see:Golden Horde
- ^Л.Н.Гумилев – Великая степь и Древняя русь
- ^The new Islamic dynasties: a chronological and genealogical manual By Clifford Edmund Bosworth, p. 253.
- ^abThe preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By SirThomas Walker Arnold,pp. 200–201.
- ^Enkhbold, Enerelt (2019). "The role of the ortoq in the Mongol Empire in forming business partnerships".Central Asian Survey.38(4): 531–547.doi:10.1080/02634937.2019.1652799.S2CID203044817.
- ^Encyclopedia of Mongolia and Mongol Empire,see:Golden Horde, J.J. Saunders – the history of Mongol conquests
- ^http://www.hse.ru/data/2013/03/15/1291891310/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2%20-%20%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B08%20(%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%82).pdf[bare URL PDF]
- ^H. H. Howorth – History of the Mongols, d.II: pt.II
- ^Christopher P. Atwood – Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 73.
- ^Mihail-Dimitri Sturdza,Dictionnaire historique et Généalogique des grandes familles de Grèce, d'Albanie et de Constantinople (English: Great families of Greece, Albania and Constantinople: Historical and genealogical dictionary)(1983), p. 373.
- ^abSaunders, John Joseph (2001).The history of the Mongol conquests.University of Pennsylvania Press.ISBN978-0-8122-1766-7.
- ^Battutah, Ibn (2002).The Travels of Ibn Battutah.London: Picador. pp. 128, 135.ISBN978-0330418799.
- ^Martin, Medieval Russia, 175; John Fennell, "Princely Executions in the Horde 1308-1339,"Forschungen zur Osteuropaischen Geschichte38 (1988), 9-19.
- ^Пашуто В. Т. Образование Литовского государства / Отв. редактор Л. В. Черепнин. – М.: Издательство АН СССР, 1959. – С. 391. – 2500 экз
- ^Howorth 1880: 165.
- ^Gibb 1962: 486; Zimonyi 2005.
- ^Howorth 1880: 172.
- ^Gibb 1962: 487.
- ^Gibb 1962: 488
- ^Gibb 1962: 488.
- ^abSchamiloglu, Uli (January 2020). "Was the Chinggisid Khan an Autocrat? Reflections on the Foundations of Chinggisid Authority".OTTOMANS -CRIMEA -JOCHIDS Studies in Honour of Mária Ivanics. Ed. I. Zimonyi.p. 301.
- ^Howorth 1880: 172 considers her the mother of Jani Beg and "and probably also of his other sons," contradicting contemporary sources.Howorth, Henry Hoyle (2008-01-01).History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th Century: The So-Called Tartars of Russia and Central Asia.Cosimo, Inc. p. 172.ISBN978-1-60520-134-4.
- ^Howorth 1880: 163, 172; Seleznëv 2009: 174.
- ^abGibb 1962: 486; Howorth 1880: 172.
- ^Howorth 1880: 172–173; Seleznëv 2009: 213.
- ^Vohidov 2006: 41; Seleznëv 2009: 194.
- ^Vohidov 2006: 42; Seleznëv 2009: 92, 104.
- ^Gibb 1962: 486, 489.
- ^"Age of power. Öz Beg Khan".Archived fromthe originalon 2011-04-06.Retrieved2011-11-22.
- ^"Oz Beg Khan's personality".Archived fromthe originalon 2012-03-01.Retrieved2011-11-22.
- ^Osama ibn Munqidh.Book of Edification. transl. by Y.Krachkovsky.Publishing House of Eastern literature, 1958, p.134
- ^Rashid al-Din.Collection of Chronicles.Vol.1, Book 1. 1952
References
[edit]- Atwood, Christopher P.Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire.New York: Facts On File, 2004.
- Bor, Zhu̇gdėriĭn.Mongol khiĭgėėd Evroaziĭn diplomat shastir.Ulaanbaatar: [Olon Ulsyn Kharilt︠s︡aany Surguulʹ], 2001.(in Mongolian)
- Gibb, H. A. R. (trans.),The Travels of Ibn Baṭṭūṭa A. D. 1325–1354.Vol. 2. Cambridge, 1962.
- Howorth, H. H.,History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th Century.Part II.1. London, 1880.
- Morgan, David.The Mongols.Oxford: Blackwell, 1990.
- Vohidov, Š. H. (trans.),Istorija Kazahstana v persidskih istočnikah.3.Muˤizz al-ansāb.Almaty, 2006.
- Seleznëv, J. V.,Èlita Zolotoj Ordy: Naučno-spravočnoe izdanie,Kazan', 2009.
- Zimonyi, I., "Ibn Baṭṭūṭa on the First Wife of Özbeg Khan,"Central Asiatic Journal49 (2005) 303–309.
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