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Varpas

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Cover page of the first issue of Varpas (1889)

Varpas(literally:The Bell) was a monthlyLithuanian-languagenewspaperpublished during theLithuanian press banfrom January 1889 to December 1905. Because its publication was illegal in Lithuania, then part of theRussian Empire,it was printed in Tilsit (currentSovetsk) and Ragnit (currentNeman) in GermanEast Prussiaand smuggled into Lithuania by theknygnešiai(book smugglers).Varpas,with circulation of about 500[1]to 1,000 copies,[2]played a pivotal role in theLithuanian National Revival.Tautiška giesmė,one of poems by founder and editorVincas Kudirkawritten to commemorate the 10th anniversary ofVarpas,became the Lithuaniannational anthem.[3]Editorial staff ofVarpaslater started two more specialized publications: more practicalŪkininkas(The Farmer,1890–1905) for less educated peasants and apoliticalNaujienos(News,1901–1903) for general public.[4]

History[edit]

After the first national Lithuanian newspaperAušraceased publication in 1886 due to financial difficulties, activists sought to either revive or replaceAušra.A group of Lithuanian students inMoscoworganized publication of short-livedŠviesa,a monthly pro-Catholic newspaper that failed to satisfy liberal activists.[4]Lithuanian students inWarsaw,led by Vincas Kudirka,Jonas Gaidamavičius,andJuozas Adomaitis-Šernas,organized societyLietuva(Lithuania). The society first thought of reviving secularAušra,but decided against it as it could have resurrected disputes with the clergy.[5]Thus in January 1889 appeared a brand new newspaperVarpas.It attempted to unite liberal, socialist, and Catholic fractions of theLithuanian National Revival.Despite various difficulties (financial strains, delivery through underground knygnešiai network) it lasted longer than any other Lithuanian periodical of the period.[2]Varpasplayed an important role forming ideas of Lithuanian nation and standardizing Lithuanian language. For example, in 1890 Kudirka published recommendations regarding Lithuanian orthography: he suggested to replace common "sz" and "cz" borrowed from Polish with new "š" and "č" borrowed from Czech.[6]Both new letters are now integral part of standard Lithuanian.

Content[edit]

Varpaswas geared towards intelligentsia with stated goal to rise Lithuanian national consciousness and, ultimately, to achieve autonomy within theRussian Empire.[7]Influenced byPolish positivism,Varpasargued that Lithuanians could achieve this through work, economic development, education, and other non-violent means.[7]Therefore, much of the articles included discussions about improving land reform, school system, health care, transportation network, etc.[2]Some articles were more practical "how to" guides, but most remained theoretical lectures and discussions.[7]About a quarter ofVarpascontent was related history.[8]However, unlikeAušra,it rejectedRomanticidealization of heroic past (which lead to two faileduprisings in 1830and1863) and concentrated on more practical and useful contemporary history. Writers believed that understanding of current European politics could provide more beneficial than glorification of the oldGrand Duchy of Lithuania.[8]

Varpaswas also a political newspaper, criticizingTsaristpolicies, demanding abolition of theLithuanian press banand otherRussificationpractices, and requesting equal cultural and political rights for all nations within the Russian empire.[2]Varpasalso maintained an anti-Polish position, but abandoned some oversimplified prejudice against Poles and Polonized Lithuanians that was apparent inAušra.[9]For example, instead of blaming foreigners (Poles or Russians) for the demise of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, writers looked for internal reasons for the historical failures.[7]However, the newspaper still called for development and strengthening of distinctively Lithuanian culture separate from Polish. Political demands included autonomy for Lithuania, but not resurrection of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[10]Towards the end of its publication and theRussian Revolution of 1905,Varpasbecame more socialist,[11]including co-editorVincas Mickevičius-Kapsukas,future leader of theLithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (1918–1919).[12]

Overall, the content ofVarpaswas extremely varied.[12]In an attempt to unite various political fractions, efforts were made to include liberal, socialist, Catholic, and other articles.[2]One column could contradict another.[12]

Editors and contributors[edit]

Even though Kudirka officially edited just the first few issues ofVarpas,he is widely considered to be the driving force behind the newspaper. Up until his death in 1899, Kudirka wrote and edited influential columnTėvynės varpai(Bells of the Homeland) where he published articles on a variety of subjects: advocating unity among various social classes and political fractions for the greater benefit of the entire nation, satirical short stories mocking Russian authorities, theoretical articles about journalism and literature, etc.[13]Other editors includedJuozas Adomaitis-Šernas,Jurgis Šaulys,Antanas Milukas,Petras Mikolainis,Martynas Jankus,Juozas Bagdonas[lt],Povilas Višinskis.[2]

The newspaper, in line with its goal to promote Lithuanian language and literature, also published a number of literary works by various Lithuanian authors:Pranas Mašiotas,Vincas Kapsukas,Gabrielė Petkevičaitė-Bitė,Jonas Vileišis,Žemaitė,Šatrijos Ragana,Jonas Biliūnas,Povilas Višinskis,Sofija Pšibiliauskienė,and others.[14]Hoping to raise artistic quality, their works were reviewed by Kudirka andStasys Matulaitis.[15]Works by foreign authors were also translated and published inVarpas.Academic articles on Lithuanian language and attempts to standardize it were published byJonas Jablonskis.FuturePresident of LithuaniaKazys Griniusalso contributed to the newspaper.[16]Because the publication was illegal, many authors used various pen names and pseudonyms that changed frequently; a few articles were unsigned. Therefore, it is sometimes difficult to determine actual authors. Overall, about 90[1]to 150[16]people (calledvarpininkai) contributed toVarpas,including a number of the contributors toAušra.[16]Varpininkai organized annual conferences and meetings to discuss direction of the newspaper.[1]

References[edit]

Notes
  1. ^abcKulakauskas 2002.
  2. ^abcdefUrbonas 2002,p. 60.
  3. ^Classic Lithuanian Literature Anthology
  4. ^abKrapauskas 2000,p. 168.
  5. ^Krapauskas 2000,p. 169.
  6. ^Subačius 2004,p. 190.
  7. ^abcdKrapauskas 2000,p. 170.
  8. ^abKrapauskas 2000,p. 171.
  9. ^Krapauskas 2000,p. 172.
  10. ^Krapauskas 2000,p. 170–171.
  11. ^White 2005,p. 60.
  12. ^abcKrapauskas 2000,p. 178.
  13. ^Urbonas 2002,pp. 60–62.
  14. ^Urbonas 2002,pp. 60–61.
  15. ^Urbonas 2002,p. 61.
  16. ^abcUrbonas 2002,p. 63.
Bibliography
  • "Vincas Kudirka. Leisure Hours. Satires".Classic Lithuanian Literature Anthology.Mokslininkų sąjungos institutas.Retrieved2009-06-08.
  • Krapauskas, Virgil (2000).Nationalism and Historiography: The Case of Nineteenth-Century Lithuanian Historicism.New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN0-88033-457-6.
  • Kulakauskas, Antanas (2002)."Nepriklausomybės žadintojai – „Varpas"".Gimtoji istorija. Nuo 7 iki 12 klasės(in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Elektroninės leidybos namai.ISBN9986-9216-9-4.Archived fromthe originalon 2008-02-26.Retrieved2009-06-07.
  • Subačius, Giedrius (2004)."Double Orthography in American Lithuanian Newspapers at the Turn of the Twentieth Century".Studies in Baltic and Indo-European Linguistics: In Honor of William R. Schmalstieg(illustrated ed.). John Benjamins Publishing Company.ISBN1-58811-584-4.
  • Urbonas, Vytas (2002).Lietuvos žurnalistikos istorija(in Lithuanian) (2nd ed.). Klaipėda: Klaipėdos universiteto leidykla.ISBN9955-456-49-3.
  • White, James D. (2005)."The 1905 Revolution in Russia's Baltic Provinces".The Russian Revolution of 1905: Centenary Perspectives(illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis.ISBN0-415-35568-0.

External links[edit]

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