Venice
Venice
| |
|---|---|
| Comune di Venezia | |
 Coat of arms | |
Location of Venice  | |
  Venice Location of Venice in Veneto  Venice Venice (Veneto) | |
| Coordinates:45°26′15″N12°20′9″E/ 45.43750°N 12.33583°E | |
| Country | Italy |
| Region | Veneto |
| Metropolitan city | Venice(VE) |
| Frazioni | Chirignago, Favaro Veneto,Mestre,Marghera,Murano,Burano,Giudecca,Lido,Zelarino |
| Government | |
| • Mayor | Luigi Brugnaro(CI) |
| Area | |
| • Total | 414.57 km2(160.07 sq mi) |
| Elevation | 1 m (3 ft) |
| Population (2020)[2] | |
| • Total | 258,685 |
| • Density | 620/km2(1,600/sq mi) |
| Demonym(s) | Veneziano Venetian (English) |
| Time zone | UTC+1(CET) |
| • Summer (DST) | UTC+2(CEST) |
| Postal code | 30100 |
| Dialing code | 041 |
| ISTATcode | 027042 |
| Patron saint | St. Mark the Evangelist |
| Saint day | 25 April |
| Website | Official website |
| UNESCO World Heritage Site | |
|---|---|
 Venice in autumn, with theRialto Bridgein the background | |
| Criteria | Cultural: i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi |
| Reference | 394 |
| Inscription | 1987 (11thSession) |
Venice(/ˈvɛnɪs/VEN-iss;Italian:Venezia[veˈnɛttsja];Venetian:Venesia[veˈnɛsja],outdatedlyVenexia[veˈnɛzja]) is a city in northeasternItalyand the capital of theVenetoregion.It is built on a group of 126 islands that are separated by expanses of open water and by canals; portions of the city are linked by 472 bridges.[3]The islands are in the shallowVenetian Lagoon,an enclosed bay lying between the mouths of thePoand thePiaverivers (more exactly between theBrentaand theSile). In 2020, around 258,685 people resided in greater Venice or theComunedi Venezia,of whom around 51,000 live in the historical island city of Venice (centro storico) and the rest on the mainland (terraferma). Together with the cities ofPaduaandTreviso,Venice is included in thePadua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area(PATREVE), which is considered a statistical metropolitan area, with a total population of 2.6 million.[4]
The name is derived from the ancientVenetipeople who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC.[5][6]The city was historically the capital of theRepublic of Venicefor almost a millennium, from 810 to 1797. It was a major financial and maritime power during theMiddle AgesandRenaissance,and astaging areafor theCrusadesand theBattle of Lepanto,as well as an important centre of commerce—especially silk, grain, andspice,and of art from the 13th century to the end of the 17th. Thecity-stateof Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial centre, emerging in the 9th century and reaching its greatest prominence in the 14th century.[7]This made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history.[8]For centuries Venice possessed numerous territories along the Adriatic Sea and within the Italian peninsula, leaving a significant impact on the architecture and culture that can still be seen today.[9][10]TheVenetian Arsenalis considered by several historians to be the first factory in history, and was the base of Venice's naval power.[11]The sovereignty of Venice came to an end in 1797, at the hands ofNapoleon.Subsequently, in 1866, the city became part of theKingdom of Italy.[12]
Venice has been known as "La Dominante", "La Serenissima", "Queen of theAdriatic","City of Water "," City of Masks "," City of Bridges "," The Floating City ", and" City of Canals ". The lagoon and the historic parts of the city within the lagoon were inscribed as aUNESCO World Heritage Sitein 1987, covering an area of 70,176.4 hectares (173,410 acres).[13]In light of the fact that Venice and its lagoon are under constant threat in terms of their ecology and the safeguarding of the cultural heritage, Venice's UNESCO listing has been under constant examination by UNESCO.[14]Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, theirarchitecture,and artwork.[13]Venice is known for several important artistic movements – especially during theRenaissance period– and has played an important role in the history of instrumental and operatic music; it is the birthplace ofBaroquecomposersTomaso AlbinoniandAntonio Vivaldi.[15]
In the 21st century, Venice remains a very popular tourist destination, a major cultural centre, and has often been ranked one of the most beautiful cities in the world.[16][17]It has been described byThe Timesas one of Europe's most romantic cities[18]and byThe New York Timesas "undoubtedly the most beautiful city built by man".[19]However, the city faces challenges including an excessive number of tourists, pollution, tide peaks and cruise ships sailing too close to buildings.[20][21][22]
History
[edit]Origins
[edit]| 421–476 | Western Roman Empire |
|---|---|
| 476–493 | Kingdom of Odoacer |
| 493–553 | Ostrogothic Kingdom |
| 553–584 | Eastern Roman Empire |
| 584–697 | Byzantine Empire(Exarchate of Ravenna) |
| 697–1797 |
 Republic of Venice |
| 1797–1805 |
 Habsburg monarchy |
| 1805–1814 |
 Kingdom of Italy |
| 1815–1848 |
 Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia |
| 1848–1849 |
 Republic of San Marco |
| 1849–1866 |
Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia |
| 1866–1943 |
 Kingdom of Italy |
| 1943–1945 |
 Italian Social Republic |
| 1946–present |
Italy |
Although no surviving historical records deal directly with the founding or building of Venice,[23]tradition and the available evidence have led several historians to agree that the original population of Venice consisted of refugees – from nearbyRoman citiessuch as Patavium (Padua),Aquileia,Tarvisium (Treviso),Altinum,and Concordia (modernPortogruaro), as well as from the undefended countryside – who were fleeing successive waves ofGermanicandHuninvasions.[24]This is further supported by the documentation on the so-called "apostolic families", the twelve founding families of Venice who elected the firstdoge,who in most cases trace their lineage back to Roman families.[25][26]Some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen, on the islands in the original marshy lagoons, who were referred to asincolae lacunae( "lagoon dwellers" ). The traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church, that ofSan Giacomoon the islet ofRialto(Rivoalto,"High Shore" )—said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421 (theFeast of the Annunciation).[27][28][29]
Beginning as early as AD 166–168, theQuadiandMarcomannidestroyed the main Roman town in the area, present-dayOderzo.This part ofRoman Italywas again overrun in the early 5th century by theVisigothsand, some 50 years later, by the Huns led byAttila.The last and most enduring immigration into the north of the Italian peninsula, that of theLombardsin 568, left theEastern Roman Empireonly a small strip of coastline in the current Veneto, including Venice. The Roman/Byzantine territory was organized as theExarchate of Ravenna,administered from that ancient port and overseen by a viceroy (theExarch) appointed by the Emperor inConstantinople.Ravenna and Venice were connected only by sea routes, and with the Venetians' isolation came increasing autonomy. New ports were built, including those atMalamoccoandTorcelloin the Venetian lagoon. Thetribuni maioresformed the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the lagoon, dating fromc. 568.[note 1]
The traditional firstdoge of Venice,Paolo Lucio Anafesto(Anafestus Paulicius), was elected in 697, as written in theoldest chroniclebyJohn, deacon of Venicec. 1008.Some modern historians claim Paolo Lucio Anafesto was actually theExarch Paul,and Paul's successor,Marcello Tegalliano,was Paul'smagister militum(or "general" ), literally "master of soldiers". In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the exarchate rose in a rebellion over theiconoclastic controversy,at the urging ofPope Gregory II.The exarch, held responsible for the acts of his master, Byzantine EmperorLeo III,was murdered, and many officials were put to flight in the chaos. At about this time, the people of the lagoon elected their own independent leader for the first time, although the relationship of this to the uprisings is not clear.Ursuswas the first of 117 "doges" (dogeis theVenetian dialectalequivalent of the Latindux( "leader" ); the corresponding word in English isduke,in standard Italianduca(see also "duce".) Whatever his original views, Ursus supported Emperor Leo III's successful military expedition to recover Ravenna, sending both men and ships. In recognition of this, Venice was" granted numerous privileges and concessions "and Ursus, who had personally taken the field, was confirmed by Leo asdux[30]and given the added title ofhypatus(from the Greek for "consul").[31]
In 751, theLombardKingAistulfconquered most of theExarchate of Ravenna,leaving Venice a lonely and increasingly autonomous Byzantine outpost. During this period, the seat of the local Byzantine governor (the "duke/dux", later "doge" ), was at Malamocco. Settlement on the islands in the lagoon probably increased with the Lombard conquest of other Byzantine territories, as refugees sought asylum in the area. In 775/6, theepiscopalseat of Olivolo (San Pietro di Castello) was created. During the reign of dukeAgnello Particiaco(811–827) the ducal seat moved from Malamocco to the more protected Rialto, within present-day Venice. The monastery ofSt Zacharyand the firstducal palaceandbasilica of St. Mark,as well as a walled defense (civitatis murus) between Olivolo and Rialto, were subsequently built here.
Charlemagnesought to subdue the city to his rule. He ordered the pope to expel the Venetians from thePentapolisalong the Adriatic coast;[32]Charlemagne's own sonPepin of Italy,king of the Lombards, under the authority of his father, embarked on a siege of Venice itself. This, however, proved a costly failure. The siege lasted six months, with Pepin's army ravaged by the diseases of the local swamps and eventually forced to withdraw in 810. A few months later, Pepin himself died, apparently as a result of a disease contracted there. In the aftermath, an agreement between Charlemagne and the Byzantine EmperorNicephorusin 814 recognized Venice as Byzantine territory, and granted the city trading rights along the Adriatic coast.
In 828 the new city's prestige increased with the acquisition, fromAlexandria,of relics claimed to be ofSt Mark the Evangelist;these were placed in the new basilica. Winged lions – visible throughout Venice – are theemblem of St Mark.The patriarchal seat was also moved to Rialto. As the community continued to develop, and as Byzantine power waned, its own autonomy grew, leading to eventual independence.[33]
Expansion
[edit]
From the 9th to the 12th centuries, Venice developed into a powerful maritime empire (an Italianthalassocracyknown also asrepubblica marinara). In addition to Venice there were seven others: the most important ones wereGenoa,Pisa,andAmalfi;and the lesser known wereRagusa,Ancona,GaetaandNoli.Its own strategic position at the head of the Adriatic made Venetian naval and commercial power almost invulnerable.[34]With the elimination of pirates along theDalmatian coast,the city became a flourishing trade centre between Western Europe and the rest of the world, especially with theByzantine EmpireandAsia,where its navy protected sea routes against piracy.[35]
TheRepublic of Veniceseized a number of places on the eastern shores of the Adriatic before 1200, mostly for commercial reasons, becausepiratesbased there were a menace to trade. The doge already possessed the titles of Duke of Dalmatia and Duke ofIstria.Later mainland possessions, which extended acrossLake Gardaas far west as theAdda River,were known as theTerraferma;they were acquired partly as a buffer against belligerent neighbours, partly to guaranteeAlpinetrade routes, and partly to ensure the supply of mainland wheat (on which the city depended). In building its maritime commercial empire, Venice dominated the trade in salt,[36]acquired control of most of the islands in theAegean,includingCrete,andCyprusin the Mediterranean, and became a major power-broker in theNear East.By the standards of the time, Venice's stewardship of its mainland territories was relatively enlightened and the citizens of such towns asBergamo,Brescia,andVeronarallied to the defence of Venetian sovereignty when it was threatened by invaders.
Venice remained closely associated with Constantinople, being twice granted trading privileges in the Eastern Roman Empire, through the so-calledgolden bullsor "chrysobulls", in return for aiding the Eastern Empire to resist Norman and Turkish incursions. In the first chrysobull, Venice acknowledged its homage to the empire; but not in the second, reflecting the decline ofByzantiumand the rise of Venice's power.[37]
Venice became an imperial power following theFourth Crusade,which, having veered off course, culminated in 1204 by capturing and sackingConstantinopleand establishing theLatin Empire.As a result of this conquest, considerable Byzantine plunder was brought back to Venice. This plunder included thegilt bronze horsesfrom theHippodrome of Constantinople,which were originally placed above the entrance to the cathedral of Venice,St Mark's Basilica(The originals have been replaced with replicas, and are now stored within the basilica.) After the fall of Constantinople, the former Eastern Roman Empire was partitioned among the Latin crusaders and the Venetians. Venice subsequently carved out a sphere of influence in the Mediterranean known as theDuchy of the Archipelago,and captured Crete.[38]
The seizure of Constantinople proved as decisive a factor in ending the Byzantine Empire as the loss of theAnatolianthemes,afterManzikert.Although the Byzantines recovered control of the ravaged city a half-century later, the Byzantine Empire was terminally weakened, and existed as a ghost of its old self, untilSultan Mehmet The Conquerortook the cityin 1453.
Situated on theAdriatic Sea,Venice had always traded extensively with the Byzantine Empire and theMiddle East.By the late 13th century, Venice was the most prosperous city in all of Europe. At the peak of its power and wealth, it had 36,000 sailors operating 3,300 ships, dominating Mediterranean commerce. Venice's leading families vied with each other to build the grandest palaces and to support the work of the greatest and most talented artists. The city was governed by theGreat Council,which was made up of members of the noble families of Venice. The Great Council appointed all public officials, and elected a Senate of 200 to 300 individuals. Since this group was too large for efficient administration, aCouncil of Ten(also called the Ducal Council, or the Signoria), controlled much of the administration of the city. One member of the great council was elected "doge",or duke, to be the chief executive; he would usually hold the title until his death, although several Doges were forced, by pressure from theiroligarchicalpeers, to resign and retire intomonasticseclusion, when they were felt to have been discredited by political failure.
The Venetian governmental structure was similar in some ways to the republican system of ancient Rome, with an elected chief executive (the doge), a senator-like assembly of nobles, and the general citizenry with limited political power, who originally had the power to grant or withhold their approval of each newly elected doge. Church and various private property was tied to military service, although there was no knight tenure within the city itself. TheCavalieri di San Marcowas the only order ofchivalryever instituted in Venice, and no citizen could accept or join a foreign order without the government's consent. Venice remained a republic throughout its independent period, and politics and the military were kept separate, except when on occasion the Doge personally headed the military. War was regarded as a continuation ofcommerceby other means. Therefore, the city's early employment of large numbers of mercenaries for service elsewhere, and later its reliance on foreign mercenaries when the ruling class was preoccupied with commerce.
Although the people of Venice generally remained orthodox Roman Catholics, the state of Venice was notable for its freedom from religious fanaticism, and executed nobody for religious heresy during theCounter-Reformation.This apparent lack of zeal contributed to Venice's frequent conflicts with thepapacy.In this context, the writings of the Anglican divineWilliam Bedellare particularly illuminating. Venice was threatened with theinterdicton a number of occasions and twice suffered its imposition. The second, most noted, occasion was in 1606, by order ofPope Paul V.[39]
The newly invented Germanprinting pressspread rapidly throughout Europe in the 15th century, and Venice was quick to adopt it. By 1482, Venice was the printing capital of the world; the leading printer wasAldus Manutius,who invented paperback books that could be carried in a saddlebag.[40]HisAldine Editionsincluded translations of nearly all the known Greek manuscripts of the era.[41]
Decline
[edit]Venice's long decline started in the 15th century. Venice confronted theOttoman Empirein theSiege of Thessalonica (1422–1430)and sent ships to help defendConstantinopleagainst the besieging Turks in 1453. After theFall of Constantinople,Sultan Mehmed IIdeclared the first of a series ofOttoman-Venetian warsthat cost Venice much of its eastern Mediterranean possessions.Vasco da Gama's 1497–1499 voyage opened a sea route toIndiaaround theCape of Good Hopeand destroyed Venice's monopoly. Venice'soared vesselswere at a disadvantage when it came to traversing oceans, therefore Venice was left behind in the race forcolonies.[42]
TheBlack Deathdevastated Venice in 1348 and struck again between 1575 and 1577.[43]In three years, theplaguekilled some 50,000 people.[44]In 1630, theItalian plague of 1629–31killed a third of Venice's 150,000 citizens.[45]
Venice began to lose the position as a centre ofinternational tradeduring the later part of theRenaissanceas Portugal became Europe's principal intermediary in the trade with the East, striking at the very foundation of Venice's great wealth. France and Spain fought forhegemonyover Italy in theItalian Wars,marginalising its political influence. However, Venice remained a major exporter of agricultural products and until the mid-18th century, a significant manufacturing centre.[42]
Modern age
[edit]
The Republic of Venice lost its independence whenNapoleon Bonaparteconquered Venice on 12 May 1797 during theWar of the First Coalition.Napoleon was seen as something of a liberator by the city's Jewish population. He removed the gates of theGhettoand ended the restrictions on when and where Jews could live and travel in the city.
Venice became Austrian territory when Napoleon signed theTreaty of Campo Formioon 12 October 1797. The Austrians took control of the city on 18 January 1798. Venice was taken from Austria by theTreaty of Pressburgin 1805 and became part ofNapoleon's Kingdom of Italy.It was returned to Austria following Napoleon's defeat in 1814, when it became part of the Austrian-heldKingdom of Lombardy–Venetia.In 1848 a revolt briefly re-established theVenetian republicunderDaniele Manin,but this was crushed in 1849. In 1866, after theThird Italian War of Independence,Venice, along with the rest of the Veneto, became part of the newly createdKingdom of Italy.
From the middle of the 18th century,Triesteand papalAncona,both of which became free ports, competed with Venice more and more economically. Habsburg Trieste in particular boomed and increasingly served trade via theSuez Canal,which opened in 1869, between Asia and Central Europe, while Venice very quickly lost its competitive edge and commercial strength.[46]
DuringWorld War II,the historic city was largely free from attack, the only aggressive effort of note beingOperation Bowler,a successfulRoyal Air Forceprecision strike on the German naval operations in the city in March 1945. The targets were destroyed with virtually no architectural damage inflicted on the city itself.[47]However, the industrial areas in Mestre and Marghera and the railway lines to Padua, Trieste, and Trento wererepeatedly bombed.[48]On 29 April 1945, a force ofBritishandNew Zealandtroops of theBritish Eighth Army,under Lieutenant GeneralFreyberg,liberated Venice, which had been a hotbed of anti-Mussolini Italian partisan activity.[49][50]
Venice was listed as aUNESCO World Heritage Sitein 1987, inscribing it as "Venice and its Lagoon".
Geography
[edit]
Venice is located in northeastern Italy, in the Veneto region. The city is situated on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by 438 bridges. The historic center of Venice is divided into six districts, or sestieri, which are namedCannaregio,Castello,Dorsoduro,San Marco, San Polo, and Santa Croce.
Venice sits atop alluvial silt washed into the sea by the rivers flowing eastward from the Alps across theVenetoplain, with the silt being stretched into long banks, orlidi,by the action of the current flowing around the head of theAdriatic Seafrom east to west.[51]
Subsidence
[edit]Subsidence,the gradual lowering of the surface of Venice, has contributed – along with other factors – to the seasonalAcqua alta( "high water" ) when the city's lowest lying surfaces may be covered at high tide.
Building foundations
[edit]Those fleeing barbarian invasions who found refuge on the sandy islands of Torcello, Iesolo, and Malamocco, in this coastal lagoon, learned to build by driving closely spacedpilesconsisting of the trunks ofaldertrees, a wood noted for its water resistance, into the mud and sand,[52][53]until they reached a much harder layer of compressedclay.Building foundations rested on plates ofIstrian limestoneplaced on top of the piles.[54]
Flooding
[edit] | This section needs to beupdated.The reason given is:MOSEinformation does not cover anything after 2020, such as the 2023 completion date moved to 2025.(February 2024) |
Between autumn and early spring, the city is often threatened by floodtidespushing in from theAdriatic.Six hundred years ago, Venetians protected themselves from land-based attacks by diverting all the major rivers flowing into the lagoon and thus preventing sediment from filling the area around the city.[55]This created an ever-deeper lagoon environment. Additionally, the lowest part of Venice,St Mark's Basilica,is only 64 centimetres (25 in) above sea level, and one of the most flood-prone parts of the city.[56]
In 1604, to defray the cost of flood relief, Venice introduced what could be considered the first example of a stamp tax.[57]When the revenue fell short of expectations in 1608, Venice introducedpaper,with the superscription "AQ" and imprinted instructions, which was to be used for "letters to officials". At first, this was to be a temporary tax, but it remained in effect until the fall of the Republic in 1797. Shortly after the introduction of the tax, Spain produced similar paper for general taxation purposes, and the practice spread to other countries.
During the 20th century, when manyartesian wellswere sunk into the periphery of the lagoon to draw water for local industry, Venice began tosubside.It was realized that extraction of water from theaquiferwas the cause. The sinking has slowed markedly since artesian wells were banned in the 1960s. However, the city is still threatened by more frequent low-level floods – theAcqua alta,that rise to a height of several centimetres over itsquays– regularly following certain tides. In many old houses, staircases once used to unload goods are now flooded, rendering the former ground floor uninhabitable.[citation needed]
Studies indicate that the city continues sinking at a relatively slow rate of 1–2mm per year;[58][59]therefore, the state of alert has not been revoked.
In May 2003, Italian Prime MinisterSilvio Berlusconiinaugurated theMOSE Project(Italian:Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico), an experimental model for evaluating the performance of hollow floatable gates, expected to be completed in late 2023;[60]the idea is to fix a series of 78 hollowpontoonsto the sea bed across the three entrances to the lagoon. When tides are predicted to rise above 110 centimetres (43 in), the pontoons will be filled with air, causing them to float on lagoon side while hinged at sea floor on seaside, thus blocking the incoming water from the Adriatic Sea.[61]This engineering work was due to be completed by 2018.[62]AReutersreport stated that the MOSE Project attributed the delay to "corruption scandals".[63]The project is not guaranteed to be successful and the cost has been very high, with as much as approximately €2 billion of the cost lost to corruption.[20]
According to a spokesman for the National Trust of Italy (Fondo Ambiente Italiano):[64]
Mose is a pharaonic project that should have cost €800m [£675m] but will cost at least €7bn [£6bn]. If the barriers are closed at only 90 cm of high water, most of St Mark's will be flooded anyway; but if closed at very high levels only, then people will wonder at the logic of spending such sums on something that didn't solve the problem. And pressure will come from the cruise ships to keep the gates open.
On 13 November 2019, Venice was flooded when waters peaked at 1.87 m (6 ft), the highest tide since 1966 (1.94 m).[65]More than 80% of the city was covered by water, which damaged cultural heritage sites, including more than 50 churches, leading to tourists cancelling their visits.[66][67]The plannedflood barrierwould have prevented this incident according to various sources, including Marco Piana, the head of conservation at St Mark's Basilica.[68]The mayor promised that work on the flood barrier would continue,[69][68]and the Prime Minister announced that the government would be accelerating the project.[66]
The city's mayor,Luigi Brugnaro,blamed the floods onclimate change.Thechambersof theRegional Council of Venetobegan to be flooded around 10 pm, two minutes after the council rejected a plan to combat global warming.[70]One of the effects of climate change issea level risewhich causes an increase in frequency and magnitude of floodings in the city.[71][72]AWashington Postreport provided a more thorough analysis:[73]
"The sea level has been rising even more rapidly in Venice than in other parts of the world. At the same time, the city is sinking, the result of tectonic plates shifting below the Italian coast. Those factors together, along with the more frequent extreme weather events associated with climate change, contribute to floods."
Henk Ovink,an expert on flooding, toldCNNthat, while environmental factors are part of the problem, "historic floods in Venice are not only a result of the climate crisis but poor infrastructure and mismanagement".[74]
The government of Italy committed to providing 20 million euros in funding to help the city repair the most urgent aspects although Brugnaro's estimate of the total damage was "hundreds of millions"[75]to at least 1 billion euros.[76]
On 3 October 2020, the MOSE was activated for the first time in response to a predicted high tide event, preventing some of the low-lying parts of the city (in particular the Piazza San Marco) from being flooded.[77]
Climate
[edit]According to theKöppen climate classification,Venice has a mid-latitude, four seasonhumid subtropical climate(Cfa), with cool, damp winters and warm, humid summers. The 24-hour average temperature in January is 3.3 °C (37.9 °F), and for July this figure is 23.0 °C (73.4 °F). Precipitation is spread relatively evenly throughout the year, and averages 748 millimetres (29.4 in); snow isn't a rarity between late November and early March. During the most severe winters, the canals and parts of the lagoon can freeze, but with the warming trend of the past 30–40 years, the occurrence has become rarer.[78]
| Climate data for Venice, elevation: 2 m or 6 ft 7 in, (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1961–present) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 15.7 (60.3) |
22.0 (71.6) |
25.3 (77.5) |
27.2 (81.0) |
31.5 (88.7) |
35.2 (95.4) |
36.6 (97.9) |
36.5 (97.7) |
32.4 (90.3) |
27.3 (81.1) |
23.0 (73.4) |
16.7 (62.1) |
36.6 (97.9) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 7.5 (45.5) |
9.2 (48.6) |
13.2 (55.8) |
17.4 (63.3) |
22.0 (71.6) |
26.0 (78.8) |
28.5 (83.3) |
28.4 (83.1) |
23.8 (74.8) |
18.5 (65.3) |
12.9 (55.2) |
8.3 (46.9) |
18.0 (64.4) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 3.8 (38.8) |
5.0 (41.0) |
8.9 (48.0) |
13.0 (55.4) |
17.7 (63.9) |
21.7 (71.1) |
23.8 (74.8) |
23.7 (74.7) |
19.3 (66.7) |
14.5 (58.1) |
9.3 (48.7) |
4.7 (40.5) |
13.8 (56.8) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 0.1 (32.2) |
0.8 (33.4) |
4.5 (40.1) |
8.7 (47.7) |
13.5 (56.3) |
17.4 (63.3) |
19.2 (66.6) |
18.9 (66.0) |
14.8 (58.6) |
10.5 (50.9) |
5.7 (42.3) |
1.0 (33.8) |
9.6 (49.3) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −13.5 (7.7) |
−12.6 (9.3) |
−7.4 (18.7) |
−0.8 (30.6) |
2.0 (35.6) |
7.0 (44.6) |
10.2 (50.4) |
10.0 (50.0) |
5.0 (41.0) |
−1.1 (30.0) |
−8.8 (16.2) |
−12.5 (9.5) |
−13.5 (7.7) |
| Averageprecipitationmm (inches) | 40.2 (1.58) |
56.5 (2.22) |
60.5 (2.38) |
70.5 (2.78) |
80.2 (3.16) |
64.2 (2.53) |
57.9 (2.28) |
65.8 (2.59) |
73.3 (2.89) |
72.0 (2.83) |
71.5 (2.81) |
49.8 (1.96) |
762.4 (30.01) |
| Average precipitation days | 6.0 | 5.2 | 5.7 | 8.3 | 8.2 | 8.6 | 5.9 | 6.1 | 5.9 | 6.7 | 5.8 | 5.9 | 78.3 |
| Averagerelative humidity(%) | 81 | 77 | 75 | 75 | 73 | 74 | 71 | 72 | 75 | 77 | 79 | 81 | 76 |
| Mean monthlysunshine hours | 80.6 | 107.4 | 142.6 | 174.0 | 229.4 | 243.0 | 288.3 | 257.3 | 198.0 | 151.9 | 87.0 | 77.5 | 2,037 |
| Mean dailysunshine hours | 2.6 | 3.8 | 4.6 | 5.8 | 7.4 | 8.1 | 9.3 | 8.3 | 6.6 | 4.9 | 2.9 | 2.5 | 5.6 |
| Mean dailydaylight hours | 9.2 | 10.4 | 12.0 | 13.6 | 14.9 | 15.6 | 15.3 | 14.1 | 12.5 | 10.9 | 9.5 | 8.8 | 12.2 |
| Percentpossible sunshine | 29 | 38 | 38 | 41 | 49 | 51 | 62 | 59 | 51 | 45 | 29 | 28 | 43 |
| Averageultraviolet index | 1 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 7 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 4 |
| Source 1: Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e la Ricerca Ambientale[79]NOAA[80] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: MeteoAM (sun and humidity 1961–1990),[81][82]Weather Atlas (daylight, UV)[83]Temperature estreme in Toscana (extremes)[84] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data for Venice (sea temperatures) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 10.0 (50.0) |
8.8 (47.8) |
9.9 (49.8) |
13.4 (56.1) |
18.6 (65.5) |
23.4 (74.1) |
25.4 (77.7) |
25.4 (77.7) |
23.6 (74.5) |
19.3 (66.7) |
16.0 (60.8) |
13.3 (55.9) |
17.3 (63.0) |
| Source: Weather Atlas[83] | |||||||||||||
Demographics
[edit]| Year | Pop. | ±% |
|---|---|---|
| 1871 | 164,965 | — |
| 1881 | 165,802 | +0.5% |
| 1901 | 189,368 | +14.2% |
| 1911 | 208,463 | +10.1% |
| 1921 | 223,373 | +7.2% |
| 1931 | 250,327 | +12.1% |
| 1936 | 264,027 | +5.5% |
| 1951 | 310,034 | +17.4% |
| 1961 | 339,671 | +9.6% |
| 1971 | 354,475 | +4.4% |
| 1981 | 336,081 | −5.2% |
| 1991 | 298,532 | −11.2% |
| 2001 | 271,073 | −9.2% |
| 2011 | 261,362 | −3.6% |
| 2021 | 251,944 | −3.6% |
| Source:ISTAT | ||
The city was one of the largest in Europe in theHigh Middle Ages,with a population of 60,000 in AD 1000; 80,000 in 1200; and rising up to 110,000–180,000 in 1300. In the mid-1500s the city's population was 170,000, and by 1600 it approached 200,000.[85][86][87][88][89]
In 2021, there were 254,850 people residing in the Comune of Venice (the population figure includes 50,434 in the historic city of Venice (Centro storico), 177,621 in Terraferma (the mainland); and 26,795 on other islands in the lagoon).[90]47.8% of the population in 2021 were male and 52.2% were female; minors (ages 18 and younger) were 14.7% of the population compared to elderly people (ages 65 and older) who numbered 27.9%. This compared with the Italian average of 16.7% and 23.5%, respectively. The average age of Venice residents was 48.6 compared to the Italian average of 45.9. In the five years between 2016 and 2021, the population of Venice declined by 2.7%, while Italy as a whole declined by 2.2%.[91]The population in the historic old city declined much faster: from about 120,000 in 1980 to about 60,000 in 2009,[92]and to 50,000 in 2021.[90]As of 2021[update],84.2% of the population was Italian. The largest immigrant groups include: 7,814 (3.1%)Bangladeshis,6,258 (2.5%)Romanians,4,054 (1.6%)Moldovans,4,014 (1.6%)Chinese,and 2,514 (1%)Ukrainians.[93]
Venice is predominantlyRoman Catholic(85.0% of the resident population in the area of thePatriarchate of Venicein 2022[94]), but because of the long-standing relationship withConstantinople,there is also a noticeableOrthodoxpresence; and as a result of immigration, there is now a largeMuslimcommunity (about 25,000 or 9.5% of city population in 2018[95]) and someHindu,andBuddhistinhabitants.
Since 1991, the Church ofSan Giorgio dei Greciin Venice has become theseeof theGreek Orthodox Archdiocese of Italy and Malta and Exarchate of Southern Europe,aByzantine-ritediocese under theEcumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.[96]
There is also a historicJewish communityin Venice. TheVenetian Ghettowas the area in which Jews were compelled to live under the Venetian Republic. The wordghetto(ghèto), originallyVenetian,is now found in many languages.Shakespeare's playThe Merchant of Venice,written in the late 16th century, featuresShylock,a Venetian Jew. The first complete and uncensored printed edition of theTalmudwas printed in Venice byDaniel Bombergin 1523. DuringWorld War II,Jews were rounded up in Venice and deported toextermination camps.Since the end of the war, the Jewish population of Venice has declined from 1500 to about 500.[97]Only around 30 Jews live in the former ghetto, which houses the city's major Jewish institutions.[98]In modern times, Venice has aneruv,[99]used by the Jewish community.
Government
[edit]Local and regional government
[edit]
The legislative body of the Comune is the City Council (Consiglio Comunale), which is composed of 36 councillors elected every five years with a proportional system, contextually to the mayoral elections. The executive body is the City Administration (Giunta Comunale), composed of 12assessorsnominated and presided over by a directly electedMayor.
Venice was governed bycentre-leftparties from the early 1990s until the 2010s, when the Mayor started to be elected directly. Its region,Veneto,has long been a conservative stronghold, with the coalition between the regionalistLega Nordand thecentre-rightForza Italiawinning absolute majorities of the electorate in many elections at local, national, and regional levels.
The current Mayor of Venice isLuigi Brugnaro,a centre-right independent businessman who is currently serving his second term in office.
The municipality of Venice is also subdivided into six administrative boroughs (municipalità). Each borough is governed by a council (Consiglio) and a president, elected every five years. The urban organization is dictated by Article 114 of theItalian Constitution.The boroughs have the power to advise the Mayor with nonbinding opinions on a large spectrum of topics (environment, construction, public health, local markets) and exercise the functions delegated to them by the City Council; in addition, they are supplied with autonomous funding to finance local activities.
| Borough | Place | Population | President | Party | Term | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Venezia (Historic city)–Murano–Burano | Lagoon area | 69,136 | Marco Borghi | PD | 2020–2025 | |
| 2 | Lido–Pellestrina | Lagoon area | 21,664 | Emilio Guberti | IND | 2020–2025 | |
| 3 | Favaro Veneto | Mainland (terraferma)[a] | 23,615 | Marco Bellato | IND | 2020–2025 | |
| 4 | Mestre–Carpenedo | Mainland (terraferma) | 88,592 | Raffaele Pasqualetto | LN | 2020–2025 | |
| 5 | Chirignago–Zelarino | Mainland (terraferma) | 38,179 | Francesco Tagliapietra | IND | 2020–2025 | |
| 6 | Marghera | Mainland (terraferma) | 28,466 | Teodoro Marolo | IND | 2020–2025 | |
- Notes
- ^Annexed with a Royal Decree to the municipality of Venice in 1926.
Sestieri
[edit]The historic city of Venice has historically been divided into sixsestieri,and is made up of a total of 127 individual islands, most of which are separated from their neighbors by narrow channels only.[100]
| Sestiere | Abbr. | Area (ha) | Pop.(2011-10-09) | Density | No.of islands |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cannaregio | CN | 121.36 | 16.950 | 13.967 | 33 |
| Castello | CS | 173.97 | 14.813 | 8.514 | 26 |
| San Marco | SM | 54.48 | 4.145 | 7.552 | 16 |
| Dorsoduro | DD | 161.32 | 13.398 | 8.305 | 31 |
| San Polo | SP | 46.70 | 9.183 | 19.665 | 7 |
| Santa Croce | SC | 88.57 | 2.257 | 2.548 | 14 |
| Historic centre | — | 646.80[citation needed] | 60.746 | 9.392 | 127 |
Eachsestiereis now a statistical and historical area without any degree of autonomy.[101]
The six fingers or phalanges of theferroon the bow of agondolarepresent the sixsestieri.[101]
Thesestieriare divided intoparishes—initially 70 in 1033, but reduced underNapoleon,and now numbering just 38. These parishes predate thesestieri,which were created in about 1170. Each parish exhibited unique characteristics but also belonged to an integrated network. Each community chose its own patron saint, staged its own festivals, congregated around its own market centre, constructed its own bell towers, and developed its own customs.[102]
Other islands of theVenetian Lagoondo not form part of any of thesestieri,having historically enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy.[103]
Eachsestierehas its ownhouse numberingsystem. Each house has a unique number in the district, from one to several thousand, generally numbered from one corner of the area to another, but not usually in a readily understandable manner.[103]
Economy
[edit]
Venice's economyhas changed throughout history. Although there is little specific information about the earliest years, it is likely that an important source of the city's prosperity was the trade in slaves, captured in central Europe and sold to North Africa and theLevant.Venice's location at the head of the Adriatic, and directly south of the terminus of theBrenner Passover the Alps, would have given it a distinct advantage as a middleman in this important trade. In theMiddle Agesand theRenaissance,Venice was a major centre for commerce and trade, as it controlled a vast sea-empire, and became an extremely wealthy European city and a leader in political and economic affairs.[104]From the 11th century until the 15th century,pilgrimagesto theHoly Landwere offered in Venice. Other ports such asGenoa,Pisa,Marseille,Ancona,andDubrovnikwere hardly able to compete with the well organized transportation of pilgrims from Venice.[105][106]
Armenianmerchants fromJulfawere the leading traders in Venice, especially theSceriman familyin the 17th century. They were specialized in the gems and diamonds business.[107]The trade volume reached millions of tons, which was exceptional for 17th century.[108]This all changed by the 17th century, when Venice's trade empire was taken over by countries such as Portugal, and its importance as a naval power was reduced. In the 18th century, it became a major agricultural and industrial exporter. The 18th century's biggest industrial complex was theVenice Arsenal,and the Italian Army still uses it today (even though some space has been used for major theatrical and cultural productions, and as spaces for art).[109]Since World War II, many Venetians have moved to the neighboring cities ofMestreandPorto Marghera,seeking employment as well as affordable housing.[110]
Today, Venice's economy is mainly based on tourism, shipbuilding (mainly in Mestre and Porto Marghera), services, trade, and industrial exports.[104]Murano glassproduction inMuranoand lace production inBuranoare also highly important to the economy.[104]
The city is facing financial challenges. In late 2016, it had a major deficit in its budget and debts in excess of €400 million. "In effect, the place is bankrupt", according to a report byThe Guardian.[21]Many locals are leaving the historic centre due to rapidly increasing rents. The declining native population affects the character of the city, as an October 2016National Geographicarticle pointed out in its subtitle: "Residents are abandoning the city, which is in danger of becoming an overpriced theme park".[20]The city is also facing other challenges, including erosion, pollution, subsidence, an excessive number of tourists in peak periods, and problems caused by oversized cruise ships sailing close to the banks of the historical city.[20]
In June 2017, Italy was required to bail out two Venetian banks – theBanca Popolare di VicenzaandVeneto Banca– to prevent their bankruptcies.[111]Both banks would be wound down and their assets that have value taken over by another Italian bank, Intesa Sanpaolo, which would receive €5.2 billion as compensation. The Italian government would be responsible for losses from any uncollectible loans from the closed banks. The cost would be €5.2 billion, with further guarantees to cover bad loans totaling €12 billion.[112]
Tourism
[edit]
Venice is an important destination for tourists who want to see its celebrated art and architecture.[109]The city hosts up to 60,000 tourists per day (2017 estimate). Estimates of the annual number of tourists vary from 22 million to 30 million.[113][114][115]This "overtourism"creates overcrowding andenvironmental problemsfor Venice's ecosystem. By 2017,UNESCOwas considering the addition of Venice to its "In-Danger" list, which includes historical ruins in war-torn countries. To reduce the number of visitors, who are causing irreversible changes in Venice, the agency supports limiting the number of cruise ships[116][117]as well as implementing a strategy for moresustainable tourism.[118]
Tourism has been a major part of the Venetian economy since the 18th century, when Venice – with its beautiful cityscape, uniqueness, and rich musical and artistic cultural heritage – was a stop on theGrand Tour.In the 19th century, Venice became a fashionable centre for the "rich and famous", who often stayed and dined at luxury establishments such as the Danieli Hotel and theCaffè Florian,and continued to be a fashionable city into the early 20th century.[109]In the 1980s, theCarnival of Venicewas revived; and the city has become a major centre of international conferences and festivals, such as the prestigiousVenice Biennaleand theVenice Film Festival,which attract visitors from all over the world for their theatrical, cultural, cinematic, artistic, and musical productions.[109]
Today, there are numerous attractions in Venice, such asSt Mark's Basilica,theDoge's Palace,theGrand Canal,and thePiazza San Marco.TheLido di Veneziais also a popular international luxury destination, attracting thousands of actors, critics, celebrities, and others in the cinematic industry. The city also relies heavily on the cruise business.[109]The Cruise Venice Committee has estimated that cruise ship passengers spend more than 150 million euros (US$193 million) annually in the city, according to a 2015 report.[119]Other reports, however, point out that such day-trippers spend relatively little in the few hours of their visits to the city.[21]
Venice is regarded by some as a tourist trap, and by others as a "living museum".[109]
Diverting cruise ships
[edit]
The need to protect the city's historic environment and fragile canals, in the face of a possible loss of jobs produced by cruise tourism, has seen the Italian Transport Ministry attempt to introduce a ban on large cruise ships visiting the city. A 2013 ban would have allowed only cruise ships smaller than 40,000-gross tons to enter theGiudecca Canaland St Mark's basin.[120]In January 2015, a regional court scrapped the ban, but some global cruise lines indicated that they would continue to respect it until a long-term solution for the protection of Venice is found.[121]
P&O Cruises removed Venice from its summer schedule; Holland America moved one of its ships from this area to Alaska; and Cunard reduced (in 2017 and further in 2018) the number of visits by its ships. As a result, the Venice Port Authority estimated an 11.4 per cent drop in cruise ships arriving in 2017 versus 2016, leading to a similar reduction in income for Venice.[122]
Having failed in its 2013 bid to ban oversized cruise ships from the Giudecca Canal, the Italian inter-ministerialComitatoneoverseeing Venice's lagoon released an official directive in November 2017 to keep the largest cruise ships away from the Piazza San Marco and the entrance to the Grand Canal.[123][124][125]Ships over 55,000 tons will be required to follow a specific route through the Vittorio Emmanuele III Canal to reachMarghera,an industrial area of the mainland, where a passenger terminal would be built.[126]
In 2014, the United Nations warned the city that it may be placed on UNESCO'sList of World Heritage in Dangersites unless cruise ships are banned from the canals near the historic centre.[127]
According to the officials, the plan to create an alternative route for ships would require extensive dredging of the canal and the building of a new port, which would take four years, in total, to complete. However, the activist groupNo Grandi Navi(No big Ships), argued that the effects of pollution caused by the ships would not be diminished by the re-routing plan.[128][129]
Some locals continued to aggressively lobby for new methods that would reduce the number of cruise ship passengers; their estimate indicated that there are up to 30,000 such sightseers per day at peak periods,[115]while others concentrate their effort on promoting a more responsible way of visiting the city.[130]An unofficial referendum to ban large cruise ships was held in June 2017. More than 18,000 people voted at 60 polling booths set up by activists, and 17,874 favored banning large ships from the lagoon. The population of Venice at the time was about 50,000.[131]The organizers of the referendum backed a plan to build a new cruise ship terminal at one of the three entrances to theVenetian Lagoon.Passengers would be transferred to the historic area in smaller boats.[132][133]
On 2 June 2019, the cruise shipMSC Operarammed a tourist riverboat, theRiver Countess,which was docked on the Giudecca Canal, injuring five people, in addition to causing property damage. The incident immediately led to renewed demands to ban large cruise ships from the Giudecca Canal,[134]including aTwittermessage to that effect posted by the environment minister. The city's mayor urged authorities to accelerate the steps required for cruise ships to begin using the alternate Vittorio Emanuele canal.[135]Italy's transport minister spoke of a "solution to protect both the lagoon and tourism... after many years of inertia" but specifics were not reported.[136][137]As of June 2019[update],the 2017 plan to establish an alternative route for large ships, preventing them from coming near the historic area of the city, has not yet been approved.[129]
Nonetheless, the Italian government released an announcement on 7 August 2019 that it would begin rerouting cruise ships larger than 1000 tonnes away from the historic city's Giudecca Canal. For the last four months of 2019, all heavy vessels will dock at the Fusina and Lombardia terminals which are still on the lagoon but away from the central islands. By 2020, one-third of all cruise ships will be rerouted, according to Danilo Toninelli, the minister for Venice. Preparation work for the Vittorio Emanuele Canal needed to begin soon for a long-term solution, according to the Cruise Lines International Association.[138][139]In the long-term, space for ships would be provided at new terminals, perhaps at Chioggia or Lido San Nicolo. That plan was not imminent however, since public consultations had not yet begun. Over 1.5 million people per year arrive in Venice on cruise ships.[140]The Italian government decided to divert large cruise ships beginning August 2021.[141]
Other tourism mitigation efforts
[edit]
Having failed in its 2013 bid to ban oversized cruise ships from the Giudecca Canal, the city switched to a new strategy in mid-2017, banning the creation of any additional hotels. Currently, there are over 24,000 hotel rooms. The ban does not affect short-term rentals in the historic centre which are causing an increase in the cost of living for the native residents of Venice.[21]The city had already banned any additional fast food "take-away" outlets, to retain the historic character of the city, which was another reason for freezing the number of hotel rooms.[142]Fewer than half of the millions of annual visitors stay overnight, however.[113][114]
The city also considered a ban on wheeled suitcases, but settled for banning hard plastic wheels for transporting cargo from May 2015.[143]
In addition to accelerating erosion of the ancient city's foundations and creating some pollution in the lagoon,[20][144]cruise ships dropping an excessive number of day trippers can make St. Marks Square and other popular attractions too crowded to walk through during the peak season. Government officials see little value to the economy from the "eat and flee" tourists who stay for less than a day, which is typical of those from cruise ships.[131]
On 28 February 2019, the Venice City Council voted in favour of a new municipal regulation requiring day-trippers visiting the historic centre, and the islands in the lagoon, to pay a new access fee. The extra revenue from the fee would be used for cleaning, maintaining security, reducing the financial burden on residents of Venice, and to "allow Venetians to live with more decorum". The new tax would be between €3 and €10 per person, depending on the expected tourist flow into the old city. The fee could be waived for certain types of travelers: including students, children under the age of 6, voluntary workers, residents of the Veneto region, and participants in sporting events.[145]Overnight visitors, who already pay a "stay" tax and account for around 40% of Venice's yearly total of 28 million visitors,[146]would also be exempted. The access fee was expected to come into effect in September 2019; but it was postponed, firstly, until 1 January 2020, and then, again, due to the coronavirus pandemic.[147]The new charge of €5 started to be imposed on those tourists who are not staying overnight and came into force on 25 April 2024.[148]It is only charged on peak visitor days, and several classes of people are exempt, includingVenetoresidents, hotel guests (including mainland boroughs of Venice), local workers, and students.[149]
A regulation taking effect on June 1, 2024, limits tour groups to 25 people and bans loudspeakers.[150][151]
Transport
[edit]In the historic centre
[edit]
Venice is built on anarchipelagoof 118 islands[13]in a shallow, 550 km2(212 sq mi)lagoon,[152]connected by 400 bridges[153]over 177 canals. In the 19th century, a causeway to the mainland brought the railroad toVenice.The adjoiningPonte della Libertàroad causeway and terminal parking facilities in Tronchetto island and Piazzale Roma were built during the 20th century. Beyond these rail and road terminals on the northern edge of the city, transportation within the city's historic centre remains, as it was in centuries past, entirely on water or on foot. Venice is Europe's largest urbancar-free areaand is unique in Europe in having remained a sizable functioning city in the 21st century entirely without motorcars or trucks.
The classic Venetian boat is thegondola,(plural:gondole) although it is now mostly used for tourists, or for weddings, funerals, or other ceremonies, or astraghetti[clarification needed](sing.: traghetto) to cross the Grand Canal in lieu of a nearby bridge. The traghetti are operated by two oarsmen.[154]
There are approximately 400 licensed gondoliers in Venice, in their distinctivelivery,and a similar number of boats, down from 10,000 two centuries ago[when?].[155][156]Many gondolas are lushly appointed withcrushed velvetseats andPersian rugs.At the front of each gondola that works in the city, there is a large piece of metal called thefèro(iron). Its shape has evolved through the centuries, as documented in many well-known paintings. Its form, topped by a likeness of the Doge's hat, became gradually standardized, and was then fixed by local law. It consists of six bars pointing forward representing thesestieriof the city, and one that points backwards representing theGiudecca.[156][157]A lesser-known boat is the smaller, simpler, but similar,sandolo.
Waterways
[edit]Venice's small islands were enhanced during the Middle Ages by thedredgingof soil to raise the marshy ground above the tides. The resulting canals encouraged the flourishing of a nautical culture which proved central to the economy of the city. Today those canals still provide the means for transport of goods and people within the city.
The maze of canals threading through the city requires more than 400 bridges to permit the flow of foot traffic. In 2011, the city opened thePonte della Costituzione,the fourth bridge across the Grand Canal, which connects thePiazzale Romabus-terminal area with the Venezia Santa Lucia railway station. The other bridges are the originalPonte di Rialto,thePonte dell'Accademia,and thePonte degli Scalzi.
Public transport
[edit]Azienda del Consorzio Trasporti Veneziano(ACTV) is a public company responsible for public transportation in Venice.
Lagoon area
[edit]
The main means of public transportation consists of motorisedwaterbuses(vaporetti) which ply regular routes along the Grand Canal and between the city's islands. Private motorised water taxis are also active. The only gondole still in common use by Venetians are thetraghetti,foot passengerferriescrossing the Grand Canal at certain points where there are no convenient bridges. Other gondole are rented by tourists on an hourly basis.[156]
TheVenice People Moveris an elevated shuttle trainpublic transitsystem connectingTronchetto islandwith its car parking facility with Piazzale Roma where visitors arrive in the city by bus, taxi, or automobile. The train makes a stop at the Marittima cruise terminal at thePort of Venice.[158]
Lido and Pellestrina islands
[edit]LidoandPellestrinaare two islands forming a barrier between the southern Venetian Lagoon and the Adriatic Sea. On those islands, road traffic, including bus service, is allowed. Vaporetti link them with other islands (Venice,Murano,Burano) and with the peninsula ofCavallino-Treporti.
Mainland
[edit]
The mainland of Venice is composed of 4 boroughs:Mestre-Carpenedo,Marghera,Chirignago-Zelarino, and Favaro Veneto. Mestre is the centre and the most populous urban area of the mainland. There are several bus routes and twoTranslohrtramway lines.Several bus routes and one of the tramway lines link the mainland withPiazzale Roma,the main bus station in Venice, viaPonte della Libertà,the road bridge connecting the mainland with the group of islands that comprise the historic centre of Venice.
The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Venice, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 52 min. Only 12.2% of public transit riders ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 10 min, while 17.6% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 7 kilometres (4.3 mi), while 12% travel for over 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) in a single direction.[159]
Rail
[edit]
Venice is served by regional and national trains, including trains to Florence (1h53), Milan (2h13), Turin (3h10), Rome (3h33), and Naples (4h50). In addition there are international day trains to Zurich, Innsbruck, Munich, and Vienna, plus overnight sleeper services, to Paris and Dijon onThellotrains, and to Munich and Vienna viaAustrian Federal Railways.
- TheVenezia Santa Lucia railway stationis a few steps away from a vaporetti stop, Ferovia, in the historic city next to thePiazzale Roma.This station is the terminus of local trains and of the luxuryVenice Simplon Orient Expressfrom London via Paris and other cities.
- TheVenezia Mestre railway stationis on the mainland, on the border between the boroughs of Mestre and Marghera.
Both stations are managed byGrandi Stazioni;they are linked by thePonte della Libertà(Liberty Bridge) between the mainland and the city centre.
Other stations in the municipality are Venezia Porto Marghera, Venezia Carpenedo, Venezia Mestre Ospedale, and Venezia Mestre Porta Ovest.
Ports
[edit]
ThePort of Venice(Italian:Porto di Venezia) is the eighth-busiest commercial port in Italy and was a major hub for the cruise sector in theMediterranean,as since August 2021 ships of more 25,000 tons are forbidden to pass theGiudecca Canal.It is one of the major Italian ports and is included in the list of the leading European ports which are located on the strategic nodes of trans-European networks. In 2002, the port handled 262,337 containers. In 2006, 30,936,931 tonnes passed through the port, of which 14,541,961 was commercial traffic, and saw 1,453,513 passengers.[160]
Aviation
[edit]TheMarco Polo International Airport(Aeroporto di Venezia Marco Polo) is named in honor ofMarco Polo.The airport is on the mainland and was rebuilt away from the coast. Public transport from the airport takes one to:
- VenicePiazzale Romaby ATVO (provincial company) buses[161]and by ACTV (city company) buses (route 5aerobus);[162]
- Venice, Lido, and Murano by Allilaguna (private company) motor boats;
- Mestre, the mainland, where Venice Mestre railway station is convenient for connections toMilan,Padua,Trieste,Veronaand the rest of Italy, and forACTV(routes 15 and 45)[162]and ATVO buses and other transport;
- Regional destinations, such asTrevisoandPadua,by ATVO andBusitalia Sita Nordbuses.[163]
Venice-Treviso Airport,about 30 kilometres (19 mi) from Venice, is used mainly by low-cost airlines. There are public buses from this airport to Venice.[164] Venezia-Lido "Giovanni Nicelli",[165]a public airport suitable for smaller aircraft, is at the northeast end ofLido di Venezia.It has a 994-metre (3,261 ft) grass runway.
Sport
[edit]The most famous Venetian sport is probablyVoga alla Veneta( "Venetian-style rowing" ), also commonly calledvoga veneta.A technique invented in the Venetian Lagoon, Venetian rowing is unusual in that the rower(s), one or more, row standing, looking forward. Today,Voga alla Venetais not only the way the gondoliers row tourists around Venice but also the way Venetians row for pleasure and sport. Many races calledregata(e)happen throughout the year.[166]The culminating event of the rowing season is the day of the "Regata Storica", which occurs on the first Sunday of September each year.[167]
The main football club in the city isVenezia F.C.,founded in 1907, which currently plays in theSerie B.Their ground, theStadio Pier Luigi Penzo,situated inSant'Elena,is the second-oldest continually used stadium in Italy.
The local basketball club isReyer Venezia,founded in 1872 as the gymnastics clubSocietà Sportiva Costantino Reyer,and in 1907 as the basketball club. Reyer currently plays in theLega Basket Serie A.The men's team were the Italian champions in 1942, 1943, and 2017. Their arena is thePalasport Giuseppe Taliercio,situated inMestre.Luigi Brugnarois both the president of the club and the mayor of the city.
Education
[edit]
Venice is a major international centre for higher education. The city hosts theCa' Foscari University of Venice,founded in 1868; theUniversità Iuav di Venezia,founded in 1926; theVenice International University,founded in 1995 and located on the island ofSan Servoloand theEIUC-European Inter-University Centre for Human Rights and Democratisation,located on the island ofLido di Venezia.[168]
Other Venetian institutions of higher education are: theAccademia di Belle Arti(Academy of Fine Arts), established in 1750, whose first chairman wasGiovanni Battista Piazzetta,and theBenedetto Marcello Conservatory of Music,which was first established in 1876 as a high school and musical society, later (1915) becameLiceo Musicale,and then, when its director wasGian Francesco Malipiero,the State Conservatory of Music (1940).[169]
Culture
[edit]Literature
[edit]
Venice has long been a source of inspiration for authors, playwrights, and poets, and at the forefront of the technological development of printing and publishing.
Two of the most noted Venetian writers wereMarco Poloin the Middle Ages and, later,Giacomo Casanova.Polo (1254–1324) was a merchant who voyaged tothe Orient.His series of books, co-written withRustichello da Pisaand titledIl Milioneprovided important knowledge of the lands east of Europe, from the Middle East to China, Japan, and Russia.Giacomo Casanova(1725–1798) was a prolific writer and adventurer best remembered for his autobiography,Histoire De Ma Vie(Story of My Life), which links his colourful lifestyle to the city of Venice.
Venetian playwrights followed the old Italian theatre tradition ofcommedia dell'arte.Ruzante(1502–1542),Carlo Goldoni(1707–1793), andCarlo Gozzi(1720–1806) used the Venetian dialect extensively in their comedies.
Venice has also inspired writers from abroad. Shakespeare setOthelloandThe Merchant of Venicein the city, as didThomas Mannhis novel,Death in Venice(1912). The French writerPhilippe Sollersspent most of his life in Venice and publishedA Dictionary For Lovers of Venicein 2004.
The city features prominently inHenry James'sThe Aspern PapersandThe Wings of the Dove.It is also visited inEvelyn Waugh'sBrideshead RevisitedandMarcel Proust'sIn Search of Lost Time.Perhaps the best-known children's book set in Venice isThe Thief Lord,written by the German authorCornelia Funke.
Venice is described inGoethe'sItalian Journey,1786-1788. He describes the architecture, including a church byPalladioand also attends the opera. He visits the ship-building yards at theArsenal.He is fascinated by the street life of Venice, which he describes as a kind of performance.
The poetUgo Foscolo(1778–1827), born inZante,an island that at the time belonged to the Republic of Venice, was also arevolutionarywho wanted to see a free republic established in Venice following its fall toNapoleon.
Venice also inspired the poetry ofEzra Pound,who wrote his first literary work in the city. Pound died in 1972, and his remains are buried in Venice'scemetery islandofSan Michele.
Venice is also linked to the technological aspects of writing. The city was the location of one of Italy's earliest printing presses calledAldine Press,established byAldus Manutiusin 1494.[170]From this beginning Venice developed as an important typographic centre. Around fifteen percent of all printing of the fifteenth century came from Venice,[171]and even as late as the 18th century was responsible for printing half of Italy's published books.[citation needed]
In literature and adapted works
[edit]The city is a particularly popular setting for essays, novels, and other works of fictional or non-fictional literature. Examples of these include:
- Aretino's works (1492–1556)
- Shakespeare'sMerchant of Venice(c. 1596–1598) andOthello(1603).
- Ben Jonson'sVolpone(1605–6).
- Casanova's autobiographicalHistory of My Lifec. 1789–1797.
- Voltaire'sCandide(1759).
- Letitia Elizabeth Landonwrote poetry for two pictures of Venice; one forThe Embarkation,drawn byClarkson Stanfieldfor The Amulet, 1833, the other forSanta Salute,drawn byCharles Bentleyfor the Literary Souvenir, 1835.
- Ernest Hemingway'sAcross the River and into the Trees(1950).
- Italo Calvino'sInvisible Cities(1972).
- Anne Rice'sCry to Heaven(1982).
- Donna Leon's Commissario Guido Brunetticrime fictionseries and cookbook, and the German television series based on the novels (1992–2019).
- Philippe Sollers'Watteau in Venice(1994).
- Michael Dibdin'sDead Lagoon(1994), one in a series of novels featuring Venice-born policeman Aurelio Zen.
- Jacqueline Carey'sKushiel's Chosen(2002), anhistorical fantasyoralternate historyof Venice – complete with masquerades, canals, and a doge – taking place in a city known as La Serenissima.
- John Berendt'sThe City of Falling Angels(2005)
Additionally,Thomas Mann's novella,Death in Venice(1912), was the basis for Benjamin Britten'seponymous opera(1973).
Foreign words of Venetian origin
[edit]Some English words with a Venetian etymology includearsenal,ciao,ghetto,gondola,imbroglio,lagoon,lazaret,lido,Montenegro,andregatta.[172]
Printing
[edit]By the end of the 15th century, Venice had become the European capital of printing, having 417 printers by 1500, and being one of the first cities in Italy (after Subiaco and Rome) to have a printing press, after those established in Germany. The most important printing office was theAldine PressofAldus Manutius;which in 1497 issued the first printed work ofAristotle;in 1499 printed theHypnerotomachia Poliphili,considered the most beautiful book of theRenaissance;and established modernpunctuation,page format, anditalic type.
Painting
[edit]
Venice, especially during theRenaissance,andBaroqueperiods, was a major centre of art and developed a unique style known as theVenetian painting.In the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Venice, along withFlorenceand Rome, became one of the most important centres of art in Europe, and numerous wealthy Venetians became patrons of the arts. Venice at the time was a rich and prosperousMaritime Republic,which controlled a vast sea and trade empire.[173]
In the 16th century, Venetian painting was developed through influences from the Paduan School andAntonello da Messina,who introduced the oil painting technique of theVan Eyckbrothers. It is signified by a warm colour scale and a picturesque use of colour. Early masters were the Bellini and Vivarini families, followed byGiorgioneandTitian,thenTintorettoandVeronese.In the early 16th century, there was rivalry in Venetian painting between thedisegnoandcoloritotechniques.[174]
Canvases(the common painting surface) originated in Venice during the early Renaissance. In the 18th century, Venetian painting had a revival withTiepolo's decorative painting andCanaletto's andGuardi's panoramic views.
Venetian architecture
[edit]
Venice is built on unstable mud-banks, and had a very crowded city centre by the Middle Ages. On the other hand, the city was largely safe from riot, civil feuds, and invasion much earlier than most European cities. These factors, with the canals and the great wealth of the city, made for unique building styles.
Venice has a rich and diversearchitectural style,the most prominent of which is theGothicstyle.Venetian Gothic architectureis a term given to a Venetian building style combining the use of the Gothiclancet archwith the curvedogee arch,due toByzantineandOttomaninfluences. The style originated in 14th-century Venice, with a confluence ofByzantinestyle fromConstantinople,Islamic influences fromSpainand Venice's eastern trading partners, and early Gothic forms from mainland Italy.[citation needed]Chief examples of the style are theDoge's Palaceand theCa' d'Oroin the city. The city also has severalRenaissanceandBaroquebuildings, including theCa' Pesaroand theCa' Rezzonico.
Venetian taste was conservative andRenaissance architectureonly really became popular in buildings from about the 1470s. More than in the rest of Italy, it kept much of the typical form of the Gothicpalazzi,which had evolved to suit Venetian conditions. In turn the transition toBaroque architecturewas also fairly gentle. This gives the crowded buildings on the Grand Canal and elsewhere an essential harmony, even where buildings from very different periods sit together. For example, round-topped arches are far more common in Renaissance buildings than elsewhere.
Rococo style
[edit]It can be argued that Venice produced the best and most refinedRococodesigns. At the time, the Venetian economy was in decline. It had lost most of its maritime power, was lagging behind its rivals in political importance, and its society had become decadent, with tourism increasingly the mainstay of the economy. But Venice remained a centre of fashion.[175]Venetian rococo was well known as rich and luxurious, with usually very extravagant designs. Unique Venetian furniture types included thedivani da portego,and long rococo couches andpozzetti,objects meant to be placed against the wall. Bedrooms of rich Venetians were usually sumptuous and grand, with rich damask, velvet, and silk drapery and curtains, and beautifully carved rococo beds with statues ofputti,flowers, and angels.[175]Venice was especially known for itsgirandole mirrors,which remained among, if not the, finest in Europe. Chandeliers were usually very colourful, usingMurano glassto make them look more vibrant and stand out from others; and precious stones and materials from abroad were used, since Venice still held a vast trade empire. Lacquer was very common, and many items of furniture were covered with it, the most noted beinglacca povera(poor lacquer), in which allegories and images of social life were painted. Lacquerwork andChinoiseriewere particularly common in bureau cabinets.[176]
Glass
[edit]
Venice is known for its ornate glass-work, known asVenetian glass,which is world-renowned for being colourful, elaborate, and skilfully made. Many of the important characteristics of these objects had been developed by the 13th century. Toward the end of that century, the centre of the Venetian glass industry moved toMurano,an offshore island in Venice. The glass made there is known asMurano glass.
Byzantine craftsmen played an important role in the development of Venetian glass. WhenConstantinoplewas sacked in theFourth Crusadein 1204, some fleeing artisans came to Venice; when theOttomanstook Constantinople in 1453, still more glassworkers arrived. By the 16th century, Venetian artisans had gained even greater control over the colour and transparency of their glass, and had mastered a variety of decorative techniques. Despite efforts to keep Venetian glassmaking techniques within Venice, they became known elsewhere, and Venetian-style glassware was produced in other Italian cities and other countries of Europe.
Some of the most important brands of glass in the world today are still produced in the historical glass factories on Murano. They are: Venini, Barovier & Toso,Pauly,Millevetri, and Seguso.[177]Barovier & Toso is considered one of the 100oldest companiesin the world, formed in 1295.
In February 2021, the world learned that Venetian glasstrade beadshad been found at three prehistoricInuitsites inAlaska,including Punyik Point. Uninhabited today, and located 1 mile (1.6 km) from theContinental Dividein theBrooks Range,the area was on ancient trade routes from theBering Seato theArctic Ocean.From their creation in Venice, researchers believe the likely route these artifacts traveled was acrossEurope,thenEurasiaand finally over theBering Strait,making this discovery "the first documented instance of the presence of indubitable European materials in prehistoric sites in the western hemisphere as the result of overland transport across the Eurasian continent." Afterradiocarbon datingmaterials found near the beads, archaeologists estimated their arrival on the continent to sometime between 1440 and 1480, predatingChristopher Columbus.[178]The dating and provenance has been challenged by other researchers who point out that such beads were not made in Venice until the mid-16th century and that an early 17th century French origin is possible.[179][180]
Festivals
[edit]
TheCarnival of Veniceis held annually in the city, It lasts for around two weeks and ends onShrove Tuesday.Venetian masksare worn.
TheVenice Biennaleis one of the most important events in the arts calendar. In 1895 anEsposizione biennale artistica nazionale(biennial exhibition of Italian art) was inaugurated.[181]In September 1942, the activities of the Biennale were interrupted by the war, but resumed in 1948.[182]
TheFesta del Redentoreis held in mid-July. It began as a feast to give thanks for the end of the plague of 1576. A bridge of barges is built connecting Giudecca to the rest of Venice, and fireworks play an important role.
TheVenice Film Festival(Italian:Mostra Internazionale d'Arte Cinematografica di Venezia) is the oldest film festival in the world.[183]Founded by CountGiuseppe Volpi di Misuratain 1932 as theEsposizione Internazionale d'Arte Cinematografica,the festival has since taken place every year in late August or early September on the island of theLido.Screenings take place in the historicPalazzo del Cinemaon the Lungomare Marconi. It is one of the world's most prestigious film festivals and is part of the Venice Biennale.
Music
[edit]
The city of Venice in Italy has played an important role in the development of themusic of Italy.The Venetian state (the medievalRepublic of Venice) was often popularly called the "Republic of Music", and an anonymous Frenchman of the 17th century is said to have remarked that "In every home, someone is playing a musical instrument or singing. There is music everywhere."[184]
During the 16th century, Venice became one of the most important musical centres of Europe, marked by a characteristic style of composition (theVenetian school) and the development of theVenetian polychoral styleunder composers such asAdrian Willaert,who worked atSt Mark's Basilica.Venice was the early centre of music printing;Ottaviano Petruccibegan publishing music almost as soon as this technology was available, and his publishing enterprise helped to attract composers from all over Europe, especially from France andFlanders.By the end of the century, Venice was known for the splendor of its music, as exemplified in the "colossal style" ofAndreaandGiovanni Gabrieli,which used multiple choruses and instrumental groups. Venice was also the home of many noted composers during thebaroque period,such asAntonio Vivaldi,Ippolito Ciera,Giovanni Picchi,andGirolamo Dalla Casa,to name but a few.
Orchestras
[edit]Venice is the home of numerous orchestras such as, theOrchestra della Fenice,Rondò Veneziano,Interpreti Veneziani, andVenice Baroque Orchestra.
Cinema, media, and popular culture
[edit]
The city has been the setting or chosen location of numerous films, games, works of fine art and literature (including essays, fiction, non-fiction, and poems), music videos, television shows, and other cultural references.[citation needed]
Photography
[edit]Fulvio Roiterwas the pioneer in artistic photography in Venice,[187]followed by a number of photographers whose works are often reproduced on postcards, thus reaching a widest international popular exposure.[citation needed]Luca Zordan,a New York City based photographer was born in Venice.[188]
Cuisine
[edit]Venetian cuisine is characterized by seafood, but also includes garden products from the islands of the lagoon, rice from the mainland, game, andpolenta.Venice is not known for a particular cuisine of its own: it combines local traditions with influences stemming from age-old contacts with distant countries.[clarification needed]These includesarde in saór(sardines marinated to preserve them for long voyages);bacalà mantecato(a recipe based on Norwegianstockfishand extra-virgin olive oil);bisàto(marinated eel);risi e bisi– rice, peas and (unsmoked) bacon;[189]fegato alla veneziana,Venetian-style veal liver;risòto col néro de sépe(risotto with cuttlefish, blackened by their own ink);cichéti,refined and delicious tidbits (akin totapas);antipasti(appetizers); andprosecco,an effervescent, mildly sweet wine.
In addition, Venice is known for the golden, oval-shaped cookies calledbaìcoli,and for other types of sweets, such as:pan del pescaór(bread of the fisherman); cookies with almonds and pistachio nuts; cookies with fried Venetian cream, or thebussolài(butter biscuitsandshortbreadmade in the shape of a ring or an "S" ) from the island of Burano; thegalàniorcróstoli(angel wings);[note 2]thefrìtole(fried spherical doughnuts); thefregolòtta(a crumbly cake with almonds); a milk pudding calledrosàda;and cookies calledzaléti,whose ingredients include yellow maize flour.[190]
The desserttiramisùis generally thought to have been invented inTrevisoin the 1970s,[191]and is popular in theVenetoarea.
Fashion and shopping
[edit]
In the 14th century, many young Venetian men began wearing tight-fitting multicoloured hose, the designs on which indicated theCompagnie della Calza( "Trouser Club" ) to which they belonged. The Venetian Senate passedsumptuary laws,but these merely resulted in changes in fashion in order to circumvent the law. Dull garments were worn over colourful ones, which then were cut to show the hidden colours resulting in the spread of men's "slashed" fashions in the 15th century.[citation needed]
Today, Venice is a major fashion and shopping centre; not as important asMilan,Florence,and Rome, but on a par withVerona,Turin,Vicenza,Naples,andGenoa.Roberta di Camerinois the only majorItalian fashionbrand to be based in Venice. Founded in 1945, it is renowned for its innovative handbags made by Venetian artisans and often covered in locally wovenvelvet.[192]
International relations
[edit]Twin towns – sister cities
[edit]
In 2013, Venice announced that it wants to end the sister city relationship with St. Petersburg in opposition to laws Russia had passed against homosexuals and those who support gay rights.[194]
Cooperation agreements
[edit]In January 2000, the City of Venice and the Central Association of Cities and Communities of Greece (KEDKE) established, in pursuance toEC RegulationNo. 2137/85, the Marco Polo SystemEuropean Economic Interest Grouping(E.E.I.G.), to promote and realise European projects within transnational cultural and tourist fields, particularly in reference to the preservation and safeguarding of artistic and architectural heritage.[193]
In April 2001, the city signed an agreement with theMinistry of Foreign Affairs's office of cultural promotion and cooperation, to coordinate efforts at promoting Italian culture abroad.[193]
Venice also has cooperation agreements with:[193]
- Lübeck,Germany (1979)
- Nuremberg,Germany (1999)
- Qingdao,China (2001, Science and Technology Partnership)
- Thessaloniki,Greece (2003)
- Miami,United States (2020)
Places named after Venice
[edit]The name "Venezuela"is a Spanish diminutive of Venice (Veneziola).[195]
Many additional places around the world are named after Venice, such as:
- Venice, Los Angeles,home of Venice Beach
- Venice, Alberta,in Canada
- Venice, Florida,city in Sarasota County
- Venice, New York
- Venice, Louisiana
- Little Venice, London
People
[edit]Others closely associated with the city include:
Music
[edit]- Andrea Gabrieli(c. 1510–1586), Italian composer and organist atSt Mark's Basilica[196]
- Giovanni Gabrieli(1554/1557–1612), composer and organist at St Mark's Basilica[197]
- Claudio Monteverdi(1567–1643), composer, string player, choirmaster and Catholic priest[198]
- Francesco Cavalli(1602–1676), abaroquecomposer[199]
- Tomaso Albinoni(1671–1751), a baroque composer[200][201]
- Antonio Vivaldi(1678–1741), composer and violinist of the Baroque Era
- Domenico Montagnana(1686–1750), an Italian masterluthier.He made theviolinandcello.
- Pietro Guarneri(1695–1762), luthier, settled in Venice 1717,Peter of Venice[202]
- Lorenzo Da Ponte(1749–1838), opera librettist and poet. He wrote the librettos for 28 operas by 11 composers, includingWolfgang Amadeus Mozart.
- Domenico Dragonetti(1763–1846), a double bass virtuoso and composer[203]
- Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari(1876–1948), Italian composer, mostly of comic opera
- Virgilio Ranzato(1883–1937), Italian composer and violinist
- Bruno Maderna(1920–1973), Italian-German orchestra director and music composer
- Luigi Nono(1924–1990), a leading composer of instrumental and electronic music
- Giuseppe Sinopoli(1946–2001), conductor and composer
- Claudio Ambrosini(born 1948), composer and conductor[204]
Painting
[edit]- Giovanni Bellini(c. 1430– 1516), Renaissance painter from the Bellini family of painters[205][206]
- Vittore Carpaccio(c. 1465– 1525/1526), Italian painter of theVenetian school[207]
- Lorenzo Lotto(c. 1480– 1556), painter, draughtsman and illustrator, in the Venetian school[208]
- Sebastiano del Piombo(c. 1485– 1547),High Renaissancepainter and earlyMannerist[209]
- Titian(c. 1488/90– 1576), leader of the Venetian school of theItalian Renaissance[210]
- Tintoretto(1518–1594), the last great painter of Italian Renaissance[211]
- Baldassare d'Anna(c. 1560– after 1639), painter of the late-Renaissanceperiod[212]
- Niccolò Cassana(1659–1714), late-Baroque painter[213]
- Rosalba Carriera(1675–1757), Rococo painter, known for her pastel works[214][215]
- Giovanni Battista Tiepolo(1696–1770), painter and printmaker. He painted in theRococostyle, Venetian school.[216]
- Canaletto(1697–1768), painter, known for his landscapes orveduteof Venice
- Pietro Longhi(c. 1702– 1785) painter of contemporarygenrescenes of life[217]
- Giuseppe Santomaso(1907–1990), Italian painter
- Emilio Vedova(1919–2006), an important modern painter of Italy
- Ludovico de Luigi(born 1933), Venetian Surrealistic artist
Writing
[edit]
- Christine de Pizan(1364 –c. 1430), poet and court writer for KingCharles VI of France
- Aldus Manutius(1449–1515), an important printer. He founded theAldine Press.[218]
- Jean-Antoine de Baïf(1532–1589), French poet and member ofLa Pléiade[219]
- Veronica Franco(1546–1591), poet and courtesan during the Renaissance
- Paolo Sarpi(1552–1623), historian, scientist, canon lawyer, statesman, defender of the liberties of Republican Venice. His writings inspiredThomas Hobbes,Edward Gibbon,and the founding fathers of theUnited States.[220]
- Leon Modena(1571–1648), author, poet and preacher, active in theVenetian Ghetto[221]
- Carlo Goldoni(1707–1793), playwright and librettist, notable name in Italian theatre[222]
- Carlo Gozzi(1720–1806), playwright and champion ofcommedia dell'arte[223]
- Elisabetta Caminèr Turra(1751–1796), writer and translator of foreign plays
- Frederick Rolfe(1860–1913), English author of the Venetian novelThe Desire and Pursuit of the Whole
Doges & public servants
[edit]
- Enrico Dandolo(c. 1107– 1205),Doge of Venicefrom 1192 to his death. He played a direct role in theSack of Constantinopleduring theFourth Crusade.[224]
- Pope Eugene IV(1383–1447), pope, 1431–1447, nephew ofPope Gregory XII[225]
- Pope Paul II(1417–1471), pope, 1464–1471. He succeededPope Pius II.[226]
- Andrea Gritti(1455–1538), Doge of the Venetian Republic from 1523 to 1538
- Pietro Bembo(1470–1547), scholar, poet, literary theorist andcardinal[227][228]
- Sebastiano Venier(c. 1496– 1578), Doge of Venice from 11 June 1577 to 1578
- Marco Antonio Bragadin(died 1571), general, flayed alive by theTurksafter a fierce resistance during the siege ofFamagusta
- Elena Lucrezia Cornaro Piscopia(1646–1684), the first woman in the world to receive a doctorate degree
- Jacopo Riccati(1676–1754), a Venetian mathematician. He wrote theRiccati equation.[229]
- Pope Clement XIII(1693–1769), pope, 1758 to his death in 1769[230]
- Count Vincenzo Dandolo(1758–1819), chemist, agronomist and politician of theEnlightenment Era
- Daniele Manin(1804–1857), Italian patriot, statesman and leader of theRisorgimentoin Venice[231]
Explorers
[edit]- Marco Polo(c. 1254– 1324), trader andexplorer,one of the first Westerners to travel theSilk Roadto China[232]
- Sebastian Cabot(c. 1484– 1557),explorer[233][234]
- Pietro Cesare Alberti(1608–1655), the first Italian-American in New Amsterdam in 1635[235]
- Giacomo Casanova(1725–1798 inDux,Bohemia), a Venetian adventurer, writer andwomanizer[236]
Architects
[edit]- Leon Battista Alberti(1404–1472), architect, humanist author, artist, poet, priest, linguist, philosopher and cryptographer[237]
- Baldassare Longhena(1598–1682), exponent ofBaroque architecture
- Andrea Tirali(c. 1660– 1737), architect. He designed the pavement in thePiazza San Marco
- Giovanni Battista Meduna(1800–1886), architect, led reconstruction and restoration works of theSt Mark's Basilicaand theGran Teatro La Fenice,among others
- Carlo Scarpa(1906–1978), an architect with a profound understanding of materials
Entertainers
[edit]- Marietta Zanfretta(1837–1898), high-wire dancer who found success in Europe and the USA
- Romano Scarpa(1927–2005), a noted Italian creator of Disney comics
- Francesco Borgato(born 1990), Italian recording artist and dancer
Sport
[edit]
- Ercole Olgeni(1883–1947), rower, team gold and silver medallist at the1920&1924 Summer Olympics
- Erminio Dones(1887–1945), rower, team silver medallist at the 1920 Summer Olympics
- Dominic DeNucci(1932–2021), Italian-American professional wrestler
- Angelo Spanio(1939–1999), Italian footballer with over 280 club caps
- Ivano Bordon(born 1951), former football goalkeeper with 449 club caps and 21for Italy
- Roberto Ravaglia(born 1957), racing driver and fouder ofROAL Motorsport
- Alessandro Santin(born 1958), racing driver
- Mauro Numa(born 1961), fencer and gold medallist at the1984 Summer Olympics
- Andrea Borella(born 1961), fencer, team gold medallist at the 1984 Summer Olympics
- Andrea Cipressa(born 1963), fencer, team gold medallist at the 1984 Summer Olympics
- Dorina Vaccaroni(born 1963), former foil fencer, three time medallist at the 1984,1988&1992 Summer Olympics
- Daniele Scarpa(born 1964), sprint canoer, gold and silver medallist at the1996 Summer Olympics
- Carolina Morace(born 1964), former footballer with over 220 club caps and 150for Italy women
- Giuseppe Cipriani(born 1965), racing driver
- Tommaso Rocchi(born 1977), former footballer with 664 club caps
- Giovanni Paramithiotti.He was the founding chairmen and owner ofInter Milanfootball club.
See also
[edit]
- List of islands of Italy
- List of buildings and structures in Venice
- List of bridges in Venice
- List of churches in Venice
- List of car-free places
- List of painters and architects of Venice
- List of places called Venice of the East
- Outline of Italy
- Su e zo per i ponti
- Venetian blinds
- Venetic language– the ancient spoken language of the region
- Venezia Mestre Rugby FC– a rugby team
- Venice of the North
Notes
[edit]- ^Traditional date as given in William J. Langer, ed.An Encyclopedia of World History.
- ^In other areas of Italy similar sweets are known by many other names, e.g.cénci(rags) (Florence),frappe(flounces) (Rome),bugìe(lies) (Turin, Genoa, etc.),chiàcchiere(chatter) (Milan and many other places in northern, central and southern Italy). Vid.: Pellegrino Artusi,La Scienza in cucina e l'Arte di mangiar bene,93ª ristampa, Firenze, Giunti, 1960, p. 387, #595; Ranieri da Mosto,Il Veneto in cucina,Firenze, Aldo Martello-Giunti, 1974, p. 364; Luigi Veronelli (edited by),Il Carnacina,10th ed., Milano, Garzanti, 1975, p. 656, #2013; to name but a few.
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- ^.Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 26 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 963–964.
- ^.Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 16 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 981.
- ^Symonds, John Addington(1911)..Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 17 (11th ed.). pp. 624–626.
- ^.Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 3 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 214–215.
- ^Garnett, Richard(1911)..Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 24 (11th ed.). pp. 221–222.
- ^Abrahams, Israel(1911)..Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 16 (11th ed.). p. 443.
- ^.Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 12 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 213.
- ^.Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 12 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 305.
- ^Villari, Luigi(1911)..Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 7 (11th ed.). pp. 801–802.
- ^Hayes, Carlton Joseph Huntley(1911)..Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 9 (11th ed.). p. 886.
- ^.Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 20 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 955–957, see para 2.
Paul II (Pietro Barbo), pope from the 30th of August 1464 to...
- ^Bowd, Stephen D. (March 1999). "Pietro Bembo and the 'monster' of Bologna (1514)".Renaissance Studies.13(1).Wiley:40–54.doi:10.1111/j.1477-4658.1999.tb00064.x.JSTOR24412789.S2CID190702209.
- ^.Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 3 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 714.
- ^.Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 23 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 288.
- ^Collier, Theodore Freylinghuysen (1911)..Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 6 (11th ed.). p. 487.
- ^.Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 17 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 581.
- ^Yule, Henry;Beazley, Charles Raymond(1911)..Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 22 (11th ed.). pp. 7–11.
- ^Biddle, Richard(1831).A Memoir of Sebastian Cabot: With a Review of the History of Maritime Discovery.Carey and Lea. p.68.
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His son, Sebastian Cabot (1476–1557)...
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Bibliography
[edit]Academic
[edit]- Bosio, Luciano.Le origini di Venezia.Novara: Istituto Geografico De Agostini.
- Brown, Horatio,Venice,chapter 8 ofCambridge Modern Historyvol. IThe Renaissance(1902)
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- Brown, Horatio,Studies in the history of Venice(London, 1907)
- Brown, Horatio Robert Forbes(1911)..Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 27 (11th ed.). pp. 995–1007.
- Chambers, D.S. (1970).The Imperial Age of Venice, 1380–1580.London: Thames & Hudson.
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- Da Canal, Martin, "Les estoires de Venise" (13th-century chronicle), translated by Laura Morreale. Padua, Unipress 2009.
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- Lane, Frederic Chapin.Venice: Maritime Republic(1973) (ISBN978-0-8018-1445-7)
- Laven, Mary, "Virgins of Venice: Enclosed Lives and Broken Vows in the Renaissance Convent (2002).
- Madden, Thomas F.Enrico Dandolo and the Rise of VeniceJohns Hopkins University Press.
- Martin, John Jeffries and Dennis Romano (eds).Venice Reconsidered. The History and Civilization of an Italian City-State, 1297–1797.(2002)Johns Hopkins University Press.
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Popular
[edit]- Ackroyd, Peter,Venice: Pure City.London, Chatto & Windus, 2009.ISBN978-0-7011-8478-0
- Brown, Horatio,Life on the Lagoons,1884; revised ed. 1894; further eds. 1900, 1904, 1909.
- Cole, Toby.Venice: A Portable Reader,Lawrence Hill, 1979.ISBN978-0-88208-097-0(hardcover);ISBN978-0-88208-107-6(softcover).
- Keates, Jonathan,The Siege of Venice.London: Chatto & Windus, 2005.ISBN978-0-70116-637-3
- Madden, Thomas,Venice: A New History.New York: Viking, 2012.ISBN978-0-670-02542-8.
- McCarthy, Mary,Venice Observed(1956), Harvest/HBJ, 1963 edition:ISBN0-15-693521-X
- Morris, Jan(1993),Venice.3rd revised edition. Faber & Faber,ISBN978-0-571-16897-2.
- Ruskin, John (1853),The Stones of Venice.Abridged edition Links, JG (Ed), Penguin Books, 2001.ISBN978-0-14-139065-9.
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- Sethre, Janet,The Souls of VeniceMcFarland & Company, Inc., 2003.ISBN978-0-7864-1573-1(softcover).
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