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Palace of Versailles

Coordinates:48°48′17″N2°7′13″E/ 48.80472°N 2.12028°E/48.80472; 2.12028
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Palace of Versailles
Château de Versailles(French)
Garden façade and fountains;Hall of Mirrors
Map
Interactive fullscreen map
General information
Architectural styleClassicalismandBaroque
LocationVersailles,France
Coordinates48°48′17″N2°7′13″E/ 48.80472°N 2.12028°E/48.80472; 2.12028
Construction started1661;363 years ago(1661)
OwnerGovernment of France
Website
en.chateauversailles.fr
Official nameChateau and Park of Versailles
CriteriaCultural: i, ii, vi
Reference83
Inscription1979 (3rdSession)
Area1,070 ha
Buffer zone9,467 ha

ThePalace of Versailles(/vɛərˈsaɪ,vɜːrˈsaɪ/vair-SY,vur-SY;[1]French:château de Versailles[ʃɑtod(ə)vɛʁsɑj]ⓘ) is a former royal residence commissioned by KingLouis XIVlocated inVersailles,about 19 kilometers (12 mi) west ofParis,France.

The palace is owned by the government of France and since 1995 has been managed, under the direction of theFrench Ministry of Culture,by thePublic Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles.[2]About 15,000,000 people visit the palace, park, orgardens of Versaillesevery year, making it one of the most popular tourist attractions in the world.[3]

Louis XIIIbuilt a simple hunting lodge on the site of the Palace of Versailles in 1623. With his death came Louis XIV who expanded the château into the beginnings of a palace that went through several changes and phases from 1661 to 1715. It was a favorite residence for both kings, and in 1682, Louis XIV moved the seat of his court and government to Versailles, making the palace thede factocapital of France. This state of affairs was continued by KingsLouis XVandLouis XVI,who primarily made interior alterations to the palace, but in 1789 the royal family and capital of France returned to Paris. For the rest of theFrench Revolution,the Palace of Versailles was largely abandoned and emptied of its contents, and the population of the surrounding city plummeted.

Napoleon,followinghis coronation as Emperor,used theGrand Trianonas a summer residence from 1810 to 1814, but did not use the main palace. Following theBourbon Restoration,when the king was returned to the throne, he resided in Paris and it was not until the 1830s that meaningful repairs were made to the palace. Amuseum of French historywas installed within it, replacing the courtiers apartments of the southern wing.

The palace and park were designated aWorld Heritage SitebyUNESCOin 1979 for its importance as the center of power, art, and science in France during the 17th and 18th centuries.[4]The French Ministry of Culture has placed the palace, its gardens, and some of itssubsidiary structureson itslist of culturally significant monuments.

History

[edit]
Main article:History of the Palace of Versailles
An engraving of Louis XIII's château as it appeared in 1652
Versailles around 1652, engraving byJacques Gomboust[fr]

In 1623,[5][6]Louis XIII,king of France,built ahunting lodgeon a hill in a favorite hunting ground, 19 kilometers (12 mi) west ofParis,[7]and 16 kilometers (10 mi) from his primary residence, theChâteau de Saint-Germain-en-Laye.[8]The site, near a village named Versailles,[a]was a wooded wetland that Louis XIII's court scorned as being generally unworthy of a king;[12]one of his courtiers,François de Bassompierre,wrote that the lodge "would not inspire vanity in even the simplest gentleman".[6][13]From 1631 to 1634, architectPhilibert Le Royreplaced the lodge with achâteaufor Louis XIII,[14][15]who forbade his queen,Anne of Austria,from staying there overnight,[16][17]even when an outbreak ofsmallpoxatSaint-Germain-en-Layein 1641 forced Louis XIII to relocate to Versailles with his three-year-old heir, the futureLouis XIV.[16][18]

When Louis XIII died in 1643, Anne became Louis XIV'sregent,[19]and Louis XIII's château was abandoned for the next decade. She moved the court back to Paris,[20]where Anne and herchief minister,Cardinal Mazarin,continued Louis XIII's unpopular monetary practices. This led tothe Fronde,a series of revolts against royal authority from 1648 to 1653 that masked a struggle between Mazarin and theprinces of the blood,Louis XIV's extended family, for influence over him.[21]In the aftermath of the Fronde, Louis XIV became determined to rule alone.[22][23]Following Mazarin's death in 1661,[24]Louis XIV reformed his government to exclude his mother and the princes of the blood,[23]moved the court back to Saint-Germain-en-Laye,[25]and ordered the expansion of his father's château at Versailles into a palace.[16][26]

Louis XIV had hunted at Versailles in the 1650s,[15][18]but did not take any special interest in Versailles until 1661.[27]On 17 August 1661,[28]Louis XIV was a guest at a sumptuous festival hosted byNicolas Fouquet,theSuperintendent of Finances,at his palatial residence, theChâteau de Vaux-le-Vicomte.[24][29]Louis XIV was impressed by the château and its gardens,[29][30]which were the work ofLouis Le Vau,thecourt architectsince 1654,André Le Nôtre,the royal gardener since 1657, andCharles Le Brun,[15]a painter in royal service since 1647.[31]Vaux-le-Vicomte's scale and opulence led him to imprison Fouquet that September, as he had also built an island fortress and a private army.[29][32]But Louis XIV was also inspired by Vaux-le-Vicomte,[33]and he recruited its authors for his own projects.[34][35]Louis XIV replaced Fouquet withJean-Baptiste Colbert,[23][30]a protégé of Mazarin and enemy of Fouquet,[36]and charged him with managing the corps of artisans in royal employment.[37][38]Colbert acted as the intermediary between them and Louis XIV,[39]who personally directed and inspected the planning and construction of Versailles.[40][41][42]

Construction

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A painting of the Palace and Versailles and its gardens as it appeared in 1668
Versailles in 1668, painted byPierre Patel
A painting of the garden façade built by Louis Le Vau from 1668 to 1670
Le Vau's garden façade around 1675

Work at Versailles was at first concentrated ongardens,[43][44]and through the 1660s, Le Vau only added two detached service wings and a forecourt to the château.[45][46]But in 1668–69,[47][48]as a response to the growth of the gardens,[49]and victory over Spain in theWar of Devolution,[47][48]Louis XIV decided to turn Versailles into a full-scale royal residence.[45][50]He vacillated between replacing or incorporating his father's château, but settled on the latter by the end of the decade,[47][48][51]and from 1668 to 1671,[52]Louis XIII's château was encased on three sides in a feature dubbed theenveloppe.[48][53]This gave the château a new,Italianatefaçade overlooking the gardens, but preserved the courtyard façade,[54][55]resulting in a mix of styles and materials that dismayed Louis XIV[55]and that Colbert described as a "patchwork".[56]Attempts to homogenize the two façades failed, and in 1670 Le Vau died,[57]leaving the post of First Architect to the King vacant for the next seven years.[58]

Le Vau was succeeded at Versailles by his assistant, architectFrançois d'Orbay.[59]Work at the palace during the 1670s focused on its interiors, as the palace was then nearing completion,[54][60]though d'Orbay expanded Le Vau's service wings and connected them to the château,[54]and built a pair of pavilions for government employees in the forecourt.[18][61]In 1670, d'Orbay was tasked by Louis XIV with designing a city, also calledVersailles,[9]to house and service Louis XIV's growing government and court.[57][62]The granting of land to courtiers for the construction oftownhousesthat resembled the palace began in 1671.[57][63]The next year, theFranco-Dutch Warbegan and funding for Versailles was cut until 1674,[64]when Louis XIV had work begun on theAmbassadors' Staircase[fr],a grand staircase for the reception of guests, and demolished the last of the village of Versailles.[65]

Versailles around 1682, engraving byAdam Perelle

Following the end of the Franco-Dutch War with French victory in 1678, Louis XIV appointed as First ArchitectJules Hardouin-Mansart,[25][66]an experienced architect in Louis XIV's confidence,[67]who would benefit from a restored budget and large workforce of former soldiers.[64][68]Mansart began his tenure with the addition from 1678 to 1681 of theHall of Mirrors,[69]a renovation of the courtyard façade of Louis XIII's château,[70]and the expansion of d'Orbay's pavilions to create theMinisters' Wingsin 1678–79.[71]Adjacent to the palace, Hardouin-Mansart built a pair ofstablescalled theGrandeandPetite Écuriesfrom 1679 to 1682[72][73]and theGrand Commun[fr],which housed the palace's servants and general kitchens, from 1682 to 1684.[74]Hardouin-Mansart also added two entirely new wings in Le Vau's Italianate style to house the court,[75]first at the south end of the palace from 1679 to 1681[76]and then at its north end from 1685 to 1689.[18]

War and the resulting diminished funding slowed construction at Versailles for the rest of the 17th century.[64]TheNine Years' War,which began in 1688, stopped work altogether until 1698.[68]Three years later, however, the even more expensiveWar of the Spanish Successionbegan and,[77]combined with poor harvests in 1693–94 and 1709–10,[78][79]plunged France into crisis.[79][80]Louis XIV thus slashed funding and canceled some of the work Hardouin-Mansart had planned in the 1680s, such as the remodeling of the courtyard façade in the Italianate style. Louis XIV and Hardouin-Mansart focused on a permanentpalace chapel,[64][81]the construction of which lasted from 1699 to 1710.[54][82]

A masked ball in theHall of Mirrors(1745) byCharles-Nicolas Cochin

Louis XIV's successors,Louis XVandLouis XVI,largely left Versailles as they inherited it and focused on the palace's interiors. Louis XV's modifications began in the 1730s, with the completion of theSalon d'Hercule,aballroomin the north wing, and the expansion of theking's private apartment,[83][84]which required the demolition of the Ambassadors' Staircase.[40]In 1748, Louis XV began construction of a palace theater, theRoyal Opera of Versaillesat the northernmost end of the palace,[85][86]but completion was delayed until 1770;[86][87]construction was interrupted in the 1740s by theWar of the Austrian Successionand then again in 1756 with the start of theSeven Years' War.[85][87]These wars emptied the royal treasury and thereafter construction was mostly funded byMadame du Barry,Louis XV's favorite mistress. In 1771, Louis XV had the northern Ministers' Wing rebuilt in Neoclassical style byAnge-Jacques Gabriel,his court architect, as it was in the process of falling down. That work was also stopped by financial constraints, and it remained incomplete when Louis XV died in 1774. In 1784, Louis XVI briefly moved the royal family to theChâteau de Saint-Cloudahead of more renovations to the Palace of Versailles, but construction could not begin because of financial difficulty andpolitical crisis.[88]In 1789, theFrench Revolutionswept the royal family and government out of Versailles forever.[54][89]

Role in politics and culture

[edit]
Reception of the Grand Condé at Versailles,painted byJean-Léon Gérôme

The Palace of Versailles was key to Louis XIV's politics, as an expression and concentration ofFrench artandculture,and for the centralization of royal power.[90][91]Louis XIV first used Versailles to promote himself with a series of nighttime festivals in its gardens in 1664, 1668, and 1674,[27]the events of which were disseminated throughout Europe by print and engravings.[92][93]As early as 1669,[47]but especially from 1678,[94]Louis XIV sought to make Versailles his seat of government, and he expanded the palace so as to fit the court within it.[95][96][97]The moving of the court to Versailles did not come until 1682,[97]however, and not officially, as opinion on Versailles was mixed among thenobility of France.[13][98]

By 1687, however, it was evident to all that Versailles was thede factocapital of France,[71][99]and Louis XIV succeeded in attracting the nobility to Versailles to pursue prestige and royal patronage within a strict court etiquette,[91][96][100][b]thus eroding their traditional provincial power bases.[96][97][102]It was at the Palace of Versailles that Louis XIV received theDoge of Genoa,Francesco Maria Imperiale Lercariin 1685,[103]an embassyfrom theAyutthaya Kingdomin 1686,[104]andan embassyfromSafavid Iranin 1715.[105]

Louis XIV died at Versailles on 1 September 1715 and was succeeded by his five-year-old great-grandson,Louis XV,[78][106]then theduke of Anjou,[107]who was moved to theChâteau de Vincennesand then to Paris by Louis XV's regent,Philippe II, Duke of Orléans.[106]Versailles was neglected until 1722,[18]when Philippe II removed the court to Versailles to escape the unpopularity of his regency,[108][109]and when Louis XV began his majority.[110]The 1715 move, however, broke the cultural power of Versailles,[111]and during the reign ofLouis XVI,courtiers spent their leisure in Paris, not Versailles.[18]

The 7-year-oldMozartduring his stay at the palace

During Christmas 1763,Mozart and his family visitedVersailles and dined with the King. The 7-year-oldWolfgang Amadeus Mozartplayed several works during his stay and later dedicated his first two harpsichord sonatas, published in 1764 in Paris, toMadame Victoria,daughter of Louis XV.[112]

In 1783, the palace was the site of the signing of the last two of the three treaties of thePeace of Paris (1783),which ended theAmerican Revolutionary War.On 3 September, British and American delegates, led byBenjamin Franklin,signed theTreaty of Parisat the Hôtel d'York (now 56 Rue Jacob) in Paris, granting the United States independence. On 4 September, Spain and France signed separate treaties with Britain at the Palace of Versailles, formally ending the war.[113]

The King and Queen learned of theStorming of the Bastillein Paris on 14 July 1789, while they were at the palace, and remained isolated there as theRevolutionin Paris spread. The growing anger in Paris led to theWomen's March on Versailleson 5 October 1789. A crowd of several thousand men and women, protesting the high price and scarcity of bread, marched from the markets of Paris to Versailles. They took weapons from the city armory, besieged the palace, and compelled the King and royal family and the members of theNational Constituent Assemblyto return with them to Paris the following day.[114]

As soon as the royal family departed, the palace was closed. In 1792, theNational Convention,the new revolutionary government, ordered the transfer of all the paintings and sculptures from the palace to theLouvre.In 1793, the Convention declared the abolition of the monarchy and ordered all of the royal property in the palace to be sold at auction. The auction took place between 25 August 1793 and 11 August 1794. The furnishings and art of the palace, including the furniture, mirrors, baths, and kitchen equipment, were sold in seventeen thousand lots. All fleurs-de-lys and royal emblems on the buildings were chambered or chiseled off. The empty buildings were turned into a storehouse for furnishings, art and libraries confiscated from the nobility. The empty grand apartments were opened for tours beginning in 1793, and a small museum of French paintings and art school was opened in some of the empty rooms.[115]

By virtue of an order issued by the Versailles district directorate in August 1794, theRoyal Gatewas destroyed, the Cour Royale was cleared and the Cour de Marbre lost its precious floor.[116][117]

19th century – history museum and government venue

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The Lords' Antechamber atGrand Trianon
Banquet for Queen Victoria hosted byNapoleon IIIin theRoyal Opera of Versailles,August 1855 byEugene Lami
Proclamation of theGerman Empire,18 January 1871,1877 byAnton von Werner

WhenNapoleonbecame Emperor of the French in 1804, he considered making Versailles his residence but abandoned the idea because of the cost of the renovation. Prior to his marriage withMarie-Louisein 1810, he had theGrand Trianonrestored and refurnished as a springtime residence for himself and his family, in the style of furnishing that it is seen today.[118]

In 1815, with the final downfall of Napoleon,Louis XVIII,the younger brother of Louis XVI, became king, and considered returning the royal residence to Versailles, where he had been born. He ordered the restoration of the royal apartments, but the task and cost was too great. Louis XVIII had the far end of the south wing of theCour Royaledemolished and rebuilt (1814–1824) to match the Gabriel wing of 1780 opposite, which gave greater uniformity of appearance to the front entrance.[119]Neither he nor his successorCharles Xlived at Versailles.[118]

TheFrench Revolution of 1830brought a new monarch,Louis-Philippeto power, and a new ambition for Versailles. He did not reside at Versailles but began the creation of theMuseum of the History of France,dedicated to "all the glories of France", which had been used to house some members of the royal family. The museum was begun in 1833 and inaugurated on 30 June 1837. Its most famous room is theGalerie des Batailles(Hall of Battles), which lies on most of the length of the second floor of the south wing.[120]The museum project largely came to a halt when Louis Philippe was overthrown in 1848, though the paintings of French heroes and great battles still remain in the south wing.

EmperorNapoleon IIIused the palace on occasion as a stage for grand ceremonies. One of the most lavish was the banquet that he hosted forQueen Victoriain theRoyal Opera of Versailleson 25 August 1855.[121]

During theFranco-Prussian Warof 1870–1871, the palace was occupied by thegeneral staffof the victorious German Army. Parts of the château, including the Hall of Mirrors, were turned into a military hospital. The creation of theGerman Empire,combiningPrussiaand the surrounding German states underWilliam I,was formallyproclaimed in the Hall of Mirrorson 18 January 1871. The Germans remained in the palace until the signing of the armistice in March 1871. In that month, the government of the newThird French Republic,which had departed Paris during the war forToursand thenBordeaux,moved into the palace. TheNational Assemblyheld its meetings in theOpera House.[122]

The uprising of theParis Communein March 1871, prevented the French government, underAdolphe Thiers,from returning immediately to Paris. The military operation which suppressed the Commune at the end of May was directed from Versailles, and the prisoners of the Commune were marched there and put on trial in military courts. In 1875 a second parliamentary body, theFrench Senate,was created and held its meetings for the election of a President of the Republic in a new hall created in 1876 in the south wing of the palace. The French Senate and National Assembly continue to meet in the palace injoint sessionon special occasions, such as the amendment of theConstitution of France.[123]

20th century

[edit]
The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, 28 June 1919byWilliam Orpen

The end of the 19th and the early 20th century saw the beginning of restoration efforts at the palace, first led byPierre de Nolhac,poet and scholar and the first conservator, who began his work in 1892. The conservation and restoration were interrupted by two world wars but have continued until the present day.[124]

The palace returned to the world stage in June 1919, when, after six months of negotiations, theTreaty of Versailles,formally ending the First World War, was signed in theHall of Mirrors.Between 1925 and 1928, the American philanthropist and multi-millionaireJohn D. Rockefeller, Jr.gave $2,166,000, the equivalent of about thirty million dollars today, to restore and refurbish the palace.[125]

More work took place after World War II, with the restoration of theRoyal Opera of Versailles.The theater was reopened in 1957, in the presence of QueenElizabeth IIof the United Kingdom.[126]

In 1978, parts of the palace were heavily damaged in abombing committed by Breton terrorists.[127]

Starting in the 1950s, when the museum of Versailles was under the directorship of Gérald van der Kemp, the objective was to restore the palace to its state – or as close to it as possible – in 1789 when the royal family left the palace. Among the early projects was the repair of the roof over the Hall of Mirrors; the publicity campaign brought international attention to the plight of post-war Versailles and garnered much foreign money including a grant from theRockefeller Foundation.

One of the more costly endeavors for the museum and theFrench Fifth Republichas been to repurchase as much of the original furnishings as possible. Consequently, because furniture with a royal provenance – and especially furniture that was made for Versailles – is a highly sought-after commodity on the international market, the museum has spent considerable funds on retrieving much of the palace's original furnishings.[128]

21st century

[edit]

In 2003, a new restoration initiative – the "Grand Versailles" project – was started, which began with the replanting of the gardens, which had lost over 10,000 trees duringCyclone Lotharon 26 December 1999. One part of the initiative, the restoration of theHall of Mirrors,was completed in 2006.[129]Another major project was the further restoration of the backstage areas of theRoyal Opera of Versaillesin 2007 to 2009.[86]

The Palace of Versailles is currently owned by the French state. Its formal title is thePublic Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles.Since 1995, it has been run as a Public Establishment, with an independent administration and management supervised by theFrench Ministry of Culture.[130]

The grounds of the palace will host the equestrian competition during the2024 Summer Olympics.[131]

Architecture and plan

[edit]
Plan of the main floor (c. 1837,with north to the right), showing theHall of Mirrorsin red, theHall of Battlesin green, theRoyal Chapelin yellow, and theRoyal Operain blue

The Palace of Versailles is a visual history of French architecture from the 1630s to the 1780s. Its earliest portion, thecorps de logis,was built forLouis XIIIin thestyle of his reignwith brick, marble, andslate,[6]which Le Vau surrounded in the 1660s withEnveloppe,an edifice that was inspired byRenaissance-eraItalian villas.[132]WhenJules Hardouin-Mansartmade further expansions to the palace in the 1680s, he used theEnveloppeas the model for his work.[75]Neoclassicaladditions were made to the palace with the remodeling of theMinisters' Wingsin the 1770s, byAnge-Jacques Gabriel,and after theBourbon Restoration.[133]

The palace was largely completed by the death of Louis XIV in 1715. The eastern facing palace has a U-shaped layout, with the corps de logis and symmetrical advancing secondary wings terminating with the Dufour Pavilion on the south and the Gabriel Pavilion to the north, creating an expansivecour d'honneurknown as the Royal Court (Cour Royale). Flanking the Royal Court are two enormous asymmetrical wings that result in a façade of 402 metres (1,319 ft) in length.[134]Covered by around a million square feet (10hectares) of roof, the palace has 2,143 windows, 1,252 chimneys, and 67 staircases.[135]

The palace and its grounds have had a great influence on architecture and horticulture from the mid-17th century to the end of the 18th century. Examples of works influenced by Versailles includeChristopher Wren's work atHampton Court Palace,Berlin Palace,thePalace of La Granja,Stockholm Palace,[136]Ludwigsburg Palace,Karlsruhe Palace,Rastatt Palace,[137]Nymphenburg Palace,Schleissheim Palace,[136][138]andEsterházy Palace.[139]

Royal Apartments

[edit]
Plan of the main floor in the central part of the palace (c. 1742),[140]showing thegrand appartement du roiin dark blue, theappartement du roiin medium blue, thepetit appartement du roiin light blue, thegrand appartement de la reinein yellow, and thepetit appartement de la reinein red

The construction in 1668–1671 ofLouis Le Vau'senveloppearound the outside ofLouis XIII's red brick and white stone château added state apartments for the king and the queen. The addition was known at the time as thechâteau neuf(new château). Thegrands appartements(Grand Apartments, also referred to as the State Apartments[141][142]) include thegrand appartement du roiand thegrand appartement de la reine.They occupied the main or principal floor of thechâteau neuf,with three rooms in each apartment facing the garden to the west and four facing the garden parterres to the north and south, respectively. The private apartments of the king (theappartement du roiand thepetit appartement du roi) and those of the queen (thepetit appartement de la reine) remained in thechâteau vieux(old château). Le Vau's design for the state apartments closely followed Italian models of the day, including the placement of the apartments on the main floor (thepiano nobile,the next floor up from the ground level), a convention the architect borrowed from Italian palace design.[143]

The king's State Apartment consisted of anenfiladeof seven rooms, each dedicated to one of the knownplanetsand their associated titularRoman deity.The queen's apartment formed a parallel enfilade with that of thegrand appartement du roi.After the addition of theHall of Mirrors(1678–1684) the king's apartment was reduced to five rooms (until the reign ofLouis XV,when two more rooms were added) and the queen's to four.

The queen's apartments served as the residence of three queens of France –Maria Theresa of Spain,wife ofLouis XIV,Maria Leszczyńska,wife of Louis XV, andMarie Antoinette,wife ofLouis XVI.Additionally, Louis XIV's granddaughter-in-law,Princess Marie-Adélaïde of Savoy,duchess of Burgundy, wife ofLouis, Duke of Burgundy,occupied these rooms from 1697 (the year of her marriage) to her death in 1712.[c]

Ambassador's Staircase

[edit]
Model of the former Ambassador's Staircase

TheAmbassadors' Staircase[fr](Escalier des Ambassadeurs) was animperial staircasebuilt from 1674 to 1680 byFrançois d'Orbay.Until Louis XV had it demolished in 1752 to create a courtyard for his private apartments,[144]the staircase was the primary entrance into the Palace of Versailles and the royal apartments especially.[145]It was entered from thecourtyardvia avestibulethat, cramped and dark, contrasted greatly with the tall, open space of the staircase – famously lit naturally with askylight– so as to overawe visitors.[146][147]

The staircase and walls of the room that contained it were clad inpolychromemarble andgildedbronze,[148]with decor in the Ionic order.[149]Charles Le Brunpainted the walls and ceiling of the room according to a festive theme to celebrate Louis XIV's victory in theFranco-Dutch War.[150]On the wall immediately above the staircase weretrompe-l'œilpaintings of people from theFour Parts of the Worldlooking into the staircase over a balustrade, a motif repeated on the ceiling fresco.[151][152]There they were joined by allegorical figures for the twelve months of the year and various Classical Greek figures such as theMuses.[153]A marble bust of Louis XIV, sculpted byJean Warinin 1665–66,[154]was placed in anicheabove the first landing of the staircase.[148]

The State Apartments of the King

[edit]
  • Meal at the House of Simon the Pharisee by Veronese in the Salon of Hercules
    Meal at the House of Simon the PhariseebyVeronesein theSalon of Hercules
  • Salon of Abundance
    Salon of Abundance
  • Salon of Venus
    Salon of Venus
  • Salon of Mercury
    Salon of Mercury

The construction of the Hall of Mirrors between 1678 and 1686 coincided with a major alteration to the State Apartments. They were originally intended as his residence, but the King transformed them into galleries for his finest paintings, and venues for his many receptions for courtiers. During the season fromAll-Saints Dayin November untilEaster,these were usually held three times a week, from six to ten in the evening, with various entertainments.[155]

The Salon of Hercules

[edit]

This was originally a chapel. It was rebuilt beginning in 1712 under the supervision of theFirst Architect to the King,Robert de Cotte,to showcase two paintings byPaolo Veronese,Eleazar and RebeccaandMeal at the House of Simon the Pharisee,which was a gift to Louis XIV from theRepublic of Venicein 1664. The painting on the ceiling,The Apotheosis of Hercules,byFrançois Lemoyne,was completed in 1736, and gave the room its name.[155][156]

The Salon of Abundance

[edit]

The Salon of Abundance was the antechamber to the Cabinet of Curios (now the Games Room), which displayed Louis XIV's collection of precious jewels and rare objects. Some of the objects in the collection are depicted inRené-Antoine Houasse's paintingAbundance and Liberality(1683), located on the ceiling over the door opposite the windows.

The Salon of Venus

[edit]

This salon was used for serving light meals during evening receptions. The principal feature in this room isJean Warin's life-size statue of Louis XIV in the costume of a Roman emperor. On the ceiling in a gilded oval frame is another painting by Houasse,Venus subjugating the Gods and Powers(1672–1681).Trompe-l'œilpaintings and sculpture around the ceiling illustrate mythological themes.[157]

The Salon of Mercury

[edit]

The Salon of Mercury was the original State Bedchamber when Louis XIV officially moved the court and government to the palace in 1682. The bed is a replica of the original commissioned by KingLouis-Philippein the 19th century when he turned the palace into a museum. The ceiling paintings by the Flemish artistJean Baptiste de Champaignedepict the godMercuryin his chariot, drawn by a rooster, andAlexander the GreatandPtolemysurrounded by scholars and philosophers. The Automaton Clock was made for the King by the royal clockmaker Antoine Morand in 1706. When it chimes the hour, figures of Louis XIV and Fame descend from a cloud.[158]

The Salon of Mars

[edit]

The Salon of Mars was used by the royal guards until 1782, and was decorated on a military theme with helmets and trophies. It was turned into a concert room between 1684 and 1750, with galleries for musicians on either side. Portraits ofLouis XVand his Queen,Marie Leszczyńska,by the Flemish artistCarle Van Loodecorate the room today.

The Salon of Apollo

[edit]

The Salon of Apollo was the royal throne room under Louis XIV, and was the setting for formal audiences. The eight-foot-high silver throne was melted down in 1689 to help pay the costs of an expensive war, and was replaced by a more modest throne of gilded wood. The central painting on the ceiling, byCharles de la Fosse,depicts the Sun Chariot ofApollo,the King's favorite emblem, pulled by four horses and surrounded by the four seasons.

The Salon of Diana

[edit]

The Salon of Diana was used by Louis XIV as a billiards room, and had galleries from which courtiers could watch him play. The decoration of the walls and ceiling depicts scenes from the life of the goddessDiana.The celebratedbust of Louis XIV by Berninimade during the famous sculptor's visit to France in 1665 is on display here.[159][missing long citation]

Private apartments of the King and Queen

[edit]
  • King's bedchamber
    King's bedchamber
  • Queen's bedchamber
    Queen's bedchamber
  • Gilded cabinet of Marie Antoinette
    Gilded cabinet of Marie Antoinette
  • Billiard Room of Marie Antoinette
    Billiard Room of Marie Antoinette

Private apartments of the King

[edit]
Main articles:Appartement du roiandPetit appartement du roi

The apartments of the King were the heart of the château; they were in the same location as the rooms ofLouis XIII,the creator of the château, on the first floor (second floor US style). They were set aside for the personal use ofLouis XIVin 1683. He and his successorsLouis XVandLouis XVIused these rooms for official functions, such as the ceremoniallever( "waking up" ) and thecoucher( "going to bed" ) of the monarch, which was attended by a crowd of courtiers.

The King's apartment was accessed from the Hall of Mirrors from theOeil de Boeufantechamber or from the Guardroom and theGrand Couvert,the ceremonial room where Louis XIV often took his evening meals, seated alone at a table in front of the fireplace. His spoon, fork, and knife were brought to him in a golden box. The courtiers could watch as he dined.[160]

The King's bedchamber had originally been a Drawing Room before Louis XIV transformed it into his own bedroom in 1701. He died there on 1 September 1715. Both Louis XV and Louis XVI continued to use the bedroom for their official awakening and going to bed. On 6 October 1789, from the balcony of this room Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette, joined by theMarquis de Lafayette,looked down on thehostile crowdin the courtyard, shortly before the King was forced to return to Paris.[160]

The bed of the King is placed beneath a carved relief byNicolas CoustouentitledFrance watching over the sleeping King.The decoration includes several paintings set into the paneling, including a self-portrait ofAntony van Dyck.[160]

Private apartments of The Queen

[edit]
Main article:Petit appartement de la reine

Thepetit appartement de la reineis a suite of rooms that were reserved for the personal use of the queen. Originally arranged for the use of theMaria Theresa of Spain,consort ofLouis XIV,the rooms were later modified for use byMarie Leszczyńskaand finally forMarie Antoinette.The Queen's apartments and the King's Apartments were laid out on the same design, each suite having seven rooms. Both suites had ceilings painted with scenes from mythology; the King's ceilings featured male figures, the Queen's featured females.

Hall of Mirrors

[edit]
The Hall of Mirrors
TheHall of Mirrors
Main article:Hall of Mirrors

TheHall of Mirrorsis along galleryat the westernmost part of the palace that looks out onto the gardens.[161][162]The hall was built from 1678 to 1681 on the site of a terrace Le Vau built between the king and queen's suites.[69][161]The hall is clad in marble and decorated in a modified version of theCorinthian order,with 578 mirrors facing 17 windows and reflecting the light provided by them. The ceiling fresco, painted by Le Brun over the next four years,[163]embellishes the first 18 years of Louis XIV's reign in 30 scenes,[161]17 of which are military victories over the Dutch.[164]The fresco depicts Louis XIV himself alongside Classical figures in the scenes celebrating moments in his reign such as the beginning of personal rule in 1661,[165]breaking from earlier frescoes at Versailles that used allegories derived from Classical and mythological scenes.[163][166]

TheSalon of War[fr]and theSalon of Peace[fr]bookend the Hall of Mirrors on its northern and southern ends respectively.[167][168]The Salon of War, constructed and decorated from 1678 to 1686, celebrates French victories in the Franco-Dutch War with marble panels, gilded bronze trophies of arms, and a stuccobas-reliefof Louis XIV on horsebask riding over his enemies. The Salon of Peace is decorated in the same fashion but according to its eponymous theme.[161]

Royal Chapel

[edit]
Main article:Chapels of Versailles
The interior of the Royal Chapel of Versailles
Interior of theRoyal Chapel

The Royal Chapel of Versailles is located at the southern end of the north wing.[169]The building stands 40-meter (130 ft) high, and measures 42 meters (138 ft) long and 24 meters (79 ft) wide.[170]The chapel is rectangular with a semicircularapse,[171]combining traditional,Gothicroyal Frenchchurch architecturewith theFrench Baroque styleof Versailles.[170][172]The ceiling of the chapel is constituted by an unbroken vault, divided into three frescos byAntoine Coypel,Charles de La Fosse,andJean Jouvenet.[170]The palette of motifs beneath the frescoes glorify the deeds ofLouis IX,and include images ofDavid,Constantine,Charlemagne,and Louis IX,fleur de lis,and Louis XIV'smonogram.[173]The organ of the chapel was built byRobert Clicquotand Julien Tribuot in 1709–1710.

Louis XIV commissioned the chapel, its sixth, from Hardouin-Mansart and Le Brun in 1683–84. It was the last building constructed at Versailles during Louis XIV's reign.[54][170][171]Construction was delayed until 1699, however,[54][170]and it was not completed until 1710.[170]The only major modification to the chapel since its completion was the removal of alanternfrom its roof in 1765. A full restoration of the chapel began in late 2017 and lasted into early 2021.[174]

Royal Opera

[edit]
Main article:Royal Opera of Versailles
  • The Opera towards the Royal Box
    The Opera towards the Royal Box
  • Foyer of the Royal Opera
    Foyer of the Royal Opera
  • The Royal Opera during the celebration of the marriage of Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette (1770)
    The Royal Opera during the celebration of the marriage of Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette (1770)
  • Stage of the Royal Opera
    Stage of the Royal Opera
  • Ceiling of the opera, painted by Louis Jean-Jacques Durameau
    Ceiling of the opera, painted byLouis Jean-Jacques Durameau

The Royal Opera of Versailles was originally commissioned by Louis XIV in 1682 and was to be built at the end of the North Wing with a design by Hardouin-Mansart andCarlo Vigarani.However, due to the expense of the King's continental wars, the project was put aside. The idea was revived byLouis XVwith a new design byAnge-Jacques Gabrielin 1748, but this was also temporarily put aside. The project was revived and rushed ahead for the planned celebration of the marriage of the Dauphin, the futureLouis XVI,andMarie Antoinette.For economy and speed, the new opera was built almost entirely of wood, which also gave it very high quality acoustics. The wood was painted to resemble marble, and the ceiling was decorated with a painting of the Apollo, the god of the arts, preparing crowns for illustrious artists, byLouis Jean-Jacques Durameau.The sculptorAugustin Pajouadded statuary and reliefs to complete the decoration. The new Opera was inaugurated on 16 May 1770, as part of the celebration of the royal wedding.[175]

In October 1789, early in theFrench Revolution,the last banquet for the royal guardsmen was hosted by the King in the opera, before he departed for Paris. Following theFranco-German Warin 1871 and then theParis Communeuntil 1875, the French National Assembly met in the opera, until the proclamation of theFrench Third Republicand the return of the government to Paris.[176]

Museum of the History of France

[edit]
Main article:Musée de l'Histoire de France (Versailles)

Shortly after becoming king in 1830,Louis Philippe Idecided to transform the palace into a museum devoted to "All the Glories of France," with paintings and sculpture depicting famous French victories and heroes. Most of the apartments of the palace were entirely demolished (in the main building, practically all of the apartments were annihilated, with only the apartments of the king and queen remaining almost intact), and turned into a series of several large rooms and galleries: the Coronation Room (whose original volume was left untouched by Louis-Philippe), which displays the celebrated painting of the coronation of Napoleon I byJacques-Louis David;the Hall of Battles; commemorating French victories with large-scale paintings; and the 1830 room, which celebrated Louis-Philippe's own coming to power in theFrench Revolution of 1830.Some paintings were brought from the Louvre, including works depicting events in French history byPhilippe de Champaigne,Pierre Mignard,Laurent de La Hyre,Charles Le Brun,Adam Frans van der Meulen,Nicolas de Largillière,Hyacinthe Rigaud,Jean-Antoine Houdon,Jean-Marc Nattier,Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun,Hubert Robert,Thomas Lawrence,Jacques-Louis David,andAntoine-Jean Gros.Others were commissioned especially for the museum by prominent artists of the early 19th century, includingEugène Delacroix,who paintedSaint Louisat the French victory over the British in theBattle of Taillebourgin 1242. Other painters featured includeHorace VernetandFrançois Gérard.A monumental painting by Vernet features Louis Philippe himself, with his sons, posing in front of the gates of the palace.[177]

The overthrow of Louis Philippe in 1848 put an end to his grand plans for the museum, but the Gallery of Battles is still as it was, and is passed through by many visitors to the royal apartments and grand salons. Another set of rooms on the first floor has been made into galleries on Louis XIV and his court, displaying furniture, paintings, and sculptures. In recent years, eleven rooms on the ground floor between the Chapel and the Opera have been turned into a history of the palace, with audiovisual displays and models.[177]

Estate of Versailles

[edit]
A map of the grounds of the Palace of Versailles around 1700
The palace, park, and gardens of Versailles around 1700, mapped byNicolas de Ferand engraved by Charles Inselin. North is to the right.

The estate of Versailles consists of the palace, thesubsidiary buildingsaround it, andits park[fr]andgardens.As of June 2021, the estate altogether covers an area of 800 hectares (8.0 km2;2,000 acres),[178]with the park and gardens laid out to the south, west, and north of the palace.[179]The palace is approached from the east by theAvenue de Paris,measuring 17 miles (27 km) from Paris to a gate between theGrandeandPetite Écuries.[180]Beyond these stables is thePlace d'Armes,[181][182]where the Avenue de Paris meets theAvenue de SceauxandAvenue de Saint-Cloud(see map), the three roads that formed the main arteries of the city of Versailles.[46][183]Exactly where the three roads meet is a gate leading into thecour d'honneur,[184]hemmed in by theMinisters' Wings.[181][182]Beyond is theRoyal Gateand the main palace,[182]which wraps around theRoyal[fr][185]and finallyMarble Courts[fr].[186]

The estate was established by Louis XIII as a hunting retreat,[5][187]with a park just to the west of his château.[17]From 1661, Louis XIV expanded the estate until,[188][189]at its greatest extent, the estate was made up by theGrand Parc[fr],a hunting ground of 15,000 hectares (150 km2;37,000 acres),[187][179]and the gardens, called the Petit Parc,[179]which covered 1,700 hectares (17 km2;4,200 acres). A 25-mile (40 km) long, 10-foot (3.0 m) high wall with 24 gateways enclosed the estate.[187]

The landscape of the estate had to be created from the bog that surrounded Louis XIII's château using landscape architecture usually employed in fortress building.[190]The approach to the palace and the gardens were carefully laid out via the moving of earth and construction of terraces.[191][192]The water from the marsh was marshalled into a series of lakes and ponds around Versailles,[193]but these reservoirs were not sufficient for the palace, city, or gardens. Great lengths were taken to supply Versailles with water, such as the damming of the riverBièvreto create aninflowin the 1660s, the construction of anenormous pumping stationat the riverSeinenearMarly-le-Roiin 1681, and an attempt to divert water from the riverEurewitha canalin the later 1680s.[194][195]

Gardens

[edit]
Main article:Gardens of Versailles
Image of a portion of the gardens of Versailles seen from in front of the palace's garden façade
View of the gardens of Versailles, looking northwest from the palace

The gardens of Versailles, as they have existed since the reign of Louis XIV, are the work ofAndré Le Nôtre.Le Nôtre's gardens were preceded by a simple garden laid out in the 1630s by landscape architectsJacques Boyceauand Jacques de Nemours,[196]which he rearranged along an east–west axis that,[197]because of Louis XIV's land purchases and the clearing of woodland,[44][190][179]were expanded literally as far as could be seen.[197]The resulting gardens were a collaboration between Le Nôtre, Le Brun, Colbert, and Louis XIV,[192]marked by rigid order, discipline,[44]and open space, with axial paths,flowerbeds,hedges,and ponds and lakes as motifs.[136]They became the epitome of theFrench formal gardenstyle,[198]and have been very influential and widely imitated or reproduced.[136][179]

Subsidiary structures

[edit]
Main article:Subsidiary structures of the Palace of Versailles
TheVersailles Orangery

The first of the subsidiary structures of the Palace of Versailles was theVersailles Menagerie[fr],[199][200]built by Le Vau between the years 1662 and 1664,[200]at the southern end of the Grand Canal.[199]The apartments, overlooking the pens,[46][201]were renovated by Hardouin-Mansart from 1698 to 1700,[200]but the Menagerie fell into disuse in 1712.[199][d]After a long period of decay, it was demolished in 1801.[200]TheVersailles Orangery,just to the south of the palace,[203]was first built by Le Vau in 1663,[204]originally as part of the general moving of earth to create the Estate.[191]It was also modified by Mansart, who, from 1681 to 1685, totally rebuilt it and doubled its size.[205]

In late 1679,[206]Louis XIV commissioned Mansart to build theChâteau de Marly,[99]a retreat at the edge of Versailles's estate, about 5 miles (8.0 km) from the palace.[207]The château consisted of a primary residential building and twelve pavilions, inPalladian style[208]placed in two rows on either side of the main building.[209]Construction was completed in 1686,[99][210]when Louis XIV spent his first night there.[206]The château was nationalized and sold in 1799,[209]and subsequently demolished and replaced with industrial buildings. These were themselves demolished in 1805,[211]and then in 1811 the estate was purchased by Napoleon.[209][211]On 1 June 2009, the grounds of the Château de Marly were ceded to the Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles.[211]

La Lanterne,is a hunting lodge named after the lantern that topped the nearby Menagerie that was built in 1787 byPhilippe Louis de Noailles,then the palace governor. It has since 1960 been a state residence.[200]

Petit Trianon

[edit]
Main article:Petit Trianon
  • Aerial view of the Petit Trianon and its gardens
    Aerial view of the Petit Trianon and its gardens
  • West façade of the Petit Trianon
    West façade of thePetit Trianon
  • The French Pavilion of the Petit Trianon
    The French Pavilion of the Petit Trianon
  • The Belvedere in the park of the Petit Trianon
    TheBelvederein the park of the Petit Trianon

The Petit Trianon, whose construction from 1762 to 1768[212]led to the advent of the names "Grand" and "Petit Trianon",[213]was constructed for Louis XV and the Madame du Barry in the Neoclassical style by Gabriel.[214][215]The building has apiano nobile,basement, and attic,[212]with five windows on each floor.[213]On becoming king, Louis XVI gave the Petit Trianon to Marie Antoinette, who remodeled it, relaid its gardens in the then-currentEnglishand Oriental styles,[213][216][217]and formed her own court there.[217]

In 1668,[218]Louis XIV purchased and demolished the hamlet of Trianon,[56]near the northern tip of the Grand Canal,[219]and in its place, he commissioned Le Vau to construct a retreat from court,[219][220]remembered as thePorcelain Trianon.Designed and built by Le Vau in 1670,[218][221]it was the first example ofChinoiserie(faux Chinese) architecture in Europe, though it was largely designed in French style.[222][223]The roof was clad not withporcelainbut withdelftware,[218][219][222]and was thus prone to leaks,[224]so in 1687 Louis XIV ordered it demolished.[218]Nevertheless, the Porcelain Trianon was itself influential and copycats were built across Europe.[219][225]

The Grand Trianon

[edit]
Main article:Grand Trianon

To replace the Porcelain Trianon,[224]Louis XIV tasked Hardouin-Mansart with the construction in 1687 of theGrand Trianon,built from marble in three months.[218]The Grand Trianon has a single story, except for its attached service wing,[226][227]which was modified by Hardouin-Mansart in 1705–06.[228]The east façade has a courtyard while the west faces the gardens of the Grand Trianon, and between them aperistyle.[226][228]The interiors are mostly original,[214]and housed Louis XIV, the Madame de Maintenon, Marie Leszczyńska, and Napoleon, who ordered restorations to the building. UnderCharles de Gaulle,the north wing of the Grand Trianon became a residence of the President of France.[226]

The Queen's hamlet and Theater

[edit]
The Queen's Hamlet

Near the Trianons are theFrench pavilion,built by Gabriel in 1750 between the two residences, and theQueen's TheaterandQueen's Hamlet,built by architectRichard Miquein 1780 and from 1783 to 1785 respectively. These were both built at the behest of Marie Antoinette;[229]the theater, hidden in the gardens, indulged her appreciation of opera and is absolutely original,[214]and the hamlet to extend her gardens with rustic amenities.[229][230][231] The building scheme of the Queen's Hamlet includes a farmhouse (the farm was to produce milk and eggs for the queen), a dairy, a dovecote, a boudoir, a barn that burned down during the French Revolution, a mill and a tower in the form of a lighthouse.

Modern political and ceremonial functions

[edit]
See also:Treaty of Versailles (disambiguation)

The palace still serves political functions. Heads of state are regaled in the Hall of Mirrors; the bicameralFrench Parliament—consisting of theSenate(Sénat) and theNational Assembly(Assemblée nationale)—meet in joint session (acongress of the French Parliament) in Versailles[232]torevise or otherwise amendtheFrench Constitution,a tradition that came into effect with the promulgation of the 1875 Constitution.[234]For example, the Parliament met in joint session at Versailles to pass constitutional amendments in June 1999 (for domestic applicability ofInternational Criminal Courtdecisions and for gender equality in candidate lists), in January 2000 (ratifying theTreaty of Amsterdam), and in March 2003 (specifying the "decentralized organization" of the French Republic).[232]

In 2009, PresidentNicolas Sarkozyaddressed theglobal financial crisisbefore a congress in Versailles, the first time that this had been done since 1848, whenLouis Napoleon Bonapartegave an address before theFrench Second Republic.[235][236][237]Following theNovember 2015 Paris attacks,PresidentFrançois Hollandegave a speech before a rarejoint sessionof parliament at the Palace of Versailles.[238]This was the third time since 1848 that a French president addressed a joint session of the French Parliament at Versailles.[239]Thepresident of the National Assemblyhas anofficial apartmentat the Palace of Versailles.[240]In 2023 astate visit by Charles III to Franceincluded a state banquet at the Palace.

[edit]
  • Panoramic view from the city
    Panoramic view from the city
  • Panoramic view from the park
    Panoramic view from the park

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^The name "Versailles", first used in 1038,[9]from the Old French wordversail,[10]comes from the Latin wordvertere;[11]both mean "ploughed field".[10][11]
  2. ^At any given moment during Louis XIV's reign, about 5% of France's nobles were at court in Versailles. Bohanan places the exact number of persons normally present at Versailles as 5,000 nobles and an equal number of commoners,[101]while Blanning gives 1,000 nobles and 4,000 servants.[38]
  3. ^Six kings were born in this room:Philip V of Spain,Louis XV, Louis XVI,Louis XVII,Louis XVIII,andCharles X.
  4. ^The animals of the Menagerie, abandoned after the Revolution, were moved to Paris and became the foundation of the menagerie of theJardin des Plantes,the second-oldest public zoo in the world.[202]

Citations

[edit]
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  2. ^"The Public Establishment".Palace of Versailles.31 October 2016.Retrieved20 December2021.
  3. ^"Palace of Versailles (Château de Versailles)".Explore France.Government of France. 18 June 2021.
  4. ^"Palace and Park of Versailles".UNESCO World Heritage Centre.United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization.Retrieved9 October2021.
  5. ^abSpawforth 2008,p. 2.
  6. ^abcAyers 2004,p. 333.
  7. ^Spawforth 2008,pp. 1–2.
  8. ^Hoog 1996,p. 369.
  9. ^abCity of Versailles: History.
  10. ^abJones 2018,p. 12.
  11. ^abSpawforth 2008,p. 1.
  12. ^Jones 2018,p. 15.
  13. ^abWalton 1986,p. 53.
  14. ^Jones 2018,pp. 15–16.
  15. ^abcBerger 1994,p. 53.
  16. ^abcJones 2018,p. 16.
  17. ^abSpawforth 2008,p. 3.
  18. ^abcdefPalace of Versailles: History.
  19. ^Bohanan 2001,p. 58.
  20. ^Jones 2018,p. 17.
  21. ^Bohanan 2001,pp. 58, 60, 66.
  22. ^Spawforth 2008,p. 26.
  23. ^abcBohanan 2001,p. 66.
  24. ^abBerger 1994,p. 18.
  25. ^abJones 2018,p. 25.
  26. ^Hoog 1996,pp. 369–70.
  27. ^abSpawforth 2008,pp. 4–5.
  28. ^Bonney 2007,p. 223.
  29. ^abcBlanning 2002,p. 33.
  30. ^abJones 2018,p. 19.
  31. ^Palace of Versailles: Charles Le Brun.
  32. ^Berger 1994,pp. 18–19.
  33. ^Walton 1986,p. 41.
  34. ^Blanning 2002,p. 40.
  35. ^Walton 1986,p. 42.
  36. ^Bonney 2007,pp. 208–10.
  37. ^Spawforth 2008,p. 5.
  38. ^abBlanning 2002,p. 36.
  39. ^Berger 1994,p. 20.
  40. ^abSpawforth 2008,p. 9.
  41. ^Walton 1986,p. 35.
  42. ^Berger 1994,p. 25.
  43. ^Walton 1986,pp. 55–63.
  44. ^abcSpawforth 2008,p. 4.
  45. ^abAyers 2004,p. 334.
  46. ^abcBerger 1994,p. 54.
  47. ^abcdSpawforth 2008,p. 6.
  48. ^abcdWalton 1986,p. 67.
  49. ^Walton 1986,pp. 62–63, 69.
  50. ^Berger 1994,p. 61.
  51. ^Berger 1994,pp. 61, 64.
  52. ^Ayers 2004,pp. 334–35.
  53. ^Berger 1994,p. 64.
  54. ^abcdefgHoog 1996,p. 370.
  55. ^abSpawforth 2008,p. 7.
  56. ^abJones 2018,p. 24.
  57. ^abcSpawforth 2008,pp. 7–8.
  58. ^Berger 1994,p. 22.
  59. ^Berger 1985,p. 22.
  60. ^Walton 1986,p. 91.
  61. ^Jones 2018,p. 22.
  62. ^Walton 1986,p. 38.
  63. ^Jones 2018,pp. 27–28.
  64. ^abcdWalton 1986,pp. 50–51.
  65. ^Spawforth 2008,pp. 9, 11.
  66. ^Walton 1986,p. 93.
  67. ^Berger 1994,pp. 86–87, 113.
  68. ^abSpawforth 2008,p. 18.
  69. ^abBerger 1994,p. 115.
  70. ^Jones 2018,p. 35.
  71. ^abPalace of Versailles: Capital.
  72. ^Berger 1994,p. 114.
  73. ^Palace of Versailles: Royal Stables.
  74. ^Palace of Versailles: Grand Commun.
  75. ^abSpawforth 2008,pp. 10–11.
  76. ^Jones 2018,p. 43.
  77. ^Walton 1986,p. 51.
  78. ^abJones 2018,p. 52.
  79. ^abDoyle 2001,p. 190.
  80. ^Walton 1986,pp. 51–52.
  81. ^Spawforth 2008,pp. 17–19.
  82. ^Jones 2018,p. 53.
  83. ^Jones 2018,p. 59–60, 65.
  84. ^Spawforth 2008,pp. 20–21.
  85. ^abSpawforth 2008,p. 21.
  86. ^abcPalace of Versailles: Royal Opera.
  87. ^abJones 2018,p. 61.
  88. ^Spawforth 2008,pp. 21–24.
  89. ^Spawforth 2008,p. 24.
  90. ^Blanning 2002,pp. 33–40.
  91. ^abBohanan 2001,pp. 61–64.
  92. ^Blanning 2002,p. 49.
  93. ^Walton 1986,pp. 57, 59.
  94. ^Jones 2018,p. 26.
  95. ^Bohanan 2001,p. 62.
  96. ^abcJones 2018,p. 42.
  97. ^abcDoyle 2001,p. 173.
  98. ^Spawforth 2008,p. 14.
  99. ^abcSpawforth 2008,p. 15.
  100. ^Blanning 2002,pp. 31–34, 40.
  101. ^Bohanan 2001,pp. 62, 64.
  102. ^Swann 2001,pp. 143, 145.
  103. ^Palace of Versailles: Reception of the Doge of Genoa.
  104. ^Palace of Versailles: Reception of the Ambassador of Siam.
  105. ^Palace of Versailles: Reception of the Ambassadors of Persia.
  106. ^abPalace of Versailles: Death of Louis XIV.
  107. ^Jones 2018,p. 57.
  108. ^Spawforth 2008,p. 20.
  109. ^Jones 2018,p. 58.
  110. ^Swann 2001,p. 201.
  111. ^Doyle 2001,p. 91.
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  115. ^Lacaille 2012,p. 18.
  116. ^Heitzmann, Annick; Didier, Frédéric (2007)."La Grille et la Cour royales".Versalia. Revue de la Société des Amis de Versailles.10:26–43.doi:10.3406/versa.2007.871.Retrieved7 June2023.
  117. ^Maral, Alexandre (24 October 2018).Octobre 1789: Versailles déserté.Retrieved7 June2023.
  118. ^abLacaille 2012,p. 19.
  119. ^Spawforth 2008,p. 244.
  120. ^Hoog 1996,pp. 369–374.
  121. ^"Visit of Queen Victoria, 1855".Palace of Versailles.22 November 2016.
  122. ^Lacaille 2012,p. 12.
  123. ^Lacaille 2012,p. 20.
  124. ^Lacaille 2012,p. 13.
  125. ^Iverson, Jeffrey,France Today,19 July 2014
  126. ^"1957 – XXth century – Over the centuries – Versailles 3d".www.versailles3d.com.
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  128. ^Kemp 1976,p. 135–137
  129. ^Leloup, Michèle (7 September 2006)."Versailles en grande toilette".L'Express(in French). Archived fromthe originalon 15 February 2008.Retrieved4 January2021.
  130. ^Site of the Public Establishment of the Chateau of Versailles (en.chateauversailles.fr)
  131. ^"Château de Versailles".Paris 2024.Retrieved29 July2022.
  132. ^Berger 1985,pp. 23–25.
  133. ^Jones 2018,pp. 61–62, 122.
  134. ^"History of Art".Visual Arts Cork.Retrieved10 August2016.
  135. ^Ayers 2004, also includes 700 rooms. p. 333.
  136. ^abcdUNESCO: Palace and Park of Versailles.
  137. ^Kaufmann 1995,pp. 320–22.
  138. ^Kaufmann 1995,pp. 323–24.
  139. ^Kaufmann 1995,p. 338.
  140. ^Blondel 1752–1756,vol. 4 (1756), book 7, plate 8;Nolhac 1898,p. 49(dates Blondel's plan to c. 1742).
  141. ^Saule & Meyer 2000,p. 18, 22.
  142. ^Michelin Tyre 1989, p. 182.
  143. ^Berger 1985,p. 24–25;Ayers 2004
  144. ^Berger 1985,p. 32.
  145. ^Yerkes 2015,p. 51.
  146. ^Berger 1985,pp. 32–33.
  147. ^Yerkes 2015,pp. 67, 69.
  148. ^abVersailles 3D: 1752.
  149. ^Yerkes 2015,p. 72.
  150. ^Berger 1985,pp. 32–36.
  151. ^Yerkes 2015,pp. 72–73.
  152. ^Berger 1985,p. 36.
  153. ^Berger 1985,pp. 35–36.
  154. ^Berger 1994,p. 7.
  155. ^abSaule 2013,p. 20.
  156. ^Pérouse de Montclos 1991,pp. 262–264.
  157. ^Saule 2013,p. 22.
  158. ^Saule 2013,p. 25.
  159. ^Saule 2013,p. 23.
  160. ^abcSaule 2013,p. 32.
  161. ^abcdPalace of Versailles: Hall of Mirrors.
  162. ^Berger 1985,p. 51.
  163. ^abAyers 2004,p. 337.
  164. ^Blanning 2002,p. 38.
  165. ^Berger 1985,pp. 53–54.
  166. ^Jones 2018,p. 40.
  167. ^Spawforth 2008,p. iii.
  168. ^Jones 2018,pp. 38–39.
  169. ^Ayers 2004,p. 338.
  170. ^abcdefPalace of Versailles: Royal Chapel.
  171. ^abBerger 1994,p. 128.
  172. ^Berger 1994,pp. 128–35.
  173. ^Berger 1994,p. 134.
  174. ^Palace of Versailles: Revitalizing the Royal Chapel.
  175. ^Saule 2013,p. 60.
  176. ^"Palace of Versailles | palace, Versailles, France".Encyclopedia Britannica.Retrieved28 August2017.
  177. ^abSaule 2013,pp. 18–19.
  178. ^Palace of Versailles: Estate.
  179. ^abcdeWalton 1986,p. 29.
  180. ^Walton 1986,pp. 13, 15.
  181. ^abJones 2018,p. 37.
  182. ^abcWalton 1986,p. 18.
  183. ^Spawforth 2008,p. 8.
  184. ^Walton 1986,p. 17.
  185. ^Jones 2018,p. 38.
  186. ^Walton 1986,p. 19.
  187. ^abcJones 2018,p. 44.
  188. ^Hoog 1996,pp. 371–72.
  189. ^Jones 2018,pp. 19–20.
  190. ^abJones 2018,p. 29.
  191. ^abWalton 1986,p. 55.
  192. ^abPalace of Versailles: Gardens.
  193. ^Jones 2018,p. 30.
  194. ^Spawforth 2008,p. 16–17.
  195. ^Jones 2018,p. 30–31.
  196. ^Hoog 1996,pp. 369, 371–72.
  197. ^abPalace of Versailles: André Le Nôtre.
  198. ^Jones 2018,p. 46.
  199. ^abcWalton 1986,p. 33.
  200. ^abcdePalace of Versailles: Ménagerie.
  201. ^Walton 1986,pp. 33, 55.
  202. ^Deligeorges, Gady, Labalette, "Le Jardin des Plantes et le Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle" (2004), p. 58
  203. ^Palace of Versailles: Orangery.
  204. ^Jones 2018,pp. 23–24.
  205. ^Berger 1994,p. 107.
  206. ^abBerger 1994,p. 143.
  207. ^Jones 2018,p. 51.
  208. ^Berger 1994,pp. 143–44.
  209. ^abcBase Mérimée: Domaine national de Marly.
  210. ^Base Mérimée: Château royal de Marly.
  211. ^abcPalace of Versailles: Estate of Marly.
  212. ^abHoog 1996,p. 373.
  213. ^abcPalace of Versailles: Petit Trianon.
  214. ^abcPalace of Versailles: Trianon.
  215. ^Jones 2018,p. 70.
  216. ^Hoog 1996,pp. 373–74.
  217. ^abJones 2018,p. 76.
  218. ^abcdeHoog 1996,p. 372.
  219. ^abcdBerger 1994,p. 68.
  220. ^Baghdiantz-MacCabe 2008,p. 214.
  221. ^Berger 1994,pp. 26, 68.
  222. ^abBaghdiantz-MacCabe 2008,p. 215.
  223. ^Berger 1994,pp. 68, 118.
  224. ^abBerger 1994,p. 118.
  225. ^Baghdiantz-MacCabe 2008,pp. 216, 219.
  226. ^abcPalace of Versailles: Grand Trianon.
  227. ^Berger 1994,pp. 118–19.
  228. ^abBerger 1994,p. 119.
  229. ^abHoog 1996,p. 374.
  230. ^Palace of Versailles: Queen's Hamlet.
  231. ^Jones 2018,pp. 76–79.
  232. ^abWilliam Safran, "France" inPolitics in Europe(M. Donald Hancock et al., CQ Sage: 5th ed. 2012).
  233. ^"Constitution of 1875".Archived fromthe originalon 13 May 2008.Retrieved2 August2008.
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References

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Web sources

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French Ministry of Culture

[edit]
  • "André Le Nôtre".en.chateauversailles.fr.Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. 2 November 2016.Retrieved8 July2021.
  • "Charles Le Brun".en.chateauversailles.fr.Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. 2 November 2016.Retrieved9 July2021.
  • "The Estate".en.chateauversailles.fr.Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. 2 September 2016.Retrieved30 June2021.
  • "The Royal Stables".en.chateauversailles.fr.Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. 17 October 2016.Retrieved17 June2021.
  • "The Estate of Trianon".en.chateauversailles.fr.Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. 17 October 2016.Retrieved7 August2021.
  • "The Grand Trianon".en.chateauversailles.fr.Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. 23 November 2016.Retrieved7 August2021.
  • "The Petit Trianon".en.chateauversailles.fr.Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. 23 November 2016.Retrieved7 August2021.
  • "The Queen's Hamlet".en.chateauversailles.fr.Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. 26 April 2018.Retrieved7 August2021.
  • "The estate of Marly".en.chateauversailles.fr.Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. 17 October 2016.Retrieved26 August2021.
  • "The Gardens".en.chateauversailles.fr.Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. 17 October 2016.Retrieved29 June2021.
  • "The Orangery".en.chateauversailles.fr.Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. 8 December 2016.Retrieved14 August2021.
  • "The Grand Commun".en.chateauversailles.fr.Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. 2 August 2019.Retrieved18 June2021.
  • "The Royal Chapel".en.chateauversailles.fr.Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. 24 October 2018.Retrieved5 September2021.
  • "The Royal Opera".en.chateauversailles.fr.Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. 27 March 2016.Retrieved25 June2021.
  • "The Hall of Mirrors".en.chateauversailles.fr.Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. 27 March 2016.Retrieved17 July2021.
  • "Revitalising the Royal Palace".en.chateauversailles.fr.Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles. 24 October 2018.Retrieved5 September2021.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Mansel, Philip.King of the World: The Life of Louis XIV(2020) chapters 8, 13.
  • Maral, Alexandre (2010). "Chapelle royale". In Gady, Alexandre (ed.).Jules hardouin-Mansart 1646–1708.Paris: Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l'homme. pp. 215–228.ISBN9782735111879.
[edit]
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