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Viking metal

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Viking metal
Stylistic origins
Cultural originsLate 1980s – mid-1990s;Northern Europe
Typical instruments
Derivative formsPagan metal
Regional scenes
Other topics

Viking metalis a subgenre ofheavy metal musiccharacterized by a lyrical and thematic focus onNorse mythology,Norse paganism,and theViking Age.Viking metal is quite diverse as a musical style, to the point where some consider it more a cross-genre term than a genre, but it is typically seen asblack metalwith influences fromNordic folk music.Common traits include a slow-paced and heavyriffingstyle,anthemicchoruses, use of both sung and harsh vocals, a reliance onfolk instrumentation,and often the use of keyboards for atmospheric effect.

Viking metal emerged from black metal during the late 1980s and early 1990s, sharing with black metal anopposition to Christianity,but rejectingSatanismandoccult themesin favor of theVikingsandpaganism.It is similar, in lyrics, sound, and thematic imagery, topagan metal,but pagan metal has a broader mythological focus and uses folk instrumentation more extensively. Most Viking metal bands originate from theNordic countries,and nearly all bands claim that their members descend, directly or indirectly, from Vikings. Many scholars view Viking metal and the related black, pagan, andfolk metalgenres as part of the broadermodern Pagan movements,as well as part of a global movement of renewed interest in, and celebration of, local and regional ethnicities.

Though artists such asLed Zeppelin,Yngwie Malmsteen,Heavy Load,andManowarhad previously dealt with Viking themes,Bathoryfrom Sweden is generally credited with pioneering the style with its albumsBlood Fire Death(1988) andHammerheart(1990), which launched a renewed interest in the Viking Age among heavy metal musicians.Enslaved,from Norway, followed up on this burgeoning Viking trend withHordanes Land(1993) andVikingligr Veldi(1994).Burzum,Emperor,Einherjer,andHelheim,among others, helped further develop the genre in the early and mid-1990s. As early as 1989 with the founding of the German bandFalkenbach,Viking metal began spreading from the Nordic countries to other nations with Viking history or an even broaderGermanicheritage, and has since influenced musicians across the globe. Thedeath metalbandsUnleashed,Amon Amarth,andEnsiferum,which emerged in the early 1990s, also adopted Viking themes, broadening the style from its primarily black metal origin.

Background[edit]

Vikings[edit]

Main article:Vikings
Lofotr ship
A replica longship,Lofotr
Knarr Vindfamne
TheVindfamne,a replicaknarr
Thelongshipandknarrenabled Vikings to embark on far-reaching military and trading expeditions.[1]

Viking metal features theVikingsas its subject matter and for evocative imagery. The Vikings wereNorthern Europeanseafarers and adventurers who, during theMiddle Ages,relied on sailing vessels such aslongships,knerrir,andkarvito explore, raid, pirate, trade, and settle along theNorth Atlantic,Baltic,Mediterranean,Black Sea,andCaspiancoasts andEastern Europeanriver systems.[2]TheViking Ageis generally cited as beginning in 793, when a Viking raid struckLindisfarne,and concluding in 1066, with the death ofHarald Hardradaand theNorman conquest of England.[3]During this two-hundred-year period, theVikings venturedwest as far asIrelandandIcelandin the North Atlantic andGreenlandand what is nowNewfoundlandinNorth America,south as far as theKingdom of Nekor(Morocco),Italy,Sicily,andConstantinoplein the Mediterranean, and southeast as far as what are nowBelarus,Russia,andUkrainein Eastern Europe,Georgiain theCaucasus,andBaghdadin theMiddle East.[4]

The Vikings originated from theNordic countriesand theBaltic states,and consisted mostly ofScandinavians,thoughFinns,Estonians,Curonians,andSámi peoplewent on voyages as well.[5]While otherwise disparate peoples, they shared some commonalities in that they were not considered "civilized" and were not, at first, adherents to Christianity,[6]instead following their indigenousNordicandFinnicreligions.[7]They often adopted Christianity upon settling in an area, intermixing the faith with their ownpagantraditions,[8]and by the end of the Viking Age, allScandinavian kingdoms were Christianizedand what remained of Viking cultures were absorbed intoChristian Europe.[6]

Nordic folk music[edit]

Main article:Nordic folk music

Nordic folk music encompasses traditions fromDenmark,Norway,Sweden,Finland,Icelandand the dependent countriesÅland,Faroe Islands,andGreenland,and nearby regions. Specific instruments vary between countries and regions, but some common instruments include thelur,[9]säckpipa,[9]Hardanger fiddle,[10]keyed fiddle,[11]willow flute,[12]harp,[12]mouth harp,[12]andanimal horns.[13]Common genres in Nordic folk includeballads,herdingmusic, anddance music,genres which trace back to the medieval era.[14]Often, Nordic melodies will contain thephraseC2-B-G.[15]

InSwedish folk music,songs aremonophonic,unemotional, and solemn in character, though working and festive songs might be more lively and rhythmic.[16]Danishsongs melodies tend to lean toward themajor.[15]InIcelandic folk music,therímur,a form of epic poem dating back to the medieval era and Viking Age, is prominent.[17]Faroese music contains dances directly descended from medieval ballad and epic poems, particularly from literature in the Icelandic tradition,[18]and often follows unusualtime signatures.[19]ManyNorwegian folkballads follow a four-stanzastructure known asstev.[20]Stev alternate atrochaic tetrameterwith atrimeter,and lines typically rhyme following anABCB scheme,though stev are not standardized.[20]Finnish folk musictends to be based onKareliantraditions and the meter and thematic material found in theKalevala.These themes include magic, mysticism,shamanism,Viking sea voyages, Christian legends, and ballads and dance songs.[21]The olderrunosong tradition follows meters such as5
4,5
8,or2
4.[21]Under Swedish and German influence, a newer, round-dance tradition based on therunoemerged – therekilaulu– and these usually follow a2
4or4
4time.[21]Sámi musictraditions (music from the Sámi people throughoutFennoscandia) historically were rather insular, exerting little influence on the music surrounding cultures.[22]Sámi music is known forjoiking,improvised singing particular to the performer.[23]These songs are often sung accompanied by a drum.[23]

Black metal[edit]

Main article:Black metal
Attila CsiharofMayhem,a formative band in the second wave of black metal

Black metal is anextremesubgenre of heavy metal music that, mostly in Europe, emerged fromspeed metalandthrash metalin the 1980s. A "first wave" began in the early to mid-1980s, through the work of bands such asVenom,Hellhammer,Celtic Frost,Mercyful Fate,andBathory.[24]The name black metal is taken from the 1982album of the same nameby Venom,[25]while Bathory's 1984self-titled releaseis generally regarded as the first true black metal record.[26]A "second wave" developed in part as a reaction to the burgeoningdeath metalgenre,[27]and in part inspired by theTeutonic thrash metalscene.[28]It was headed by theearly Norwegian black metal scene,through artists such asMayhem,Darkthrone,Burzum,Immortal,Emperor,Satyricon,Thorns,Ulver,andGorgoroth.[29]The early Norwegian scene became infamous for murders, assaults, and numerouschurch arsonscommitted by members of the scene.[30]Black metal lyrical themes are focused onSatanandSatanism,which many first-wave bands used with a tongue-in-cheek approach, contrary to the more serious beliefs and vehementanti-Christian sentimentof many second-wave bands.[31]

Musically, the first wave of bands were just considered to be playing heavier forms of metal – Venom was part of thenew wave of British heavy metal,Celtic Frost was variously described as thrash metal or death metal, andQuorthonof Bathory simply labeled his music "heavy metal".[32]It was not until the second wave that black metal was more clearly defined. A key development during that period was a guitar playing style featuring fast, un-mutedtremolo pickingor "buzz picking",[33]introduced byEuronymousof Mayhem andSnorre Ruch( "Blackthorn" ) of Thorns.[34]Other common traits for guitar playing include a high-pitched ortrebleguitar tone and heavydistortion.[35]Solosanddropped tuningsare rare.[32]Overall, the guitar sound tends to be "thin and brittle" compared to other heavy metal genres, with the idea of "heaviness" conveyed through harshness andtimbraldensity rather than low frequency.[36]Thebass guitartends to be buried under the guitar tones, even non-existent.[37]Drums and even vocals are likewise often mixed low,[36]with these production techniques resulting in a blurred "wash" of sound.[36]Vocals are usually high-pitched and raspy shrieks, screams, and snarls,[38]and rarelygutturalsanddeath growlsare also employed.[39]The use of keyboards is also frequent.[40]

The influence of Scandinavian folk music within Norwegian black metal is apparent in the use by some guitarists belonging to that scene ofdronesandmodalmelodies reminiscent of the folk tradition.[41]Terje BakkenofWindirexplained that ancient Nordic folk is easily integrated into metal idiom due to the "sad atmosphere" the two genres have in common.[41]Production values within black metal are often raw andlo-fidelity.Originally, this was merely because many early second-wave bands lacked the resources to record properly,[35]but the practice was continued by successful bands in order to identify with their genre's underground origins.[42]Though featuring these common traits, black metal spawned diverse musical approaches and subgenres, with some bands taking more experimental andavant-gardedirections.[43]Other bands, such asCradle of FilthandDimmu Borgir,embraced a more commercial sound and production aesthetic instead.[43]

Precursors[edit]

Manowar(seen here in 2009) is an early example of a band that made use of Viking themes.

The use of Viking themes and imagery inhard rockandheavy metal musicpredates the advent of Viking metal. For instance, the lyrics toLed Zeppelin's "Immigrant Song"(1970) and"No Quarter"(1973) feature allusions to Viking voyages, violence, and exploration,[44]the former being inspired by the band's visit toIcelandwhile on tour. The Swedish bandHeavy Loadoften wrote Viking-themed songs, such as the 1978 song "Son of the Northern Light", and Eduardo Rivadavia ofAllMusicclaims that the 1983 song "Stronger than Evil" establishes a case for Heavy Load as the first Viking metal group.[45]Swedishneoclassical metalguitaristYngwie Malmsteensometimes featured themes of hyper-masculinity, heroic warriors, and Vikings; for example, on his 1985 albumMarching Out.[46]The German bandGrave Diggerand American bandManowar,both of which formed in 1980, drew upon Norse myth as envisioned inRichard Wagner'sDer Ring des Nibelungen.[47]Faithful Breath – which wore fur and horned helmet costumes – andTNTalso experimented with Viking themes.[48]Manowar adopted Viking imagery much more heavily than other bands, and became known as the "champions of the furry loincloth"; they met with ridicule even within the metal community, but attracted a cult following.[49]Unlike the later Viking metal bands, Manowar did not bother with the historicity of popular Viking image, and did not in any way identify with the Vikings, religiously or racially.[50]Trafford and Pluskowski explain that "the Manowar version of the Vikings owes as much toConan the Barbarianas it does to history, saga, orEdda:What matters to Manowar is untamed masculinity, and the Vikings are for them merely the archetypal barbarian males. "[50]

Characteristics[edit]

Musical traits[edit]

Govern ofWolfchant.Keyboards are commonly used by Viking metal artists, and are often played at a "swift, galloping pace".

The term "Viking metal" has sometimes been used as a nickname for the 1990s Norwegian black metal scene, which was "noisy, chaotic, and often augmented by sorrowful keyboard melodies".[51]It has also been variously described as a subgenre of black metal, albeit one that abandoned black metal's Satanic imagery,[52]"slow black metal" with influences from Nordic folk music,[53]straddling black metal andfolk metalalmost equally,[54]or running the gamut from "folk to black to death metal".[55]Typically, Viking metal artists rely extensively on keyboards, which are often played at a "swift, galloping pace".[56]These artists often add "local cultural flourishes" such as traditional instruments and ethnic melodies.[56]It is similar to folk metal, and is sometimes categorized as such, but it uses folk instruments less extensively.[57]For vocals, Viking metal incorporates both singing and the typical black metal screams and growls.[58]

Sámi Perttula ofKorpiklaani.Viking metal often uses folk instruments, though not as extensively as the related genre offolk metal.

Overall, Viking metal is hard to define since, apart from certain elements like anthem-like choruses, it is not based entirely on musical features and overlaps with other metal genres, with origins in black and death metal.[59]Some bands, such asUnleashedandAmon Amarth,play death metal, but incorporate Viking themes and thus are labeled as part of the genre.[60]Generally, Viking metal is defined more by its thematic material and imagery than musical qualities. Rather than being a mock-up ofmedieval music,"it is in the band names, album titles, artwork of album covers and, especially, in the song lyrics that Viking themes are so evident."[61]Viking metal, and the closely related stylepagan metal,is more of a term or "etiquette" than a musical style.[62]Since they are defined chiefly by lyrical focus, any musical categorizations of these two styles is controversial.[63]Thus, Viking metal is more of a cross-genre term than a descriptor of a certain sound. Ashby and Schofield write that "The term 'Viking metal' is one of many that falls within a complex web of genres and subgenres, the precise form of which is constantly shifting, as trends and fads emerge and fade."[64]From its origins in black metal, Viking metal "has diversified (at least in aural terms), and now covers a range of styles that run the gamut between black metal and what one might justifiably termclassic rock".[64]

"Shores in Flames" by Bathory
"Shores in Flames" by Bathory, from the albumHammerheart(1990), describes a Viking raid and features the sound of waves and prayerful singing.[65]
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"793 (Slaget Om Lindisfarne)" by Enslaved
"793 (Slaget Om Lindisfarne)" by Enslaved, from the albumEld(1997), features "Viking themes, razor sharp guitars, blastbeat drums, and an ear for orchestration resulting in complex structures, bountiful harmonies and time changes".[66]
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Starting with the albumBlood Fire Death,one of the first definitive Viking metal releases, Bathory incorporated a diverse range of musical elements. While retaining the noise and chaos of previous recordings, the band took a more sorrowful and melodic approach, working in ballads based on Germanic and Norse folklore,shanty-like melodies and folk music elements such asbourdonsounds, Jew's harps, andfifes.[67]Bathory added naturalfound sounds,such as ocean waves, thunder, and wild animal noises, in a style similar to that ofmusique concrète.[65]Instruments were sometimes used to createonomatopoeiceffects such as drum sounds imitating thunder or a sledgehammer.[68]The songs typically featured multi-sectional formal structures, following a pattern of three instrumental sections –introduction,bridge,andfinale– and two vocal sections –stanzaandrefrain.[69]

Enslaved,a formative band in Viking metal, performs primarily a black metal style, but has over time become more progressive.[70]Eduardo Rivadavia described the hallmarks of Enslaved as "Viking themes, razor sharp guitars,blastbeatdrums, and an ear for orchestration resulting in complex structures, bountiful harmonies and time changes. "[66]The band evolved significantly with every album sinceMardraum – Beyond the Within(2000).[71]

The Faroese band Týr has a standard rock band lineup with electric instruments, but makes extensive use of traditional Faroese music in its songs. Faroese ballads typically involve unusual time signatures, most commonly7
4or the alternative rhythms12
8or9
8.In an attempt to replicate these uneven signatures, Týr often places theaccenton the weak beat of thebar.[19]In songs based on old Faroese ballads, Týr usually play in harmonic or melodicminor scaleor else inmixolydian mode.[19]

Influence from sea shanties and popular media[edit]

Mulvany states that "Viking metal... is much less concerned with traditional aural materials like instruments and melodies. Instead, Viking bands limit themselves mainly to the use of Norse mythology as a textual source, which they often augment with stylized shanty-like melodies that are meant to evoke apropos images".[72]He elaborates:

Although the majority of Viking metal bands... limit themselves primarily to textual borrowings, many others can be additionally classified as musically evocative of the Vikings. Unlike folk metal bands drawing from other mythologies, bands using Norse mythology as text have no musical-historical examples to augment their illusion. This has led to the creation of an ahistorical 'Viking music' that is used in tandem with the metal style to conjure up appropriate images.[73]

According to Mulvany, Viking metal draws heavily onsea shantiesand media images ofpiratesand Vikings, an influence evident in two basic forms of the genre. The first type "is largelystepwisein motion with many repeated note figures ", is frequently inminor key,and is primarily sung in unison.[73]The second type uses an "arching ascent-descent structure" and is less dependent on lyrics, making it "more evocative of rolling waves on the open sea".[73]As examples of the first type, Mulvany examined the structures of sea shanties such as "Drunken Sailor",the 1934 and 1996 film soundtrack versions of"Dead Man's Chest",Mario Nascimbene's "Viking" song for the 1958 filmThe Vikings,and the chant from Monty Python's "Spam"sketch, and found similar structures in compositions by Viking and black metal bands such as Einherjer,Mithotyn,Naglfar,and Vargevinter.[74]The second type, that of arching ascent and descent, Mulvany noticed in compositions by Einherjer andBorknagar.[75]

The shanty influence results from stereotyping in which certain aural associations are equated with "images of sailors, sea-borne marauders, and Vikings", and "though rooted in traditional sea shanties, these aural images have been perpetuated through the media of pirate movies and television shows, and they have been extended – by association – to Vikings".[76]Ashby and Schofield agree with Mulvany that musically, Viking metal bands generally are unconnected with a real Viking past, but instead connote a broader sense of the maritime, presuming that "this conflation of maritime contexts is a knowing one, but one nonetheless felt to be somehow evocative."[64]

Keith Fay of the folk metal bandCruachanhas also noted the influence of sea shanties on Viking metal, although disparagingly. In an interview with British magazineTerrorizer,he said that there is "no real defined 'Viking music', so all these Nordic bands use 'sea shanty' type tunes to match their music. A lot of these bands, especially the bigger ones, are called folk metal but they don't really understand what real folk music is; though I know this is not true for all of them."[77]

Thematic and lyrical focus[edit]

Viking metal makes extensive use of Viking iconography, such as thisMjölnirpendant.

Thematically, Viking metal draws extensively on elements of black metal, but the lyrics and imagery are pagan and Norse rather than anti-Christian or Satanic.[58]It combines the exaltation of violence and virility through weapons and battlefields, which is common to many death and black metal bands, with an interest in ancestral roots, particularly a pre-Christian heritage, which is expressed through Viking mythology and imagery of northern landscapes.[78]Some bands such as Sorhin keep the Satanic elements of black metal but musically are influenced by more recent folk tunes.[79]Visuals such as album art, band photos, website design, and merchandise all highlight the dark and violent outlook of Viking metal lyrics and themes.[78]Seascapes and Viking ships are commonly invoked by Viking metal artists. For example, the cover toBlodhemn(1998) by Enslaved, which features the band as Viking warriors with their boat anchored behind them, or the cover toDödsfärd(2003) byMånegarm,which features a stereotypicalViking funeral.[80]The art on albums by Viking metal artists frequently depicts Viking Age archeological finds:Thor's hammersare especially common, but other artifacts such asOseberg posts,runestones,and even theSutton Hoo helmethave appeared (though this last artifact is neither Viking nor from the Viking age).[81][a]Some bands incorporate far more ancient, pre-medieval imagery, such as the Finnish bandMoonsorrow's use of prehistoric rock carvings andmegaliths.[84]Other Finnish bands, such asEnsiferum,Turisas,andKorpiklaani,focus on Sámi traditions andshamanism,further stretching the definition of Viking metal.[85]Not all bands rely on Viking-related visuals or other ancestral images to aid their musical character: for instance, the members of Týr do not wear Viking costumes on stage, and only their folk-influenced music and lyrical themes distinguish them from other heavy metal bands.[86]

While heavy metal throughout its history has referenced the occult, Viking metal bands use a very specific mythology, which informs their textual choices, album imagery, and, frequently, musical compositions.[87]Despite a wholepantheon of Norse godsto choose from, Viking metal bands typically focus onOdin,the god of war, and onThorand his hammer.[56]Alcohol,particularlymead,is also a common lyrical focus.[88]Viking metal bands tend to follow one of two approaches. The first is one of romanticism and escapist ideas, where bands cultivate an image of strength and barbarism and quote passages from various poems andsagas.[89]The second approach emphasizes historical accuracy, typically relying on Norse mythology as the sole focus of lyricism and identity.[89]Many Viking metal bands identify first with local roots – for instance, Moonsorrow with Finland orEinherjerwith Norway – with a wider northern European identity coming second.[84]

Many songs are composed in English, but Viking metal bands often write lyrics in other languages, usually of theNorth Germanicfamily –Norwegian,Old Norse,Swedish,Danishand, less commonly,IcelandicandFaroese– and also inFinnish,which is non-Germanic.[90]Other European languages, such asGerman,Old High German,Latin,Dutch,Sámi languages,orGaulishare sometimes used.[b]Heavy metal fans around the world sometimes learn languages such as Norwegian or Finnish in order to understand the lyrics of their favorite bands and improve their appreciation of the music.[98]Irina-Maria Manea considers this preference to sing in a native language, along with the imagery of album covers, and stage performances which often involve warrior costumes, weapons, and sometimes reenactments, a demonstration of avölkischaspect to Viking metal.[99]Specifically, the thematic focus of Viking metal bands conceptualizes ethnicity as uniform, unchanged history from "time immemorial," which is, state Manea, "precisely in thevölkischframework. "[99]

Paganism and opposition to Christianity[edit]

Burial mounds atGamla Uppsala,the center of religious worship in Sweden until the destruction ofits templein the late 11th century.

The imagery in Viking metal draws upon the material culture created during the Viking Age, but — according to Trafford and Pluskowski — it also "encompasses the broadsemioticsystem favored by many black and death metal bands, not least of all the exultation of violence and hyper-masculinity expressed through weapons and battlefields ".[78]In Viking metal this semiotic system is melded with an interest in ancestral roots, specifically a pre-Christian heritage, "expressed visually through Viking mythology and the aesthetics of northern landscapes".[78]Extreme and obsessive loathing of Christianity had long been the norm for black and death metal bands, but in the 1990s Bathory and many other bands began turning away from Satanism as the primary opposition to Christianity, instead placing their faith in the Vikings and Odin.[100]Many artists claim affiliation to the modern Pagan religion ofHeathenry,treating Christianity as a foreign influence that was forcibly imposed, and therefore as a wrong to be righted.[100]

Some members of the Norwegian black metal scene were motivated to take violent action against this influence – for instance, the church burnings by black metal musiciansVarg Vikernes,Samoth,Faust,andJørn Inge Tunsberg,among others.[101]While most bands or individuals did not go that far, an undercurrent of racism,nationalism,andanti-Semitismcontinues to permeate parts of the black metal scene.[102]Many Viking metal artists, including bands such as Enslaved andEinherjer,simply express interest in Vikings and Norse mythology and entirely reject the Satanic inclination of black metal, writing almost exclusively on Norse themes, without any racist or anti-Semitic undertones.[103]Whereas black metal during the 1990s took a militant and destructive stance toward the status quo, Viking metal looked to the past and took a populist, anti-system approach which eschewed violence.[104]Viking metal is both pre-Christian and post-apocalyptic – it looks to a pre-Christian past and imagines a post-Christian future.[105]While opposition to Christianity drove the formation of Viking metal, some bands that play, or have played, Viking metal, such asSlechtvalk,Drottnar,Vardøger,andHoly Blood,subscribe to Christian beliefs.[106]

David Keevill argues that the explicitly anti-Christian attitude of most Viking metal artists is an anachronistic view of the Viking Age. Keevill explains that "while bands have used [Viking mythology] as the basis for their musical existence... the historical reality of the Viking Age (late 8th century to the 11th century) is a chequered backdrop of a multitude of belief systems and disparate political mechanisms".[107]As an historical example, he cites theraid on Lindisfarnein 793, an event considered the beginning of the Viking Age and celebrated by Enslaved in its song "793 (Slaget Om Lindisfarne)". He contends that this attack was merely an opportunistic raid, not a concerted attack on the growing power of Christianity,[107]and that the terms "heathen" and "pagan" historically did not necessarily mean "anti-Christian", but that the people in question did not fit under a denominational label.[107]Furthermore, Norse religion and Christianity intermingled and influenced each other throughout the era, and Christianity was often imposed through monarchical regimes such asHarald KlakandHarald Bluetoothor conversion movements such as those initiated byAnsgar.Keevill concludes that, "It's not that bands like Amon Amarth shouldn't flout their Norse heritage, the bellicose nature of the ancestors or the kind of practices that would have taken place in far flung tribal societies, it's just that ruling out the presence of an overbearing Christian influence on the Viking Age is incredibly close-minded."[107]

Relationship to pagan metal[edit]

Viking metal has been considered the progenitor of the pagan metal genre, with Bathory'sHammerheartas the first pagan metal recording. Weinstein writes that "it is fitting that pagan metal began with Viking metal, given that the Vikings were Europe's last Pagans, converted slowly and with reluctance to Christianity".[56]Imke von Helden explains some key differences: "[Pagan metal] deals mainly withPagan religionsand lies in a broader context where not only Old Norse mythology is dealt with, but alsoCeltic mythsandhistory,fairy talesand other elements offolklore.Traditional instruments like the violin or flute are used more often in pagan than in Viking metal music. "[59]The idea of incorporating and revering exclusively national or regional myths, stories, and tales first took root in the work of artists such asAdorned Brood,Falkenbach,Black Messiah,Enslaved or Einherjer, but, as a musical phenomenon, has grown far beyond Europe into a global trend in which artists express their affinity with an ethnic heritage.[99]Viking metal, along with pagan and folk metal, forms part of a trend within cultural heritage movements toward wider acceptance of the heritage of ordinary and the everyday life, not just nationally significant and the iconic imagery, and also a trend to explore the outer reaches of heritage, where the definitions of heritage and heritage communities are stretched and contested.[108]

Masculinity[edit]

Kari Rueslåtten,formerly ofStorm,and seen here with The Sirens. Women musicians are not common among Viking metal bands.

The Viking image in popular understanding is that ofhypermasculinity,and thus Viking metal is inherentlypatriarchal.While some bands, such asKivimetsän Druidi,Storm,and Irminsul, have included female members, and female fans comprise a substantial part of Viking metal's audience, it is argued that women are subordinated within the Viking metal scene, and are rarely present in the production of Viking metal music, which can be seen as a form of "nation-building": while women may participate in the nation building process, it is still controlled by men.[105]Within Viking metal, themes of war and masculinity predominate.[63]

Some artists, such as Burzum, link manliness with Norse tradition and gender ideals, and thus see the Viking male as representing traditional masculinity.[109]Most of the Norse references in black metal are heroic, masculine, and militaristic in theme – Mjölnir, Odin, theIron Cross,andberserkersandeinherjar.[110]Conversely,Jesus,though a male figure, is seen in songs such as "Jesu død" by Burzum as cold, dark, and life-extinguishing.[111]Christianity is viewed as stigmatizing and suppressing the natural "dark" sides of men, and so, from the perspective of black metal, true masculinity is achieved through exploring the dark sides of man's nature – warfare and killing.[111]Cultural historian Nina Witoszec found that within Norway, images of nature are often symbolic with cultural affiliation to Norway. Witoszec traces the roots of this ideal toTacitus's German-heathen identity narrative which romanticized the Germanic people as superior through their connection with nature, and whose brutality and belligerence opposed the apathetic and decadent Roman elite.[112]Within black metal, Norse imagery is used to build a view of natural and authentic masculinity to counter the oppressive force of the Judeo-Christian tradition.[113]

History[edit]

Bathory[edit]

The Wild Hunt of OdinbyPeter Nicolai Arbowas used as the cover for Bathory'sBlood Fire Deathalbum, considered the first example of Viking metal.

The roots of Viking metal are generally found in Scandinavian metal, particularly the death and black metal scenes of the late 1980s. Inspired by the Viking themes used by Manowar, some bands identified with the Vikings far more completely than Manowar.[50]At the forefront of this movement stood the Swedish band Bathory. The band's fourth albumBlood Fire Death,released in 1988, includes two early examples of Viking metal – the songs "A Fine Day to Die" and "Blood Fire Death".[114]The cover toBlood Fire Deatheven featuresThe Wild Hunt of Odin,a painting by Norwegian artistPeter Nicolai Arbowhich depicts the Norse god Odin on aWild Hunt.[50]Bathory followed up on this Viking theme in 1990 with the release ofHammerheart,aconcept albumfully devoted to Vikings.[50]Like its predecessor, this album features a Viking-themed painting, this timeThe Funeral of a VikingbySir Frank Dicksee.[50]Following up this release were 1991'sTwilight of the Gods,titled after Wagner'sopera of the same name,andBlood on Ice,recorded in 1988–1989 but released in 1996.[50]Hammerheartis considered a landmark that introduced the metal world to the Viking metal archetype.[115]With this album, Quorthon, the band's founder, inspired a generation of Nordic teens, and seeded a deep anti-Christian sentiment which culminated in the violence and hate crimes committed by members of the Norwegian black metal community in the early 1990s.[115]The artistic choices by Quorthon contain völkisch elements which emphasize a return to heathen Europe rather than a "destructive" Christianity.[99]Quorthon later explained, in the liner notes toBlood on Ice,that his shift to Viking themes was an intentional move away from Satanism:

I came to the personal conclusion that this whole Satanic bit was a fake: a hoax created by another hoax – the Christian church, the very institution they were attempting to attack using Satanic lyrics in the first place. Since I am an avid fan of history, the natural step would be to find something in history that could replace a thing like the dark side of life. And what could be more simple and natural than to pick up on the Viking era? Being Swedish and all, having a personal relation to, and linked by blood to, that era at the same time as it was an internationally infamous moment in history, I sensed that here I might just have something. Especially well suited was it since it was an era that reached its peak just before the Christian circus came around northern Europe and Sweden in the tenth century, establishing itself as the dictatorial way of life and death. And so that Satan and hell type of soup was changed for proud and strong nordsmen, shiny blades of broadswords, dragon ships and party-'til-you-puke type of living up there in the great halls.

— Quorthon, Liner notes ofBlood on Ice[116]

Bathory's Viking metal features Wagnerian-style epics, ostentatious arrangements, choruses, and ambient keyboards.[117]Mulvany notes that Bathory's 1990s work marks the beginning of a Viking-themed trend initially slow, even confusing, in formation.[118]For example, the Austrian black metal bandAbigorincorporated Viking themes and Germanic paganism in "Unleashed Axe-Age", the first track on its 1994 albumNachthymnen,but said it "should not be seen as a part of the upcoming Viking trend".[118]According to Mulvany, "The Viking trend presaged by Abigor was actually taking place around them, and it remains more 'true' to how black metal is often defined than the folk influenced metal that followed. Its folk elements are predominantly textual or musically evocative rather than musically-historically accurate."[119]

Enslaved[edit]

Main article:Enslaved (band)
Ivar BjørnsonofEnslavedat Barge to Hell, December 2012

Enslaved, formed in Norway in 1991,[120]has also been cited as the first truly Viking metal band,[119]with the 1993 EP by the band,Hordanes Land,named as the first true Viking metal release.[121]A review ofEld(1997) noted that "Among the countless bands who were inspired by Bathory's seminal Viking metal, arguably none were as true to its gospel as Norway's Enslaved, whose utmost commitment even extended to donning vintage Norse armor and outfits on-stage".[66]The band's 1994 debut albumVikingligr Veldihad "many melodies being borrowed from ethnic Scandinavianfolk musicto lend additional authenticity to the vicious, fast-paced black metal ".[122]Inspired by Bathory, Enslaved set out to "create Viking metal devoted to retelling Norway's legends and traditions of old – not attacking Christianity by means of its own creation: Satan."[123]Its second albumFrost,also released in 1994, served as "an important release for the extreme music subgenre of Viking metal".[124]Though the previous recordings by Enslaved all featured the same thematic material,Frostwas the first album that Enslaved described as Viking metal.[48]This album also defined the band's lyrical approach.Decibelexplains that onFrost,bassist and vocalist Grutle Kjellson "knew it was time to reclaim the gods and goddesses of his ancestors, especially if it meant his version of things would inevitably clash with the Christianized fairytales so often associated with Nordic myth."[48]

Burzum[edit]

Varg Vikernes,2009

Ideologically, Varg Vikernes's one-man project Burzum helped inspire the Viking metal scene through his strongly held racist, nationalistic, and anti-Judeo-Christianbeliefs, and his longing for a return to paganism.[125]In Trafford and Pluskowski's opinion, Vikernes' beliefs, which had culminated in the burning of several churches, including the twelfth-centuryFantoft Stave ChurchinBergen,reveal the confused nature of ideas about Vikings in the Norwegian black metal scene. They note, "His tastes seem originally not for the unmediated medieval itself as forJ. R. R. Tolkien:he adopted the name 'Count Grishnackh', based upon anorcinThe Lord of the Rings,and named Burzum after a Tolkienian word for 'darkness'. "[126]They postulate that only in retrospect did Vikernes "cloak his actions in an Oðinic garb and claim the motivation of an attempt to restore Norse paganism for his church burning".[103]While in prison, Vikernes released the bookVargsmål,which Trafford and Pluskowski call an echoing of theHávamál,though with "an eye onMein Kampf".[103]According to Trafford and Pluskowski, "proving both that it is not just the early medieval past to which he looks for inspiration, and that he will use any historical weapon at his disposal to offend Norwegian liberal opinion, it is notable that he has recently added the nameQuislingto his own, and is even attempting to claim some sort of kinship tothe wartime collaborator".[103]

Vikernes himself has connected the church burnings to an idea of resurgent Viking paganism. The first such burning, that of Fantoft Church on June 6, 1992, was thought by many to be related to Satanism, since the burning occurred on the sixth day of the week, on day six of the sixth month and was thus a reference to theNumber of the Beast.[127]Vikernes contends that the date June 6 was really picked because the first recorded Viking raid (upon Lindisfarne) occurred, according to Vikernes, on June 6, 793.[128][c]Quorthon acknowledged that nationalist elements had always been present in the Viking metal scene, and, in the early 1990s, these elements hardened into explicit racism and anti-Semitism, particularly among Heathen adherents.[131]By the late 1990s, Viking metal pulled back from theneo-Nazidirection toward which it was headed, once many musicians from the Oslo scene died or were jailed.[131]

Other pioneers[edit]

Ville Sorvali, co-founder of Moonsorrow
Ville Sorvali,co-founder of the Viking metal bandMoonsorrow

Besides Bathory, Enslaved, and Burzum, several other artists are credited as pioneers of the style. The original bassist for Emperor, Håvard Ellefsen, also known asMortiis,was "an indispensable force in the genesis of Norway's epic Viking metal sound."[132]Despite Ellefsen's short tenure in the band, it was his musical interests that catalyzed the band to mix chaotic black metal withsynthesizermelodies based on Norwegian folk music.[132]

Helheimwas another major pioneer in the early scene.[133]Helheim emerged on the scene before other bands such as Einherjer andThyrfing,when even Enslaved was in its infancy.[134]Not only was Helheim one of the first bands to meld black metal with Viking themed-music, but one of the first to include stylistically unconventional instruments such as horns and violins.[134]Robert Müller ofMetal HammerGermanyargues that Viking metal never solidified as a genre, and attributes this toJormundgand,Helheim's 1995 debut album.[121]Jormundgandincluded an ambitious track – "Galder" – but that song was considered incompatible with metal, and audiences, looking for a specific musical style, merged with the pagan metal scene, which had no particular "Viking" identity.[121]

Other highly influential Viking metal bands are Borknagar,[135]Darkwoods My Betrothed,[136]Einherjer,[137]Ensiferum,[138]Moonsorrow,[78]Thyrfing,[139]and Windir.[139]Trafford and Pluskowski regard Einherjer, Moonsorrow, Thyrfing, and Windir as the "most influential" Viking metal bands, with Einherjer's album covers, which include many images of Viking artifacts, giving Einherjer the most Viking feel of all bands except Enslaved.[78]Einherjer's artwork spans the full chronology ofViking art:8th- and 9th-centuryOsebergto 11th- and 12th-centuryUrnes.[140][d]

Amon Amarth and Unleashed[edit]

Johnny Hedlund ofUnleashed,performing at Party.San Metal Open Air, 2013

Amon Amarth and Unleashed's music could be described as death metal, but it incorporates Viking lyrical themes and thus the bands are considered to have broadened the scope of Viking metal. While Norse myths were mostly important for black metal, especially the early 1990s Norwegian scene, as well as for the younger pagan metal genre, bands as the Swedish Unleashed started fitting these myths into death metal even before Amon Amarth appeared.[47]Unleashed set a precedent for many of the coming black metal bands by shying away from the common death metal theme of gore and instead focusing on pre-Christian Swedish heathenism, particularly the Viking Age and old Norse religion.[142]Amon Amarth and Unleashed resist the Viking metal label. Johan Hegg of Amon Amarth stated, "It's weird to label a band after the lyrical content because, in that case,Iron Maidenis a Viking metal band,Black Sabbathis a Viking metal band, Led Zeppelin is a Viking metal band. "[143]Johnny Hedlund of Unleashed maintains that the band has always played and always will play death metal, commenting, "The Viking lyrics you will find on about three to five songs on every Unleashed album from 1991 and on. I don't think that fact alone re-defines our style in some way."[144]

Spread outside the Nordic countries[edit]

Some members of the Viking metal scene believe that it is impossible for someone to be a Viking unless they themselves are of northern European descent.[145]According to Trafford and Pluskowski, the members of practically all Viking metal bands claim Viking ancestry, and after its inception in Scandinavia, Viking metal spread to areas historically settled by Vikings, including England, Russia, andNormandy.[146]Viking metal bands have even formed in the United States and Canada, with their members claiming Viking descent either directly from Scandinavia or through England.[146]The scene also spread to other parts of Northern Europe in areas united by a common Germanic heritage, such as Austria, Germany, and the Netherlands. For instance, the Austrian band Valhalla makes extensive use of Viking iconography, includinghorned helmets.[146]Another Austrian example isAmestigon,which on the cover of its promotional albumRemembering Ancient Originsdepicts a wood carved scene ofSigurdkillingRegin,an image taken from a panel held inHylestad Stave Church.[147]

Shamgar of the Dutch bandSlechtvalk,2008

One of the first non-Nordic Viking metal bands was the German projectFalkenbach.[148]Formed in 1989 and primarily the work of front-manVratyas Vakyas,Falkenbach performs a mixture of black metal and folk music,[149]with lyrics drawing from Western and Northern European mythologies, religions, and folk traditions.[150]The Dutch bandsHeidevolk,Slechtvalk,and Fenris have also been labeled as Viking metal, though Heidevolk's former vocalist Joris Boghtdrincker claims that Heidevolk has never tried to "play the Viking card or the Pan-Germanic card", instead choosing to write about local Dutch history.[151]The Swiss bandEluveitiejokingly calls its music "the new wave of folk metal", which vocalistChrigel Glanzmannexplains was because the "whole folk metal thing was still quite new back then, and the scene and the music press was looking for new labels for that kind of music, so they came up with Forest Metal, Viking Metal, Heathen Metal, Pagan Metal, blah blah blah, and we just felt like it was really really ridiculous."[152]

Catherine Hoad finds the issue of national and racial identity central to Viking metal. For instance, she writes that when Trafford and Pluskowski claim that Manowar could not claim religious or racial identity with the Vikings when the band had a bandleader with the "'less than wholly Scandinavian name ofJoey di Maio', [Trafford and Pluskowski] are approaching a more complex and racially-charged issue than their offhandedness would suggest. "[153]While Viking imagery may be readily appropriated, according to Hoad the definition of a "true" Viking is quite rigid, a rigidity which non-Nordic, and especially non-White, musicians must contend with.[153]As an example, she cites the Brazilian band Viking Throne, which claims legitimacy through European ancestry and historical references to explorations of South America by Nordic countries,[153]and quotes their front-man, Count Nidhogg: "Some people understand perfectly that it doesn't matter where you live, what's really important is your heritage and ancestry. Even living in a South American country as Brazil we all have European blood."[154]Hoad argues that Viking Throne illustrates the cultural importance of claiming Viking ancestry, a culture that operates on largely geographic lines. In contrast to Viking Throne, she cites the band Slechtvalk, which is well known for its brand ofChristianViking metal, but is rarely criticized as inauthentic by the scene.[155][e]Hoad speculates that the European ethnicity of the band is enough to compensate for its otherwise counter-intuitive music.[155]There is also Cygnus, a Viking folk Rock / metal band from Colombia.[158]

Influence on pagan metal[edit]

According to Weinstein, "Viking metal has travelled further than any Viking ship. Self-defined pagan metal bands who describe their music as Viking metal can be found in the United States, Brazil and Uruguay, among other places."[159]The sensationalism of the early Norwegian black metal scene might be responsible for some of this popularity, but Weinstein considers the genre's greatest influence to be "the inspiration it has given to others to explore their own roots".[159]This impact was particularly strong in the Baltic states, where Viking metal influenced the development of a distinct pagan metal scene known as "Baltic war metal".[160]The Lithuanian bandObtest,formed as a black metal band in 1993 withLithuanianlyrics, birthed the war metal scene with the 1997 albumTūkstantmetis.[160]Michael F. Strmiska comments that despite the claim that Scandinavia was home to the last pagans in Europe, within the scene: "A point of particular pride is the knowledge that Lithuania was the last country in all of Europe to officially abandon its native Pagan traditions and convert to Christianity in 1387."[161]Another Baltic band influenced by Viking metal is the Latvian projectSkyforger,which composes its lyrics in theLatvian language.[160]A third example of the influence of Viking metal on pagan metal is thenational socialist black metalbandGravelandfrom Poland, which on its second album,Thousand Swords,released in 1995, featured a variety of folk styles mixed in with the band's black metal sound, and introduced lyrics about Polish history and Slavic gods.[160]Viking metal has also influenced the RussianRodnoveriemovement, particularly the texts of Varg Vikernes, many of which have been translated into Russian.[162]Though some of his readers within Rodnoverie distance themselves from the racism and political statements within Vikernes' work, other followers have embraced racist and National Socialist ideas.[162]Contemporaneous to the rise of Viking metal has been the emergence ofCeltic metalin Ireland, France, and even Germany, a style which sounds essentially like Viking metal, apart from the addition ofharps,but with lyrics celebratingCeltic godsandmyths.[146]

See also[edit]

Notes and references[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^The Sutton Hoo burial site technically is not Viking. It belongs to theEast Angles,and dates to a century before the Viking Age.[82]The site is often misconstrued to be a Viking one.[83]
  2. ^For example, the German projectFalkenbach,in addition to English and Old Norse, has written in German, Old High German, and Latin.[91]The German bandObscurityalso writes lyrics in German.[92]The Dutch bandHeidevolkwrites entirely in Dutch,[93]and Fenris andSlechtvalk,also Dutch projects, have, in addition to English, written in Dutch.[94]Slechtvalk has also recorded a song in Latin.[95]The Finnish bandKorpiklaani,when it recorded under the previous name Shaman, wrote inSami languages,but dropped the use of these languages when it changed its name and style.[96]The Swiss bandEluveitiewrites much of its music inGaulish.[97]
  3. ^The raid actually occurred on June 8, 793, not June 6. The annals of theAnglo-Saxon Chroniclestate that the raid occurred the six days before the ides of June, which were on the 13th, which would place the date at June 8 rather than 6.[129]Vikernes did state, "According to other sources it was the 8th of June..."[130]
  4. ^Specifically, the EPsLeve VikingåndenandFar Far Northuse a Mjölnir pendant,Dragons of the Northdepicts a carved post from theOseberg shipburial, andBlotincludes part of a harness bow in theJelling Style.More complex is the artwork forOdin Owns Ye All,which, in the style of a fire-lit wooden carving, portrays a representation of theone-eyed godand his two watchful ravens, surrounded by ornamentation similar to the tendrils and animals found on theUrnes stave churchcarvings.[141]
  5. ^However, in 2010, an appearance by Slechtvalk was canceled after Enslaved, which was also scheduled for the same show, told the venue that it refused to play with a band with religious or political intentions.[156]Slechtvalk later claimed that this was a misunderstanding on Enslaved's part, and that Enslaved told Slechtvalk that it did not know about the cancellation.[157]

Citations[edit]

  1. ^Couper 2015,p. 34.
  2. ^History staff n.d.;Lovgren 2004
  3. ^History staff n.d.;James 2011;Sjåvik 2010,pp. xxiii, 6
  4. ^History staff n.d.;Jakobsen 2013;Kendrick 2012,pp. 143–388;Lovgren 2004;Peterson 2016,p. 230
  5. ^History staff n.d.;Kasekamp 2010,pp. 21–23
  6. ^abHistory staff n.d.
  7. ^Anttonen 2012,pp. 185–221;Nordberg 2012,pp. 125–126
  8. ^Williams 2011.
  9. ^abLing, Kjellberg & Ronström 2013,pp. 517–518;Norden Folk n.d.
  10. ^Armstrong 2002,p. 359;Norden Folk n.d.
  11. ^Ling 1997,p. 222;Ling, Kjellberg & Ronström 2013,pp. 517–518
  12. ^abcLing, Kjellberg & Ronström 2013,pp. 517–518;Yoell 1974,p. 31
  13. ^Yoell 1974,p. 31.
  14. ^Ling, Kjellberg & Ronström 2013,pp. 516–517;Randel 2003,p. 237
  15. ^abLing 1997,p. 98.
  16. ^Ling, Kjellberg & Ronström 2013,pp. 517.
  17. ^Hopkins 2013a,p. 507;Ling 1997,pp. 91–93
  18. ^Ling 1997,pp. 91, 98.
  19. ^abcPiotrowska 2015,p. 107.
  20. ^abHopkins 2013b,p. 512.
  21. ^abcLeistö 2013,p. 523.
  22. ^Ling, Kjellberg & Ronström 2013,p. 516.
  23. ^abArmstrong 2002,p. 359.
  24. ^Andrew 2015;Kalis 2004
  25. ^Sherry & Aldis 2006,p. 80.
  26. ^Ferrier & n.d.(a).
  27. ^Ekeroth 2009,p. 247.
  28. ^Patterson 2013,p. 59.
  29. ^Campion 2005;Ekeroth 2009,p. 247;Kalis 2004;Lee & Voegtlin 2006
  30. ^Campion 2005;Lee & Voegtlin 2006
  31. ^Hagen 2011,p. 190;Kahn-Harris 2011,p. 220;Kalis 2004;Lee & Voegtlin 2006;Weinstein 2011,p. 42
  32. ^abKalis 2004.
  33. ^Campion 2005;Hagen 2011,p. 184
  34. ^Campion 2005.
  35. ^abKahn-Harris 2007,p. 4.
  36. ^abcHagen 2011,p. 187.
  37. ^Hagen 2011,p. 187;Kalis 2004
  38. ^Hagen 2011,p. 184;Kahn-Harris 2007,p. 4
  39. ^Hagen 2011,p. 184.
  40. ^Hagen 2011,p. 184;Kalis 2004
  41. ^abHagen 2011,p. 185.
  42. ^Dome 2007.
  43. ^abKalis 2004;Lee & Voegtlin 2006
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  45. ^Rivadavia & n.d.(a).
  46. ^Huey & n.d.(a);von Helden 2010,p. 257
  47. ^abHeesch 2010,p. 72.
  48. ^abcadmin 2010.
  49. ^Trafford & Pluskowski 2007,p. 61.
  50. ^abcdefgTrafford & Pluskowski 2007,p. 62.
  51. ^AllMusic staff & n.d.(a).
  52. ^Hagen 2011,pp. 190–191.
  53. ^Jonsson 2011.
  54. ^Dare 2014.
  55. ^Lee 2006.
  56. ^abcdWeinstein 2014,p. 60.
  57. ^Ashby & Schofield 2015,p. 497;Mulvany 2000,pp. 46–47
  58. ^abFreeborn 2010,p. 843.
  59. ^abvon Helden 2010,p. 257.
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  62. ^Manea 2015,pp. 187–188.
  63. ^abManea 2015,p. 188.
  64. ^abcAshby & Schofield 2015,p. 497.
  65. ^abPiotrowska 2015,pp. 104–105.
  66. ^abcRivadavia & n.d.(f).
  67. ^Piotrowska 2015,p. 104.
  68. ^Piotrowska 2015,p. 105.
  69. ^Piotrowska 2015,pp. 105–106.
  70. ^Sharpe-Young 2007,p. 212.
  71. ^Rivadavia & n.d.(g).
  72. ^Mulvany 2000,p. iv.
  73. ^abcMulvany 2000,p. 36.
  74. ^Mulvany 2000,p. 36–42.
  75. ^Mulvany 2000,p. 37–38.
  76. ^Mulvany 2000,p. 39.
  77. ^Sulaiman & Yardley 2010.
  78. ^abcdefTrafford & Pluskowski 2007,p. 65.
  79. ^Mulvany 2000,p. 42.
  80. ^Trafford & Pluskowski 2007,p. 68-69.
  81. ^Trafford & Pluskowski 2007,p. 65, 69.
  82. ^Carver 1998,p. 164.
  83. ^Campbell 2009.
  84. ^abTrafford & Pluskowski 2007,p. 69.
  85. ^Ashby & Schofield 2015,p. 498.
  86. ^Ashby & Schofield 2015,p. 500.
  87. ^Mulvany 2000,pp. 42–43.
  88. ^von Helden 2010,p. 259.
  89. ^abvon Helden 2010,p. 258.
  90. ^von Helden 2010,p. 258;Weinstein 2014,p. 60
  91. ^Bowar 2011;S., Mike
  92. ^Ponton 2010.
  93. ^Ashby & Schofield 2015,p. 502;Zed 2012
  94. ^Ulrika 2014;Slechtvalk 2000
  95. ^Metal Marc et al. 2002.
  96. ^Angelique 2005.
  97. ^Mulch 2014;Weinstein 2014,pp. 66–67
  98. ^Rossi & Jervell 2013.
  99. ^abcdManea 2015,p. 187.
  100. ^abTrafford & Pluskowski 2007,p. 63.
  101. ^Mørk 2011,p. 130;Moynihan & Søderlind 2003,p. 94f, 100;Trafford & Pluskowski 2007,p. 63;Unger 2016b,p. 80
  102. ^Trafford & Pluskowski 2007,p. 64;Unger 2016b,pp. 79–80
  103. ^abcdTrafford & Pluskowski 2007,p. 64.
  104. ^Beyazoğlu 2009,p. 51.
  105. ^abHoad 2013,p. 64.
  106. ^Hoad 2013,p. 67;Moberg 2015,p. 38;Thrashboy 2014;Jonsson 2011
  107. ^abcdKeevill 2012.
  108. ^Ashby & Schofield 2015,p. 504.
  109. ^Mørk 2011,pp. 139–140.
  110. ^Mørk 2011,p. 140;Weinstein 2014,p. 60
  111. ^abMørk 2011,p. 140.
  112. ^Mørk 2011,pp. 140–141.
  113. ^Mørk 2011,p. 144.
  114. ^Rivadavia & n.d.(b).
  115. ^abRivadavia & n.d.(c).
  116. ^Mulvany 2000,p. 30.
  117. ^Rivadavia & n.d.(d).
  118. ^abMulvany 2000,p. 32.
  119. ^abMulvany 2000,p. 33.
  120. ^Huey & n.d.(b).
  121. ^abcMüller 2011,p. 38.
  122. ^Rivadavia & n.d.(e).
  123. ^Rivadavia & n.d.(e);Rivadavia & n.d.(f)
  124. ^Anderson & n.d.(a).
  125. ^Huey & n.d.(c);Unger 2016b,p. 80
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  127. ^Moynihan & Søderlind 2003,pp. 92–93.
  128. ^Mørk 2011,pp. 127–128;Moynihan & Søderlind 2003,pp. 92–93
  129. ^Swanton 1998,p. 57, n. 15.
  130. ^Mørk 2011,pp. 127–128.
  131. ^abTrafford 2013,p. 5.
  132. ^abHuey & n.d.(d).
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  134. ^abLaut.de staff & n.d.(a).
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  143. ^Lach 2014.
  144. ^Krgin 2006.
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  162. ^abAitamurto 2016,p. 54.

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

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