Vipera ammodytes

Vipera ammodytes
Conservation status
Least Concern(IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Reptilia
Order:	Squamata
Suborder:	Serpentes
Family:	Viperidae
Genus:	Vipera
Species:	V. ammodytes
Binomial name
Vipera ammodytes (Linnaeus,1758)
Synonyms
Coluber AmmodytesLinnaeus, 1758 Vipera IllyricaLaurenti,1768 Vipera ammodytes —Sonnini&Latreille,1801 [Vipera(Echidna)]Ammodytes —Merrem,1820 Cobra ammodytes—Fitzinger,1826 [Pelias]Col[uber].ammodytes —F. Boie,1827 Vipera(Rhinechis)Ammodytes — Fitzinger, 1843 V[ipera]. (Vipera)ammodytes —Jan,1863 Vipera ammodytes— Eber, 1863 Vipera ammodytes —Boulenger,1896 [Vipera ammodytes] var.steindachneriF. Werner,1897 Vipera ammodytes[ammodytes] — Boulenger, 1903 Vipera ammodytes ammodytes — Zarevsky, 1915 Teleovipera ammodytes —A.F. Reuss,1927 Vipera ammodytes ammodytes —Mertens&L. Müller,1928 Rhinaspis illyrica litoralis A.F. Reuss, 1935 Rhinaspis illyrica velebitensis A.F. Reuss, 1935 Rhinaspis illyricaf[orma].melanuraA.F. Reuss, 1937 Vipera ammodytes ruffoi Bruno, 1968 Vipera(Rhinaspis)ammodytes ammodytes—Obst,1983 Vipera ammodytes —Golayet al., 1993

Vipera ammodytes,commonly known ashorned viper,long-nosed viper,nose-horned viper,andsand viper,is aspeciesofviperfound in southern Europe, mainly northern Italy, theBalkans,and parts ofAsia Minor.Like all other vipers, it isvenomous.It is reputed to be the most dangerous of the European vipers due to its large size, long fangs (up to 13 mm) and high venom toxicity.Thespecific name,ammodytes,is derived from theGreekwordsammos,meaning "sand", anddutes,meaning "burrower" or "diver", despite its preference for rocky habitats.Fivesubspeciesare currently recognized, including thenominate subspeciesdescribed here.

Description

V. ammodytesgrows to an average total length (snout-tail) of 85 cm (33.5 in), although individuals usually measure less than 75 cm (29.5 in). Maximum length also depends on locality, with northern forms distinctly larger than southern ones. In one field study onGolem Gradisland (inNorth Macedonia), for example, females averaged 35 cm., and males at 37 cm.; the largest captured during the study was a male, at 66 cm. long. This indicates some degree of regional orinsular dwarfism.

The head is covered in small, irregular scales, that are either smooth or only weakly-keeled; a pair of largesupraocular scalesalso extends beyond the posterior margin of the eye. Ten to thirteen small scales surround each eye, and two rows separate the eye from thesupralabials.Thenasal scaleis large, single (rarely divided), and separated from therostralby a singlenasorostral scale.Therostral scaleis wider than it is long.

The most distinctive characteristic is a single "horn" on the snout, just above the rostral scale. It consists of approximately nine to seventeen small scales, arranged in two (occasionally three or four) transverse rows.It grows to a length of about 5 mm (0.20 in) and is actually soft and flexible. In southern subspecies, the horn sits vertically upright, while inV. a. Ammodytesit points diagonally forward.

The body is covered with stronglykeeleddorsal scales,in 21 to 23 rows (rarely 25), at mid-body. The scales bordering theventralsare smooth or weakly-keeled. Males have anywhere from 133 to 161 ventral scales and 27 to 46 pairedsubcaudals,whereas females have anywhere from 135 to 164, and 24 to 38, respectively. Theanal scaleis single.

V. ammodytes

The color pattern is different for males and females. In males, the head has irregular dark brown, dark gray, or black markings. A thick, black stripe runs from behind the eye to behind the angle of the jaw. The tongue is usually black, and the iris has a golden or coppery color. Males have a characteristic dark blotch or V marking on the back of the head that often connects to the dorsal zigzag pattern. The ground color for males varies and includes many different shades of gray, sometimes yellowish or pinkish gray, or yellowish brown. The dorsal zigzag is dark gray or black, the edge of which is sometimes darker. A row of indistinct, dark (occasionally yellowish) spots runs along each side, sometimes joined in a wavy band.

Females have a similar color pattern, except that it is less distinct and contrasting. They usually lack the dark blotch or V-shaped marking (on the back of the head) that the males have. Ground color is variable, and tends more towards browns and bronzes; grayish-brown, reddish-brown, copper, "dirty cream", or brick red. The dorsal zigzag is a shade of brown.

Both sexes have a zigzag dorsal stripe, set against a lighter background. This pattern is often fragmented. The belly color varies, and can be grayish, yellowish-brown, or pinkish and "heavily clouded", or with dark spots. Sometimes, the ventral color is black or bluish gray, with white flecks and inclusions edged in white. The chin is lighter in color than the belly. Underneath, the tip of the tail may be yellow, orange, orange-red, red, or green. Melanism does occur, but is rare. Juvenile color patterns are about the same as the adults.The cinderella snake may be between the rail and a ballast prism, accumulating solar heat in her body.

Common names

The common names that can be found for Vipera ammodytes in English arehorned viper,long-nosed viper, nose-horned viper, sand viper,sand adder, common sand adder, common sand viper,and sand natter.In Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, and Serbia, a common name used for this snake is poskok (поскок), meaning 'jumper'. In Greece, the common name used is ochia (οχιά).

Geographic range

North-eastern Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Kosovo, Macedonia, Greece (includingCyclades), southern Austria, Romania, Bulgaria, Turkey,Georgiaand Syria.

Vipera ammodytesdistribution (includingV. a. transcaucasiana)

Thetype localityis listed as "Oriente".Schwarz(1936) proposed that the type locality be restricted to "Zara" (Zadar,Croatia).

Habitat

The common namesand viperis misleading, as this species does not occur in mostly sandy areas.V. ammodytesprimarily inhabits dry, rocky hillsides with sparse vegetation. Not usually associated with woodlands, but if so it will be found there around the edges and in clearings. Sometimes found in areas of human habitation, such as railway embankments, farmland, and especially vineyards if rubble piles and stone walls are present. May be found above 2000 m at lower latitudes.

Behaviour

This species has no particular preference for its daily activity period. At higher altitudes, it is more active during the day. At lower altitudes, it may be found at any time of the day, becoming increasingly nocturnal as daytime temperatures rise.

Despite its reputation, this species is generally lethargic, not at all aggressive, and tends not to bite without considerable provocation. If surprised, wild specimens may react in a number of different ways. Some remain motionless and hiss loudly, some hiss and then flee, while still others will attempt to bite immediately.

Vipera ammodyteshibernates in the winter for a period of 2 to 6 months depending on environmental conditions.

V. ammodytes

Feeding

Adults generally feed on smallmammalsandbirds,whilst juveniles predominantly eatlizards.Feeding behavior changes and is influenced heavily bypreysize. Larger prey are struck, released, tracked, and swallowed, while smaller prey is swallowed without using the venom apparatus. Occasionally, other snakes are eaten.There are also reports of cannibalism.Arthropods such as large insects and centipedes have regularly been found in the stomach contents of vipers, albeit more frequently in juveniles that eat centipedes likeMediterranean banded centipede.

Reproduction

Before mating, the males of this species will engage in a combat dance, similar toadders.Mating takes place in the spring (April–May), and one to twenty live young are born in late summer or fall (August–October). At birth, juveniles are 14–24 cm (5.5–9.4 in) in total length.This species isovoviviparous.

Venom

This is likely the most dangerous snake to be found in Europe.In some areas it is at least a significant medical risk.

The venom can be quitetoxic[based on tests conducted solely on mice], but varies over time and among different populations.Brown (1973) gives anLD₅₀for mice of 1.2 mg/kgIV,1.5 mg/kgIPand 2.0 mg/kgSC.Novaket al.(1973) give ranges of 0.44–0.82 mg/kg and IV and 0.19–0.64 mg/kg IP.Minton(1974) states 6.6 mg/kg SC.

The venom has bothproteolyticandneurotoxiccomponents and containshemotoxinswith blood coagulant properties, similar to and as powerful as incrotalinevenom. Other properties include anticoagulant effects, hemoconcentration andhemorrhage.Bites promote symptoms typical ofviperidenvenomation, such as pain, swelling and discoloration, all of which may be immediate. There are also reports of dizziness and tingling.The venom is rarely deadly when hospital care is available.

Humans respond rapidly to this venom, as do mice and birds. Lizards are less affected, whileamphibiansmay even survive a bite. European snakes, such asCoronellaandNatrix,are possibly immune.

Vipera ammodytesvenom is used in the production ofantiveninfor the bite of other European vipers and the snake is farmed for this purpose.

Taxonomy

This species was originally described byCarl LinnaeusinSystema Naturaein 1758. Subsequently,George Albert Boulengerdescribed a number of subspecies in the early 20th century that are still mostly recognized today. However, there are many alternative taxonomies.One additional subspecies that may be encountered in literature isV. a. ruffoi(Bruno, 1968),found in the Alpine region of Italy. However, many consider bothV. a. ruffoiandV. a. gregorwalinerito be synonymous withV. a. ammodytes,and considerV. a. transcaucasianato be a separate species.

Subspecies	Taxon author	Common name	Geographic range
V. a. ammodytes	(Linnaeus,1758)	Western sand viper	Austria (Styria,Carinthia), north Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Albania, Kosovo, south-west Romania, north-west Bulgaria
V. a. gregorwallneri	Sochurek,1974		Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, North Macedonia
V. a. meridionalis	Boulenger,1903	Eastern sand viper	Greece (incl.Corfuand other islands),Turkish Thrace
V. a. montandoni	Boulenger, 1904	Transdanubian sand viper	Bulgaria, south Romania
V. a. transcaucasiana	Boulenger, 1913	Transcaucasian sand viper	Georgia, north Turkish Anatolia

Conservation status

This species is listed as strictly protected (Appendix II) under theBerne Convention.

Captivity

This species has often been kept in captivity and bred successfully.It tolerates captivity much better than other European vipers, thriving in most surroundings and usually taking food easily from the start.However, as far as handling is concerned, despite its relatively placid reputation, pinning and necking this snake can be risky, as they are relatively strong and can unexpectedly jerk free from a keeper's grasp. For close examinations, it is therefore advisable to use a clear plastic restraining tube instead.

Further reading

• Biella, H.-J. 1983.Die Sandotter.Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei. A. Ziemsen Verlag. Wittenberg Lutherstadt. 84 pp.
• Bruno, S. 1968.SullaVipera ammodytesin Italia.Memorie del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale, Verona15:289–386.
• Copley, A.; Banerjee, S.; Devi, A. 1973. Studies of snake venom on blood coagulation. Part I: The thromboserpentin (thrombin-like) enzyme in the venoms.Thromb. Res.2:487–508.
• Gulden, J. 1988. Hibernation and breeding ofV. ammodytes ammodytes.Litteratura Serpentium8:168–72.
• Hays, W.S.T.; Conant, Sheila. 2007. Biology and Impacts of Pacific Island Invasive Species. 1. A Worldwide Review of Effects of the Small Indian Mongoose, Herpestes javanicus (Carnivora: Herpestidae).Pacific Science61(1): 3–16.
• Linnaeus, C.1758.Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio Decima, Reformata.Stockholm: L. Salvius. 824 pp. (Coluber ammodytes,pp. 216–217.)
• Nikolsky, A.M.1916.Fauna of Russia and adjacent countries. Volume II: Ophidia.Petrograd: Translation from the Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, 1964, 247 pp.
• Meier, J.; Stocker, K.F. 1991. "Snake venom protein C activators". In: Tu, A., editor.Reptile venoms and Toxins.New York: Marcel Dekker. pp. 265–79.
• Mertens, R.;Wermuth, H. 1960.Die Amphibien und Reptilien Europas.Frankfurt am Main: Verlag Waldemar Kramer. 264 pp.
• McMahon, M. 1990.Vipera ammodytes meridonalisenvenomation.Journal of the Herpetological Association of Africa37:60.
• Petkovic, D.; Javanovic, T.; Micevic, D.; Unkovic-Cvetkovic, N.; Cvetkovic, M. 1979. Action ofVipera ammodytesvenom and its fractionation on the isolated rat heart.Toxicon17:639–644.
• Plettenberg Laing, A. 2020. Observations on the diet of the nose-horned viper (Vipera ammodytes) in Greece.Herpetological Bulletin,153,pp. 37–39.
• Schwarz E.1936.Untersuchungen über Systematik und Verbreitung der europäischen und mediterranen Ottern.In:Die europäischen und mediterranen Ottern und ihre Gifte. Behringwerk-Mitteilungen7:159–362.

External links

• Vipera ammodytesatAmphibians and Reptiles of Europe.Accessed 7 October 2006.
• Vipera ammodytes– nose-horned viperatFaculty of Biology and Geology,"Babes-Bolyai" University, Romania. Accessed 7 October 2006.
• Vipera ammodytesatClub100.Accessed 7 October 2006.
• Vipera ammodytesmating movieatVipersGarden.Accessed 7 October 2006.
• Video footage of three species, incl.V. ammodytes.onYouTubeAccessed 4 November 2006.
• Vipera ammodytesgiving birth in terrarium.pictures provided byTerrarium Morbidum.Accessed 4 June 2009.