Weaving

This article is about textile weaving. For other uses, seeWeaving (disambiguation).

Warp and weft inplain weaving

Asatin weave,common forsilk,in which each warp thread floats over 16 weft threads

A 3/1twill,as used indenim

Weavingis a method oftextileproduction in which two distinct sets ofyarns or threadsare interlaced at right angles to form afabricorcloth.Other methods areknitting,crocheting,felting,andbraiding or plaiting.The longitudinal threads are called thewarpand the lateral threads are theweft,woof, or filling. The method in which these threads are interwoven affects the characteristics of the cloth. Cloth is usually woven on aloom,a device that holds the warp threads in place while filling threads are woven through them. A fabric band that meets this definition of cloth (warp threads with a weft thread winding between) can also be made using other methods, includingtablet weaving,back strap loom,or other techniques that can be done without looms.

The way the warp and filling threads interlace with each other is called the weave. The majority of woven products are created with one of three basic weaves:plain weave,satin weave,ortwill weave.Woven cloth can be plain or classic (in one colour or a simple pattern), or can be woven in decorative or artistic design.

Process and terminology

Main articles:LoomandPower loom

ABangladesh Ansarofficer weaving on duty.

In general, weaving involves using aloomto interlace two sets of threads atright anglesto each other: thewarpwhich runs longitudinally and theweft(olderwoof) that crosses it. (Weftis anOld Englishword meaning "that which is woven"; compareleaveandleft.) One warp thread is called anendand one weft thread is called apick.The warp threads are held taut and inparallelto each other, typically in a loom. There are many types of looms.

Weaving can be summarized as a repetition of these three actions, also called theprimary motions of the loom.

• Shedding: where the warp threads (ends) are separated by raising or lowering heald frames (heddles) to form a clear space, referred to as theshedwhere the pick can pass
• Picking: where the weft or pick is propelled across the loom by hand, an air-jet, a rapier or ashuttle
• Beating-up or battening: where the weft is pushed up against the fell of the cloth by thereed

The warp is divided into two overlapping groups, or lines (most often adjacent threads belonging to the opposite group) that run in two planes, one above another, so the shuttle can be passed between them in a straight motion. Then, the upper group is lowered by the loom mechanism, and the lower group is raised (shedding), allowing the shuttle to pass in the opposite direction, also in a straight motion. Repeating these actions forms a fabric mesh but without beating-up, the final distance between the adjacent wefts would be irregular and far too large.

Thesecondary motions of the loomare the:

• Let off motion: where the warp is let off the warp beam at a regulated speed to make the filling even and of the required design
• Take up motion: takes up the woven fabric in a regulated manner so that the density of filling is maintained

Thetertiary motions of the loomare the stop motions: to stop the loom in the event of a thread break. The two main stop motions are the

• Warp stop motion
• Weft stop motion

The principal parts of a loom are the frame, the warp-beam or weavers beam, the cloth-roll (apron bar), the heddles, and their mounting, thereed.The warp-beam is a wooden or metal cylinder on the back of the loom on which the warp is delivered. The threads of the warp extend in parallel order from the warp-beam to the front of the loom where they are attached to the cloth-roll. Each thread or group of threads of the warp passes through an opening (eye) in a heddle. The warp threads are separated by the heddles into two or more groups, each controlled and automatically drawn up and down by the motion of the heddles. In the case of small patterns the movement of the heddles is controlled by "cams" which move up the heddles by means of a frame called a harness; in larger patterns the heddles are controlled by a dobby mechanism, where the healds are raised according to pegs inserted into a revolving drum. Where a complex design is required, the healds are raised by harness cords attached to a Jacquard machine. Every time the harness (the heddles) moves up or down, an opening (shed) is made between the threads of warp, through which the pick is inserted. Traditionally the weft thread is inserted by a shuttle.

On a conventional loom, continuous weft thread is carried on apirn,in ashuttlethat passes through the shed. A handloom weaver could propel the shuttle by throwing it from side to side with the aid of a picking stick. The "picking" on apower loomis done by rapidly hitting the shuttle from each side using an overpick or underpick mechanism controlled by cams 80–250 times a minute.When a pirn is depleted, it is ejected from the shuttle and replaced with the next pirn held in a battery attached to the loom. Multiple shuttle boxes allow more than one shuttle to be used. Each can carry a different colour which allows banding across the loom.

Weaving pattern cards used by Skye Weavers,Isle of Skye,Scotland

The rapier-type weaving machines do not have shuttles, they propel cut lengths of weft by means of small grippers or rapiers that pick up the filling thread and carry it halfway across the loom where another rapier picks it up and pulls it the rest of the way.Some carry the filling yarns across the loom at rates in excess of 2,000 metres per minute. Manufacturers such asPicanolhave reduced the mechanical adjustments to a minimum, and control all the functions through a computer with agraphical user interface.Other types use compressed air to insert the pick. They are all fast, versatile and quiet.

The warp issizedin a starch mixture for smoother running. The loom warped (loomed or dressed) by passing the sized warp threads through two or moreheddlesattached to harnesses. The power weavers loom is warped by separate workers. Most looms used for industrial purposes have a machine that ties new warps threads to the waste of previously used warps threads, while still on the loom, then an operator rolls the old and new threads back on thewarp beam.The harnesses are controlled by cams, dobbies or a Jacquard head.

A 3/1 twill weave, as used in denim

The raising and lowering sequence of warp threads in various sequences gives rise to many possible weave structures:

• Plain weave:plain, and hopsacks,poplin,taffeta,poult-de-soie,pibionesandgrosgrain
• Twill weave:these are described by weft float followed by warp float, arranged to give diagonal pattern; examples are 2/1 twill, 3/3 twill, or 1/2 twill. These are softer fabrics than plain weaves.
• Satin weave:satinsandsateens
• Complex computer-generated interlacings, such asJacquardfabric
• Pilefabrics:fabrics with a surface of cut threads (apile), such asvelvetsandvelveteens
• Selvagerefers to the fabric's edge, which may be marked with the manufacturer's detail. It is a narrow edge of a woven fabric parallel to its length.
• Thrumsare the remainder yarns for tying on the loom. The portion that is not weavable warp. It is also called loom waste.

Both warp and weft can be visible in the final product. By spacing the warp more closely, it can completely cover the weft that binds it, giving awarp facedtextile such as rep weave.Conversely, if the warp is spread out, the weft can slide down and completely cover the warp, giving aweft facedtextile, such as atapestryor aKilimrug. There are a variety of loom styles for hand weaving and tapestry.

Archaeology

Weaving in ancient Egypt

There are some indications that weaving was already known in thePaleolithicEra, as early as 27,000 years ago. An indistinct textile impression has been found at theDolní Věstonicesite.According to the find, the weavers of the Upper Palaeolithic were manufacturing a variety of cordage types, produced plaited basketry and sophisticated twined and plain woven cloth. The artifacts include imprints in clay and burned remnants of cloth.

The oldest known textiles found in the Americas are remnants of six finely woven textiles and cordage found inGuitarrero Cave,Peru.The weavings, made from plant fibres, are dated between 10,100 and 9080 BCE.

In 2013 a piece of cloth woven from hemp was found in burial F. 7121 at theÇatalhöyüksite,suggested to be from around 7000 BCEFurther finds come from theNeolithiccivilisation preserved in thepile dwellingsin Switzerland.

Another extant fragment from the Neolithic was found inFayum,at a site dated to about 5000 BCE.This fragment is woven at about 12 threads by 9 threads per centimetre in a plain weave.Flaxwas the predominant fibre in Egypt at this time (3600 BCE) and had continued popularity in theNile Valley,thoughwoolbecame the primary fibre used in other cultures around 2000 BCE.

The oldest-known weavings in North America come from theWindover Archaeological SiteinFlorida.Dating from 4900 to 6500 BCE and made from plant fibres, the Windoverhunter-gatherersproduced "finely crafted" twined andplain weavetextiles.Eighty-seven pieces of fabric were found associated with 37 burials. Researchers have identified seven different weaves in the fabric.One kind of fabric had 26 strands per inch (10 strands per centimetre). There were also weaves using two-strand and three-strandwefts.A round bag made fromtwinewas found, as well asmatting.Theyarnwas probably made from palm leaves.Cabbage palm,saw palmettoandscrub palmettoare all common in the area, and would have been so 8,000 years ago.

Evidence of weaving as a commercial household industry in the historical region ofMacedoniahas been found at theOlynthussite. When the city was destroyed byPhilip IIin 348 BCE, artifacts were preserved in the houses. Loomweights were found in many houses, enough to produce cloth to meet the needs of the household, but some of the houses contained more loomweights, enough for commercial production, and one of the houses was adjacent to theagoraand contained three shops where many coins were found. It is probable that such homes were engaged in commercial textile manufacture.

History

Weaving was known in all the great civilisations, but no clear line of causality has been established. Early looms required two people to create the shed and one person to pass through the filling. Early looms wove a fixed length of cloth, but later ones allowed warp to be wound out as the fell progressed. Weaving became simpler when the warp wassized.

Africa

Around the 4th century BCE, the cultivation of cotton and the knowledge of its spinning and weaving inMeroëreached a high level. Export of textiles was one of the main sources of wealth forKush.AksumiteKingEzanaboasted in his inscription that he destroyed large cotton plantations in Meroë during his conquest of the region.

South America

Main articles:Textile arts of indigenous peoples of the AmericasandAndean textiles

An indigenous woman of the Maya Tzutujil culture weaves using a back-strap loom.

Example of weaving characteristic ofAndean civilizations

Natural fiber weaver inNuevo León,Mexico

TheIndigenous people of the Americaswove textiles ofcottonthroughout tropical and subtropical America and in the South AmericanAndesof wool fromcamelids,primarily domesticatedllamasandalpacas.Cotton and the camelids were both domesticated by about 4,000 BCE.American weavers are "credited with independently inventing nearly every non-mechanized technique known today."

In theInca Empireof the Andes, both men and women produced textiles.Women mostly did their weaving usingbackstrap loomsto make small pieces of cloth and vertical frame and single-heddlelooms for larger pieces.Men used upright looms. The Inca elite valuedcumbi,which was a fine tapestry-woven textile produced on upright looms. The elite often offeredcumbias gifts of reciprocity to lords (other elite) in the Empire. In regions under direct control of the Inca, special artisans producedcumbifor the elite. Women who createdcumbiin these regions were calledacllasormamaconasand men were calledcumbicamayos.Andean textile weavings were of practical, symbolic, religious, and ceremonial importance and used as currency, tribute, and as a determinant of social class and rank. Sixteenth-century Spanish colonists were impressed by both the quality and quantity of textiles produced by the Inca Empire.Some of the techniques and designs are still in use in the 21st century.

Whereas European cloth-making generally created ornamentation through "suprastructural" means—by adding embroidery, ribbons, brocade, dyeing, and other elements onto the finished woven textile—pre-Columbian Andean weavers created elaborate cloth by focusing on "structural" designs involving manipulation of the warp and weft of the fabric itself. Andeans used "tapestry techniques; double-, triple- and quadruple-cloth techniques; gauze weaves; warp-patterned weaves; discontinuous warp or scaffold weaves; and plain weaves" among many other techniques, in addition to the suprastructural techniques listed above.

East Asia

A woman weaving.Ukiyo-ewoodblock print byYōshū Chikanobu,1890

The weaving ofsilkfrom silkworm cocoons has been known inChinasince about 3500 BCE. Silk that was intricately woven and dyed, showing a well developed craft, has been found in a Chinese tomb dating back to 2700 BCE.

Silk weaving in China was an intricate process that was very involved. Men and women, usually from the same family, had their own roles in the weaving process. The actual work of weaving was done by both men and women.Women were often weavers since it was a way they could contribute to the household income while staying at home.Women would usually weave simpler designs within the household while men would be in charge of the weaving of more intricate and complex pieces of clothing.The process ofsericultureand weaving emphasized the idea that men and women should work together instead of women being subordinate to men. Weaving became an integral part of Chinese women's social identity. Several rituals and myths were associated with the promotion of silk weaving, especially as a symbol of female power. Weaving contributed to the balance between men and women's economic contributions and had many economic benefits.

There were many paths into the occupation of weaver. Women usually married into the occupation, belonged to a family of weavers and or lived in a location that had ample weather conditions that allowed for the process of silk weaving. Weavers usually belonged to the peasant class.Silk weaving became a specialized job requiring specific technology and equipment that was completed domestically within households.Although most of the silk weaving was done within the confines of the home and family, there were somespecialized workshopsthat hired skilled silk weavers as well. These workshops took care of the weaving process, although the raising of the silkworms and reeling of the silk remained work for peasant families. The silk that was woven in workshops rather than homes were of higher quality, since the workshop could afford to hire the best weavers.These weavers were usually men who operated more complicated looms, such as the wooden draw-loom.This created a competitive market of silk weavers.

The quality and ease of the weaving process depended on the silk that was produced by the silk worms. The easiest silk to work with came from breeds of silk worms that spun theircocoonsso that it could be unwound in one long strand.The reeling, or unwinding of silk worm cocoons is started by placing the cocoons in boiling water in order to break apart the silk filaments as well as kill the silk wormpupae.Women would then find the end of the strands of silk by sticking their hand into the boiling water. Usually this task was done by girls aged eight to twelve, while the more complex jobs were given to older women.They would then create a silk thread, which could vary in thickness and strength from the unwound cocoons.

After the reeling of the silk, the silk would be dyed before the weaving process began. There were many different looms and tools for weaving. For high quality and intricate designs, a woodendraw-loomor pattern loom was used.This loom would require two or three weavers and was usually operated by men. There were also other smaller looms, such as the waist loom, that could be operated by a single woman and were usually used domestically.

Sericultureand silk weaving spread to Korea by 200 BCE, toKhotanby 50 CE, and to Japan by about 300 CE.

The pit-treadle loom may have originated in India though most authorities establish the invention in China.Pedalswere added to operateheddles.By the Middle Ages such devices also appeared inPersia,Sudan, Egypt and possibly the Arabian Peninsula, where "the operator sat with his feet in a pit below a fairly low-slung loom". In 700 CE, horizontal looms and vertical looms could be found in many parts of Asia, Africa and Europe. In Africa, the rich dressed in cotton while the poorer wore wool. By the 12th century it had come to Europe either from theByzantiumorMoorish Spainwhere the mechanism was raised higher above the ground on a more substantial frame.

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  Equipment for unraveling silk cocoons.Khotan
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  Women weaving silk.Kashgar
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  A traditional Vietnamese brocade and silk products weaver using a handloom

Southeast Asia

In thePhilippines,numerous pre-colonial weaving traditions exist among differentethnic groups.They used various plant fibers, mainlyabacáorbanana,but also includingtree cotton,buri palm(locally known asbuntal) and other palms, various grasses (likeamumutingandtikog), andbarkcloth.The oldest evidence of weaving traditions areNeolithicstone tools used for preparing barkcloth found in archeological sites inSagung Caveof southernPalawanandArku CaveofPeñablanca, Cagayan.The latter has been dated to around 1255–605 BCE.

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  Contemporary Philippines weaver demonstrating pineapple-plant fiber and silk cloths being woven in a traditional loom.
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  Pineapple-plant fiber and silk threads being woven in a traditional loom.
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  T'nalakcloth byT'bolidream weavers. Like most indigenous pre-colonial Filipino textiles, they were typically made fromabacáfibers.

Medieval Europe

Weaver,Nürnberg,c. 1425

The predominantfibrein Europe during themedieval periodwaswool,followed bylinenandnettleclothfor the lower classes.Cottonwas introduced toSicilyandSpainin the 9th century. When Sicily was captured by theNormans,they took the technology toNorthern Italyand then the rest of Europe.Silkfabric production was reintroduced towards the end of this period and the more sophisticated silk weaving techniques were applied to the other staples.

The weaver worked at home and marketed his cloth atfairs.Warp-weighted loomswere commonplace in Europe before the introduction of horizontal looms in the 10th and 11th centuries. Weaving became an urban craft and to regulate their trade, craftsmen applied to establish aguild.These initially weremerchant guilds,but developed into separatetrade guildsfor each skill. The cloth merchant who was a member of a city's weavers guild was allowed to sell cloth; he acted as a middleman between the tradesmen weavers and the purchaser. The trade guilds controlled quality and the training needed before an artisan could call himself a weaver.

By the 13th century, an organisational change took place, and a system ofputting outwas introduced. The cloth merchant purchased the wool and provided it to the weaver, who sold his produce back to the merchant. Themerchantcontrolled the rates of pay and economically dominated the cloth industry.The merchants' prosperity is reflected in the wool towns of eastern England;Norwich,Bury St EdmundsandLavenhambeing good examples. Wool was a political issue.The supply of thread has always limited the output of a weaver. About that time, the spindle method of spinning was replaced by the great wheel and soon after the treadle-drivenspinning wheel.The loom remained the same but with the increased volume of thread it could be operated continuously.

The 14th century saw considerable flux in population. The 13th century had been a period of relative peace; Europe became overpopulated. Poor weather led to a series of poor harvests and starvation. There was great loss of life in theHundred Years War.Then in 1346, Europe was struck with theBlack Deathand the population was reduced by up to a half. Arable land was labour-intensive and sufficient workers no longer could be found. Land prices dropped, and land was sold and put to sheep pasture. Traders fromFlorenceandBrugesbought the wool, then sheep-owning landlords started to weave wool outside the jurisdiction of the city and trade guilds. The weavers started by working in their own homes then production was moved into purpose-built buildings. The working hours and the amount of work were regulated. The putting-out system had been replaced by afactory system.

The migration of theHuguenot Weavers,Calvinistsfleeing from religious persecution in mainland Europe, to Britain around the time of1685challenged the English weavers of cotton, woollen and worsted cloth, who subsequently learned the Huguenots' superior techniques.

Colonial United States

Colonial Americarelied heavily onGreat Britainfor manufactured goods of all kinds. British policy was to encourage the production of raw materials in colonies and discourage manufacturing. TheWool Act 1699restricted the export of colonial wool. As a result, many people wove cloth from locally produced fibres. The colonists also used wool,cottonandflax(linen) for weaving, thoughhempcould be made into serviceable canvas and heavy cloth. They could get one cotton crop each year; until the invention of thecotton ginit was a labour-intensive process to separate the seeds from the fibres. Functional tape, bands, straps, and fringe were woven on box and paddle looms.

A plain weave was preferred as the added skill and time required to make more complex weaves kept them from common use. Sometimes designs were woven into the fabric but most were added after weaving using wood block prints or embroidery.

Industrial Revolution

Main article:Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution

By 1892, most cotton weaving was done in similar weaving sheds, powered by steam.

Before theIndustrial Revolution,weaving was a manual craft and wool was the principal staple. In the great wool districts a form of factory system had been introduced but in the uplands weavers worked from home on aputting-out system.The wooden looms of that time might be broad or narrow; broad looms were those too wide for the weaver to pass the shuttle through the shed, so that the weaver needed an expensive assistant (often anapprentice). This ceased to be necessary afterJohn Kayinvented theflying shuttlein 1733. The shuttle and the picking stick sped up the process of weaving.There was thus a shortage of thread or a surplus of weaving capacity. The opening of theBridgewater Canalin June 1761 allowed cotton to be brought into Manchester, an area rich in fast flowing streams that could be used to power machinery. Spinning was the first to be mechanised (spinning jenny,spinning mule), and this led to limitless thread for the weaver.

Edmund Cartwrightfirst proposed building a weaving machine that would function similar to recently developed cotton-spinning mills in 1784, drawing scorn from critics who said the weaving process was too nuanced to automate.He built a factory atDoncasterand obtained a series of patents between 1785 and 1792. In 1788, his brother MajorJohn Cartwightbuilt Revolution Mill atRetford(named for the centenary of theGlorious Revolution). In 1791, he licensed his loom to the Grimshaw brothers ofManchester,but their Knott Mill burnt down the following year (possibly a case of arson). Edmund Cartwight was granted a reward of £10,000 byParliamentfor his efforts in 1809.However, success in power-weaving also required improvements by others, including H. Horrocks ofStockport.Only during the two decades after about 1805, didpower-weavingtake hold. At that time there were 250,000 hand weavers in the UK.Textile manufacture was one of the leading sectors in theBritishIndustrial Revolution,but weaving was a comparatively late sector to be mechanised. The loom became semi-automatic in 1842 with Kenworthy and BulloughsLancashire Loom.The various innovations took weaving from a home-basedartisanactivity (labour-intensive and man-powered) tosteamdrivenfactoriesprocess. A large metal manufacturing industry grew to produce the looms, firms such asHoward & BulloughofAccrington,andTweedales and SmalleyandPlatt Brothers.Most power weaving took place in weaving sheds, in smalltownscirclingGreater Manchesteraway from the cotton spinning area. The earlier combination mills where spinning and weaving took place in adjacent buildings became rarer. Wool andworstedweaving took place inWest Yorkshireand particularBradford,here there were large factories such as Lister's or Drummond's, where all the processes took place.Both men and women with weaving skills emigrated, and took the knowledge to their new homes in New England, to places likePawtucketandLowell.

Woven 'grey cloth' was then sent to the finishers where it was bleached, dyed and printed.Natural dyeswere originally used, withsynthetic dyescoming in the second half of the 19th century. A demand for new dyes followed the discovery ofmauveinein 1856, and its popularity in fashion. Researchers continued to explore the chemical potential ofcoal tarwaste from the growing number ofgas worksin Britain and Europe, creating an entirely new sector in thechemical industry.

The invention inFranceof theJacquard loom,patented in 1804, enabled complicated patterned cloths to be woven, by using punched cards to determine which threads of coloured yarn should appear on the upper side of the cloth. The jacquard allowed individual control of each warp thread, row by row without repeating, so very complex patterns were suddenly feasible. Samples exist showing calligraphy, and woven copies of engravings. Jacquards could be attached to handlooms or powerlooms.

A distinction can be made between the role and lifestyle and status of a handloom weaver, and that of the power loom weaver and craft weaver. The perceived threat of the power loom led to disquiet and industrial unrest. Well known protests movements such as theLudditesand theChartistshad handloom weavers amongst their leaders. In the early 19th-century power weaving became viable. Richard Guest in 1823 made a comparison of the productivity of power and handloom weavers:

A very good Hand Weaver, a man twenty-five or thirty years of age, will weave two pieces of nine-eighths shirting per week, each twenty-four yards long, and containing one hundred and five shoots of weft in an inch, the reed of the cloth being a forty-four, Bolton count, and the warp and weft forty hanks to the pound, A Steam Loom Weaver, fifteen years of age, will in the same time weave seven similar pieces.

He then speculates about the wider economics of using power loom weavers:

Women featured weaving at power looms in 1835.

...it may very safely be said, that the work is done in a Steam Factory containing two hundred Looms, would, if done by hand Weavers, find employment and support for a population of more than two thousand persons.

With the Industrial Revolution came a growth in opportunity for women to work within textile factories. However, in spite of their gender, their work was perceived to have a lower social and economic value than work done by their male counterparts.

Modern day

Weavers of theBauhausworkshop in a photo taken by Lux Feininger.

In the 1920s the weaving workshop of theBauhausdesign school in Germany aimed to raise weaving, previously seen as a craft, to a fine art, and also to investigate the industrial requirements of modern weaving and fabrics.Under the direction ofGunta Stölzl,the workshop experimented with unorthodox materials, including cellophane, fibreglass, and metal.From expressionist tapestries to the development of soundproofing and light-reflective fabric, the workshop's innovative approach instigated a modernist theory of weaving.Former Bauhaus student and teacherAnni Alberspublished the seminal 20th-century textOn Weavingin 1965.Other notables from the Bauhaus weaving workshop includeOtti Berger,Margaretha Reichardt,andBenita Koch-Otte.

In the Bauhaus, the weaving workshop was considered "the women's department", and many women were forced to join against wishes to study another art form.Some weavers, likeHelene Nonné-Schmidtbelieved that women were made to weave because they could only produce work in 2-D. She thought women lacked the spatial imagination and genius men had to work in other mediums.

Hand weaving ofPersian carpetsandkilimshas been an important element of the tribal crafts of many of the subregions of modern dayIran.Examples of carpet types are theLavar Kermancarpet fromKermanand theSeraband rugfromArāk.

Types

Hand loom weavers

Handloom weaving was done by both genders but men outnumbered women partially due to the strength needed to batten.They worked from home sometimes in a well-lit attic room. The women of the house would spin the thread they needed, and attend to finishing. Later women took to weaving, they obtained their thread from thespinning mill,and working asoutworkerson apieceworkcontract. Over time competition from the power looms drove down the piece rate and they existed in increasing poverty.

Power loom weavers

Further information:Queen Street Mill

Power loom workers were usually girls and young women. They had the security of fixed hours, and except in times of hardship, such as in thecotton famine,regular income. They were paid a wage and a piece work bonus. Even when working in a combined mill, weavers stuck together and enjoyed a tight-knit community.The women usually minded the four machines and kept the looms oiled and clean. They were assisted by 'little tenters', children on a fixed wage who ran errands and did small tasks. They learnt the job of the weaver by watching.Often they would behalf timers,carrying a green card which teacher and overlookers would sign to say they had turned up at the mill in the morning and the afternoon at the school.At fourteen or so they come full-time into the mill, and started by sharing looms with an experienced worker where it was important to learn quickly as they would both be on piece work.Serious problems with the loom were left to thetacklerto sort out. He would inevitably be a man, as were usually the overlookers. The mill had its health and safety issues, there was a reason why the women tied their hair back with scarves. Inhaling cotton dust caused lung problems, and the noise was causing total hearing loss. Weavers wouldmee-mawas normal conversation was impossible. Weavers used to 'kiss the shuttle', that is, suck thread through the eye of the shuttle. This left a foul taste in the mouth due to the oil, which was alsocarcinogenic.

Craft weavers

Pedal powered loom used by Skye Weavers, Isle of Skye, Scotland

Arts and Craftswas an international design philosophy that originated in Englandand flourished between 1860 and 1910 (especially the second half of that period), continuing its influence until the 1930s.Instigated by the artist and writerWilliam Morris(1834–1896) during the 1860sand inspired by the writings ofJohn Ruskin(1819–1900), it had its earliest and most complete development in the British Islesbut spread to Europe and North America.It was largely a reaction against mechanisation and the philosophy advocated of traditional craftsmanship using simple forms and often medieval, romantic or folk styles of decoration. Handweaving was highly regarded and taken up as adecorative art.

Indigenous cultures

Native Americans

Main article:Navajo weaving

Weaving a traditionalNavajo rug

Textile weaving, usingcottondyed with pigments, was a dominant craft among pre-colonizationtribes of the American southwest, including variousPueblopeoples, theZuni,and theUtetribes. The first Spaniards to visit the region wrote about seeingNavajo blankets.With the introduction ofNavajo-Churro sheep,the resulting woolen products have become very well known. By the 18th century the Navajo had begun to import yarn with theirfavorite color,Bayeta red. Using an upright loom, the Navajo wove blankets worn as garments and then rugs after the 1880s for trade. Navajo traded for commercial wool, such as Germantown, imported from Pennsylvania.Under the influence of European-American settlers at trading posts, Navajos created new and distinct styles, including "Two Gray Hills" (predominantly black and white, with traditional patterns), "Teec Nos Pos" (colorful, with very extensive patterns), "Ganado" (founded byDon Lorenzo Hubbell), red dominated patterns with black and white, "Crystal" (founded by J. B. Moore), "Oriental" andPersianstyles (almost always with natural dyes), "Wide Ruins," "Chinlee," banded geometric patterns, "Klagetoh," diamond type patterns, "RedMesa"and bold diamond patterns. Many of these patterns exhibit a fourfold symmetry, which is thought to embody traditional ideas about harmony, orhózhó.

Amazon cultures

Among the indigenous people of theAmazon basindensely wovenpalm-bastmosquito netting, or tents, were utilized by thePanoans,Tupinambá,WesternTucano,Yameo, Záparoans, and perhaps by the indigenous peoples of the centralHuallaga Riverbasin (Steward 1963:520). Aguaje palm-bast (Mauritia flexuosa, Mauritia minor, or swamp palm) and the frond spears of the Chambira palm (Astrocaryum chambira,A.munbaca, A.tucuma, also known as Cumare or Tucum) have been used for centuries by theUrarinaof the PeruvianAmazonto make cordage, net-bagshammocks,and to weavefabric.Among theUrarina,the production of woven palm-fiber goods is imbued with varying degrees of an aesthetic attitude, which draws its authentication from referencing the Urarina's primordial past.Urarina mythology attests to the centrality of weaving and its role in engendering Urarina society. The post-diluvialcreation mythaccords women's weaving knowledge a pivotal role in Urarina social reproduction. Even though palm-fiber cloth is regularly removed from circulation throughmortuaryrites, Urarina palm-fiber wealth is neither completelyinalienable,norfungiblesince it is a fundamental medium for the expression of labor and exchange. The circulation of palm-fiber wealth stabilizes a host of social relationships, ranging from marriage and fictivekinship(compadrazco,spiritual compeership) to perpetuating relationships with the deceased.

Computer science

TheNvidiaParallel Thread ExecutionISA derives some terminology (specifically the term Warp to refer to a group of concurrent processing threads) from historical weaving traditions.

Gender politics

Women's work

Further information:Women's work

Weaving is a practice that is typically considered to be "women's work", either part of their employment, cultural practices, or leisure.The categorization of weaving as women's work has bled into many fields, from art history, anthropology, sociology, and even psychology. While claiming that women had not contributed much to civilization's history,Sigmund Freudwrote that "one technique which they may have invented [is] that of plaiting and weaving."

Women's work is often not recorded as a central activity to building Western history and culture.Yet, some anthropologists argue that textile production facilitated societal establishment and growth, therefore women were integral to perpetuating communities.To record their stories, beliefs, and symbols important to their culture, women engaged in weaving,embroidering,or otherfiber practices.These practices have existed for centuries documented through art history, myth, and oral history and are still practiced today.

Reception in the mainstream art world

Weaving is often classified as "craft"alongside other art forms like ceramics, embroidery,basket weaving,and more. Historically, there has been a hierarchy between artists who were considered "craftspeople"and artists who worked in traditional mediums of painting and sculpture.The traditional artists wanted to keep artisans in the minority,so there was little reception for arts that were considered craft.

Photo of weavings exhibited in Anni Albers' retrospective at Tate Modern in 2018.

In 1939, art criticClement Greenbergwrote "Avant-Garde and Kitsch"where he presented his ideas about" high "and" low "art. His definition of" low "art was likely informed by years of theory against decoration and ornamentation, which was correlated with femininity in the early 1900s by critics likeAdolf LoosandKarl Scheffler.Although Greenberg never explicitly says the word "craft", many scholars postulate that this is one of the origins of Western opposition to weaving, and more largely art that is considered craft.

Only recently has the art world begun to recognize weaving as an art form and to exhibit woven articles as art objects. Exhibitions of large scope have been organized to affirm the importance of textiles in the art historical canon, such as theMuseum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles' With Pleasure: Pattern and Decoration in American Art 1972–1985.Women weavers, likeAnni Albers,Lenore Tawney,Magdalena Abakanowicz,Olga de Amaral,andSheila Hicks,are now the subject of exhibitions and major retrospectives across the world.

See also

• Textile
• Fiber
• Textile arts
• Fiber art
• Craft
• Basket weaving
• Persian weave
• Petate
• Textile manufacturing terminology
• Weaving (mythology)

Bibliography

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• Bellerby, Rachel (2005).Chasing the Sixpence: The lives of Bradford Mill Folk.Ayr: Fort Publishing Ltd.ISBN0-9547431-8-0.
• Collier, Ann M (1974),A Handbook of Textiles,Pergamon Press, p. 258,ISBN0-08-018057-4
• Dooley, William H. (1914).Textiles(Project Gutenberg ed.). Boston, USA: D.C. Heath and Co.Retrieved30 October2011.
• Feng, Menglong (November 2001). "Stories Old and New.By Feng Menglong, translated by Shuhui Yang and Yunqin Yang. pp. 794, 10 illus. from the 1620 edition. Seattle, University of Washington Press, 2000 ".Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.11(3): 407–409.doi:10.1017/s1356186301380343.ISSN1356-1863.S2CID162905651.
• Freethy, Ron (2005).Memories of the Lancashire Cotton Mills.Aspects of Local History. Newbury, Berkshire: Countryside Books.ISBN978-1-84674-104-3.
• Guest, Richard (1823).A compendious history of the cotton-manufacture.Manchester: Author, Printed by Joseph Pratt, Chapel Walks.Retrieved2011-11-23.
• Li, Lillian M. (1981).China's silk trade: traditional industry in the modern world, 1842–1937.Vol. 97 (1st ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University.doi:10.2307/j.ctt1tfjb18.ISBN978-0-674-11962-8.JSTORj.ctt1tfjb18.OCLC576853423.
• Timmins, Geoffrey (1993).The last shift: the decline of handloom weaving in nineteenth-century Lancashire.Manchester University Press ND.ISBN0-7190-3725-5.
• This article incorporates text fromTextilesby William H. Dooley, Boston, D.C. Heath and Co., 1914, a volume in thepublic domainand available online fromProject Gutenberg

External links

• Media related toWeavingat Wikimedia Commons
• Cole, Alan Summerly (1911)."Weaving".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 28 (11th ed.). pp. 440–455.
• Resource collectionAn on-line repository of articles (4720), books (459), illustrations (271), patents (398) and periodicals (1322) relating to weaving.
• British Pathé Weaving Linen 1940-1949Educational film
• Illustrated Guide of Tilling and Weaving: Rural Life in Chinafrom 1696