Western film

TheWesternis afilm genredefined by the American Film Institute as films which are "set in the American West that [embody] the spirit, the struggle, and the demise of thenew frontier."^[1]Generally set in theAmerican frontierbetween theCalifornia Gold Rushof 1849 and the closing of the frontier in 1890,^[2]^: 557the genre also includes many examples of stories set in locations outside the frontier – includingNorthern Mexico,theNorthwestern United States,Alaska,andWestern Canada– as well as stories that take place before 1849 and after 1890. Western films comprise part of the largerWestern genre,which encompasses literature, music, television, and plastic arts.

Western films derive from theWild West showsthat began in the 1870s.^[3]^: 48Originally referred to as "Wild West dramas", the shortened term "Western" came to describe the genre.^[4]Although other Western films were made earlier,The Great Train Robbery(1903) is often considered to mark the beginning of the genre.^[2]^[5]Westerns were a major genre during thesilent era(1894–1929) and continued to grow in popularity during thesound era(post–1929).

The genre reached its pinnacle between 1945 and 1965 when it comprised roughly a quarter of studio output.^[6]The advent of color and widescreen during this era opened up new possibilities for directors to portray the vastness of the American landscape.^[3]^: 105This era also produced the genre's most iconic figures, includingJohn WayneandRandolph Scott,who developed personae that they maintained across most of their films.^[7]DirectorJohn Fordis often considered the genre's greatest filmmaker.^[8]

With the proliferation of television in the 1960s,television Westernsbegan to supersede film Westerns in popularity.^[9]By the end of the decade, studios had mostly ceased to make Westerns. Despite their dwindling popularity during this decade, the 1960s gave rise to therevisionist Western,several examples of which became vital entries in the canon.^[10]

Since the 1960s, new Western films have only appeared sporadically. Despite their decreased prominence, Western films remain an integral part ofAmerican cultureandnational mythology.^[11]^[12]

Characteristics

TheAmerican Film Institutedefines Western films as those "set in the American West that [embody] the spirit, the struggle, and the demise of thenew frontier".^[1]The term "Western", used to describe a narrative film genre, appears to have originated with a July 1912 article inMotion Picture Worldmagazine.^[13]

Most of the characteristics of Western films were part of 19th-century popularWestern fiction,and were firmly in place before film became a popular art form.^[14]^{[page needed]}Film criticPhilip Frenchhas said that the Western is "a commercial formula with rules as fixed and immutable as theKabukiTheater. "^[15]^: 12

Western films commonly feature protagonists such as sheriffs, cowboys, gunslingers, and bounty hunters, who are often depicted as seminomadic wanderers who wearStetsonhats,bandannas,spurs, andbuckskins,use revolvers or rifles as everyday tools of survival and as a means to settle disputes using "frontier justice". Protagonists ride between dusty towns and cattle ranches on their trusty steeds.^[16]

History

Origins

Film Westerns derive from theWild West showsthat began in the 1870s.^[3]^: 48These shows, which included stage plays and outdoor exhibitions, culminated inBuffalo Bill's Wild West,a touring performance that ran from 1883 to 1913. Wild West shows, which were intended for urban audiences, established many of the elements that came to define Western films, such as the blending of fact and fiction and the romanticization of the frontier.^[17]These early films were originally referred to as "Wild West dramas", the term "Western" came to describe the genre. The use of this shortened term appears to have originated with a July 1912 article inMotion Picture Worldmagazine.^[4]

The first films that belong to the Western genre are a series of short single reel silents made in 1894 byEdison Studiosat theirBlack Mariastudio inWest Orange, New Jersey.These featured veterans ofBuffalo Bill's Wild Westshowexhibiting skills acquired by living in the Old West – they includedAnnie Oakley(shooting) and members of theSioux(dancing).^[18]

Silent era

Western films were enormously popular in thesilent-filmera (1894–1927). The earliest known Western narrative film is the British shortKidnapping by Indians,made byMitchell and KenyoninBlackburn,England, in 1899.^[19]^[20]The Great Train Robbery(1903, based on the earlier British filmA Daring Daylight Burglary),Edwin S. Porter's film starringBroncho Billy Anderson,is often erroneously cited as the first Western, though George N. Fenin andWilliam K. Eversonpoint out that the "Edison company had played with Western material for several years prior toThe Great Train Robbery".Nonetheless, they concur that Porter's film" set the pattern—of crime, pursuit, and retribution—for the Western film as a genre ".^[21]The film's popularity opened the door for Anderson to become the screen's first Western star; he made several hundred Western film shorts. So popular was the genre that he soon faced competition fromTom MixandWilliam S. Hart.^[22]

1930s

With the advent of sound in 1927–28, the major Hollywood studios rapidly abandoned Westerns,^[23]leaving the genre to smaller studios and producers. These smaller organizations churned out countless low-budget features and serials in the 1930s. By the late 1930s, the Western film was widely regarded as a "pulp" genre in Hollywood, but its popularity was dramatically revived in 1939 by major studio productions such asDodge CitystarringErrol Flynn,Jesse JameswithTyrone Power,Union PacificwithJoel McCrea,Destry Rides AgainfeaturingJames StewartandMarlene Dietrich,and especiallyJohn Ford'slandmark Western adventureStagecoachstarringJohn Wayne,which became one of the biggest hits of the year. Released through United Artists,Stagecoachmade John Wayne a mainstream screen star in the wake of a decade of headlining B Westerns. Wayne had been introduced to the screen 10 years earlier as theleading manin directorRaoul Walsh's spectacularwidescreenThe Big Trail,which failed at the box office in spite of being shot on location across the American West, including theGrand Canyon,Yosemite,and the giantredwoods,due in part to exhibitors' inability to switch over to widescreen during theGreat Depression.

"Golden Age"

After the renewed commercial successes of the Western in the late 1930s, their popularity continued to rise until the 1950s, when the number of Western films produced outnumbered all other genres combined.^[24]

The period from 1940 to 1960 has been called the "Golden Age of the Western".^[25]It is epitomized by the work of several prominent directors including:

Robert Aldrich–Apache(1954),Vera Cruz(1954)
Budd Boetticher– several films withRandolph ScottincludingThe Tall T(1957) andComanche Station(1960)
Delmer Daves–Broken Arrow(1950),The Last Wagon(1956),3:10 to Yuma(1957)
Walt Disney–Frontierland(theme park),Davy Crockettseries(1955),Elfego Bacaseries(1958),Texas John Slaughterseries(1958)
Allan Dwan–Silver Lode(1954),Cattle Queen of Montana(1954)
John Ford–Stagecoach(1939),My Darling Clementine(1946),The Searchers(1956),The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance(1962)
Samuel Fuller–Run of the Arrow(1957),Forty Guns(1957)
George Roy Hill–Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid(1969)
Howard Hawks–Red River(1948),Rio Bravo(1959),El Dorado(1966)
Henry King–The Gunfighter(1950),The Bravados(1958)
Sergio Leone– the Spaghetti WesternDollars TrilogyfeaturingClint Eastwood:A Fistful of Dollars(1964),For a Few Dollars More(1965),The Good, the Bad and the Ugly(1966); as well asOnce Upon a Time in the West(1968)
Anthony Mann–Winchester '73(1950),The Man from Laramie(1955),The Tin Star(1957)
Sam Peckinpah–Ride the High Country(1962),The Wild Bunch(1969)
Nicholas Ray–Johnny Guitar(1954)
George Stevens–Annie Oakley(1935),Shane(1953)
John Sturges–Gunfight at the O.K. Corral(1957),The Magnificent Seven(1960)
Jacques Tourneur–Canyon Passage(1946),Wichita(1955)
King Vidor–Duel in the Sun(1946),Man Without a Star(1955)
William A. Wellman–The Ox-Bow Incident(1943),Yellow Sky(1948)
William Wyler–The Westerner(1940),The Big Country(1958)
Fred Zinnemann–High Noon(1952)

Revivals

There have been several instances of resurgence for the Western genre. According toNetflix,the popularity of the genre is due to its malleability: "As America has evolved, so too have Westerns."^[26]

During the 1960s and 1970s,Spaghetti WesternsfromItalybecame popular worldwide; this was due to the success ofSergio Leone's storytelling method.^[27]^[28]

Although experiencing waning popularity during the 1980s, the success of films such asDances with Wolves(1990) andUnforgiven(1992) brought the genre back into the mainstream.^[26]Back to the Future Part III(1990) was "a full-blown Western" set in 1885; although the least commercially successful ofthe trilogyand according to some a departure fromthe 1985 original(a sci-fi) andthe 1989 sequel(an action adventure),Part IIIhas been regarded by others as a fitting end to the series.^[29]

At the turn of the 21st century, Westerns have once again seen an ongoing revival in popularity.^[30]^[31]Largely influenced by the recapturing ofAmericana mythology,appreciation for thevaquerofolklore withinMexican cultureandthe US Southwest,interest in theWestern lifestyle'smusicandclothing,along with popular videos games series such asRed Dead.^[32]^[33]^[34]^[35]

Themes and settings

Screenwriter and scholarEric R. Williamsidentifies Western films as one of eleven super-genres in hisscreenwriters' taxonomy,claiming that all feature length narrative films can be classified by these super-genres. The other ten super-genres areaction,crime,fantasy,horror,romance,science fiction,slice of life,sports,thriller,andwar.^[36]

Western films often depict conflicts withNative Americans.While early Eurocentric Westerns frequently portray the Native Americans as dishonorable villains,^[37]the later and more culturally neutral Westerns gave Native Americans a more sympathetic treatment.^[38]Other recurring themes of Westerns include treks (e.g.The Big Trail)^[39]or perilous journeys (e.g.Stagecoach)^[40]or groups of bandits terrorizing small towns such as inThe Magnificent Seven.^[41]

The Western goes beyond simply a cinematic genre, and extends into defining the myth of the West in American culture.^[15]^: 21–22

Early Westerns were mostly filmed in the studio, as in other early Hollywood films, but when location shooting became more common from the 1930s, producers of Westerns used desolate corners ofArizona,California,Colorado,Kansas,Montana,Nevada,New Mexico,Oklahoma,Texas,Utah,orWyoming.These settings gave filmmakers the ability to depict vast plains, looming mountains, and epic canyons.^[42]Productions were also filmed on location atmovie ranches.^[43]

Often, the vast landscape becomes more than a vivid backdrop; it becomes a character in the film.^[42]After the early 1950s, various widescreen formats such asCinemascope(1953) andVistaVisionused the expanded width of the screen to display spectacular western landscapes.^[44]^[45]John Ford's use ofMonument Valleyas an expressive landscape in his films fromStagecoachtoCheyenne Autumn(1965), "present us with a mythic vision of the plains and deserts of the American West, embodied most memorably in Monument Valley, with its buttes and mesas that tower above the men on horseback, whether they be settlers, soldiers, or Native Americans".^[46]

References

^^a ^b"America's 10 Greatest Films in 10 Classic Genres".American Film Institute.Retrieved2010-06-06.
^^a ^bRubin, Joan Shelley; Casper, Scott E., eds. (2013).The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Cultural and Intellectual History.Vol. 2.Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0-19-976435-8.
^^a ^b ^cSimmon, Scott (2003-06-30).The Invention of the Western Film: A Cultural History of the Genre's First Half Century.Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0-521-55581-4.
^^a ^bMcMahan, Alison.Alice Guy Blaché: Lost Visionary of the Cinema.Continuum. p. 122.ISBN 978-1-5013-4023-9.
^Verhoeff, Nanna (2006-01-01).The West in Early Cinema: After the Beginning.Amsterdam University Press. p. 123.ISBN 978-90-5356-831-6.
^Aron, Stephen (2015).The American West: A Very Short Introduction.Oxford University Press. p. 110.ISBN 978-0-19-985893-4.
^Munn, Michael (2005-03-01).John Wayne: The Man Behind the Myth.Penguin. p. 50.ISBN 978-1-101-21026-0.
^Matheson, Sue (2016-02-18).The Westerns and War Films of John Ford.Rowman & Littlefield. p. 20.ISBN 978-1-4422-6106-8.
^MacDonald, J. Fred (1987).Who Shot the Sheriff?: The Rise and Fall of the Television Western.Praeger. pp. xi.ISBN 978-0-275-92326-6.
^Lusted, David (2003).The Western.Pearson/Longman. p. 78.ISBN 978-0-582-43736-4.
^Parks, Rita (1982).The Western Hero in Film and Television: Mass Media Mythology.UMI Research Press. p. 57.ISBN 978-0-8357-1287-3.
^Day, Kirsten (2016-05-31).Cowboy Classics: The Roots of the American Western in the Epic Tradition.Edinburgh University Press. p. 14.ISBN 978-1-4744-0247-7.
^McMahan, Alison (2014-08-22).Alice Guy Blaché: Lost Visionary of the Cinema.Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 133.ISBN 978-1-5013-0268-8.
^Smith, Henry Nash (1978).Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth.Harvard University Press.ISBN 978-0-674-93955-4.
^^a ^bFrench, Philip(1973).Westerns: Aspects of a Movie Genre and Westerns Revisited.Carcanet.ISBN 978-1-85754-747-4.
^Indick, William (2014-11-21).The Psychology of the Western: How the American Psyche Plays Out on Screen.McFarland. pp. 8, 12.ISBN 978-0-7864-9211-4.[T]he principal archetype of the genre, the Western hero, is analyzed within the context of his various personas: the chivalrous cowboy, the honorable marshal, the lone crusader, and the rebel outlaw... He is more comfortable living in the open fronteir than in the cities, and most importantly, he does not conform to the laws and customs of civilized society. He answers only to his own code of honor and enforces his own personal brand of justice... [W]riters established the cowboy hero as the legendary icon of the West. They dressed him in chaps and a ten-gallon hat, straddled him atop a horse, armed him with a revolver, and set him loose on the Western plains.
^Sarf, Wayne Michael (1983).God Bless You, Buffalo Bill: A Layman's Guide to History and the Western Film.Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 237.ISBN 978-0-8453-4732-4.
^"Sioux ghost dance".Library of Congress. 1894.Retrieved9 September2021.
^"World's first Western movie 'filmed in Blackburn'".BBC News.2019-10-31.Retrieved1 November2019.
^"Kidnapping by Indians".BFI.Retrieved1 November2019.
^Fenin, George N.; Everson, William K. (1962).The Western: From Silents to Cinerama.New York City: Bonanza Books. p. 47.ISBN 978-1-163-70021-1.
^"Bronco Billy Anderson Is Dead at 88".The New York Times.21 January 1971.Retrieved15 October2019.
^New York Times Magazine(November 10, 2007).
^Indick, William (2008-09-10).The Psychology of the Western: How the American Psyche Plays Out on Screen.McFarland. p. 2.ISBN 978-0-7864-3460-2.
^Gittell, Noah (2014-06-17)."Superheroes Replaced Cowboys at the Movies. But It's Time to Go Back to Cowboys".The Atlantic.Retrieved2022-07-21.
^^a ^b"Why Are Westerns Still Popular?".Netflix Tudum.December 27, 2021.RetrievedMarch 15,2023.
^Butler, Nancy (January 27, 2023)."Inventing America: Spaghetti Westerns and Sergio Leone".Italy Segreta.RetrievedMarch 15,2023.
^Gray, Tim (January 4, 2019)."Sergio Leone's Spaghetti Westerns Made a Fistful of Dollars and Clint Eastwood a Star".Variety.RetrievedMarch 15,2023.
^Gilmore, Brad (2021).Back From the Future: A Celebration of the Greatest Time Travel Story Ever Told.Coral Gables: Mango Publishing Group. pp. 36–37.ISBN 9781642507249.RetrievedOctober 30,2023.
^Busby, Mark; Buscombe, Edward; Pearson, Roberta E. (1999). "Back in the Saddle Again: New Essays on the Western".The Western Historical Quarterly.30(4). Oxford University Press (OUP): 520.doi:10.2307/971437.ISSN 0043-3810.JSTOR 971437.
^Kollin, Susan (1999). "Theorizing the Western".Western American Literature.34(2). Project Muse: 238–250.doi:10.1353/wal.1999.0081.ISSN 1948-7142.S2CID 166137254.
^Leyda, Julia (2002)."Black-Audience Westerns and the Politics of Cultural Identification in the 1930s".Cinema Journal.42(1). [University of Texas Press, Society for Cinema & Media Studies]: 46–70.doi:10.1353/cj.2002.0022.ISSN 0009-7101.JSTOR 1225542.S2CID 143962868.RetrievedMarch 15,2023.
^"Why Everyone Suddenly Loves Westerns Again".Men's Health.December 15, 2022.RetrievedMarch 15,2023.
^Penny, Daniel (June 23, 2021)."Cowboy Boots in the City? Why Western Style Is Trending".WSJ.RetrievedMarch 15,2023.
^"Western Fashion 2023: Western Boots, Dresses, and Shirts to Shop".Harper's BAZAAR.August 12, 2022.RetrievedMarch 15,2023.
^Williams, Eric (2017-09-05).The Screenwriters Taxonomy: A Collaborative Approach to Creative Storytelling.Taylor & Francis. p. 21.ISBN 978-1-351-61066-7.
^Indick, William (2014-11-21).The Psychology of the Western: How the American Psyche Plays Out on Screen.McFarland. p. 17.ISBN 978-0-7864-9211-4.The Western hero himself epitomizes the animus archetype. He is a character that is completely and utterly masculine... In turn, the Native American is often portrayed as the shadow archetype, the representative of savage, wild emotions, and the dark adversary for the hero in their oedipal rivalry over the maternal landscape.
^Larson, Stephanie Greco (2006).Media & Minorities: The Politics of Race in News and Entertainment.Rowman & Littlefield. p. 51.ISBN 978-0-8476-9453-2.
^Hanfling, Barrie (2016-04-21).Westerns and the Trail of Tradition: A Year-by-Year History, 1929-1962.McFarland. p. 14.ISBN 978-1-4766-0836-5.
^Grant, Barry Keith (2003).John Ford's Stagecoach.Cambridge University Press. p. 9.ISBN 978-0-521-79743-6.
^Ferrell, William K. (2000-02-28).Literature and Film as Modern Mythology.Bloomsbury Publishing USA. pp. 59–60.ISBN 978-0-313-00286-1.
^^a ^bIndick, William (2014-11-21).The Psychology of the Western: How the American Psyche Plays Out on Screen.McFarland. pp. 16–17.ISBN 978-0-7864-9211-4.[T]he role of the landscape is typically accentuated, making the scenery in the Western as equally import a character as the hero or villain... a good Western must import a strong sense of the frontier landscape... to depict the glory and majesty of the frontier landscape.
^"Paramount Ranch: Old Movie Town & Westworld Filming Location in Agoura Hills".California Through My Lens.2014-03-10.Retrieved2022-07-12.
^Bandy, Mary Lea; Stoehr, Kevin L. (October 2012).Ride, Boldly Ride: The Evolution of the American Western.University of California Press. p. 88.ISBN 978-0-520-25866-2.
^Lenihan, John H. (1980).Showdown, Confronting Modern America in the Western Film.University of Illinois Press. p. 72.ISBN 978-0-252-01254-9.
^Cowie, Peter (2004).John Ford and the American West.New York: Harry Abrams Inc. p. 12.ISBN 978-0-8109-4976-8.

[:2-1] "America's 10 Greatest Films in 10 Classic Genres".American Film Institute.Retrieved2010-06-06.

[oxford-2] Rubin, Joan Shelley; Casper, Scott E., eds. (2013).The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Cultural and Intellectual History.Vol. 2.Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0-19-976435-8.

[:1-3] Simmon, Scott (2003-06-30).The Invention of the Western Film: A Cultural History of the Genre's First Half Century.Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0-521-55581-4.

[:0-4] McMahan, Alison.Alice Guy Blaché: Lost Visionary of the Cinema.Continuum. p. 122.ISBN 978-1-5013-4023-9.

[5] Verhoeff, Nanna (2006-01-01).The West in Early Cinema: After the Beginning.Amsterdam University Press. p. 123.ISBN 978-90-5356-831-6.

[6] Aron, Stephen (2015).The American West: A Very Short Introduction.Oxford University Press. p. 110.ISBN 978-0-19-985893-4.

[7] Munn, Michael (2005-03-01).John Wayne: The Man Behind the Myth.Penguin. p. 50.ISBN 978-1-101-21026-0.

[8] Matheson, Sue (2016-02-18).The Westerns and War Films of John Ford.Rowman & Littlefield. p. 20.ISBN 978-1-4422-6106-8.

[9] MacDonald, J. Fred (1987).Who Shot the Sheriff?: The Rise and Fall of the Television Western.Praeger. pp. xi.ISBN 978-0-275-92326-6.

[10] Lusted, David (2003).The Western.Pearson/Longman. p. 78.ISBN 978-0-582-43736-4.

[11] Parks, Rita (1982).The Western Hero in Film and Television: Mass Media Mythology.UMI Research Press. p. 57.ISBN 978-0-8357-1287-3.

[12] Day, Kirsten (2016-05-31).Cowboy Classics: The Roots of the American Western in the Epic Tradition.Edinburgh University Press. p. 14.ISBN 978-1-4744-0247-7.

[13] McMahan, Alison (2014-08-22).Alice Guy Blaché: Lost Visionary of the Cinema.Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 133.ISBN 978-1-5013-0268-8.

[14] Smith, Henry Nash (1978).Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth.Harvard University Press.ISBN 978-0-674-93955-4.

[:3-15] French, Philip(1973).Westerns: Aspects of a Movie Genre and Westerns Revisited.Carcanet.ISBN 978-1-85754-747-4.

[16] Indick, William (2014-11-21).The Psychology of the Western: How the American Psyche Plays Out on Screen.McFarland. pp. 8, 12.ISBN 978-0-7864-9211-4.[T]he principal archetype of the genre, the Western hero, is analyzed within the context of his various personas: the chivalrous cowboy, the honorable marshal, the lone crusader, and the rebel outlaw... He is more comfortable living in the open fronteir than in the cities, and most importantly, he does not conform to the laws and customs of civilized society. He answers only to his own code of honor and enforces his own personal brand of justice... [W]riters established the cowboy hero as the legendary icon of the West. They dressed him in chaps and a ten-gallon hat, straddled him atop a horse, armed him with a revolver, and set him loose on the Western plains.

[17] Sarf, Wayne Michael (1983).God Bless You, Buffalo Bill: A Layman's Guide to History and the Western Film.Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 237.ISBN 978-0-8453-4732-4.

[18] "Sioux ghost dance".Library of Congress. 1894.Retrieved9 September2021.

[19] "World's first Western movie 'filmed in Blackburn'".BBC News.2019-10-31.Retrieved1 November2019.

[20] "Kidnapping by Indians".BFI.Retrieved1 November2019.

[21] Fenin, George N.; Everson, William K. (1962).The Western: From Silents to Cinerama.New York City: Bonanza Books. p. 47.ISBN 978-1-163-70021-1.

[22] "Bronco Billy Anderson Is Dead at 88".The New York Times.21 January 1971.Retrieved15 October2019.

[23] New York Times Magazine(November 10, 2007).

[24] Indick, William (2008-09-10).The Psychology of the Western: How the American Psyche Plays Out on Screen.McFarland. p. 2.ISBN 978-0-7864-3460-2.

[25] Gittell, Noah (2014-06-17)."Superheroes Replaced Cowboys at the Movies. But It's Time to Go Back to Cowboys".The Atlantic.Retrieved2022-07-21.

[Netflix_Tudum_2021-26] "Why Are Westerns Still Popular?".Netflix Tudum.December 27, 2021.RetrievedMarch 15,2023.

[Butler_2023-27] Butler, Nancy (January 27, 2023)."Inventing America: Spaghetti Westerns and Sergio Leone".Italy Segreta.RetrievedMarch 15,2023.

[Gray_Gray_2019-28] Gray, Tim (January 4, 2019)."Sergio Leone's Spaghetti Westerns Made a Fistful of Dollars and Clint Eastwood a Star".Variety.RetrievedMarch 15,2023.

[29] Gilmore, Brad (2021).Back From the Future: A Celebration of the Greatest Time Travel Story Ever Told.Coral Gables: Mango Publishing Group. pp. 36–37.ISBN 9781642507249.RetrievedOctober 30,2023.

[Busby_Buscombe_Pearson_1999_p=520-30] Busby, Mark; Buscombe, Edward; Pearson, Roberta E. (1999). "Back in the Saddle Again: New Essays on the Western".The Western Historical Quarterly.30(4). Oxford University Press (OUP): 520.doi:10.2307/971437.ISSN 0043-3810.JSTOR 971437.

[Kollin_1999_pp._238–250-31] Kollin, Susan (1999). "Theorizing the Western".Western American Literature.34(2). Project Muse: 238–250.doi:10.1353/wal.1999.0081.ISSN 1948-7142.S2CID 166137254.

[Leyda_2002_pp._46–70-32] Leyda, Julia (2002)."Black-Audience Westerns and the Politics of Cultural Identification in the 1930s".Cinema Journal.42(1). [University of Texas Press, Society for Cinema & Media Studies]: 46–70.doi:10.1353/cj.2002.0022.ISSN 0009-7101.JSTOR 1225542.S2CID 143962868.RetrievedMarch 15,2023.

[Mens_Health_2022-33] "Why Everyone Suddenly Loves Westerns Again".Men's Health.December 15, 2022.RetrievedMarch 15,2023.

[Penny_2021-34] Penny, Daniel (June 23, 2021)."Cowboy Boots in the City? Why Western Style Is Trending".WSJ.RetrievedMarch 15,2023.

[Harpers_BAZAAR_2023-35] "Western Fashion 2023: Western Boots, Dresses, and Shirts to Shop".Harper's BAZAAR.August 12, 2022.RetrievedMarch 15,2023.

[36] Williams, Eric (2017-09-05).The Screenwriters Taxonomy: A Collaborative Approach to Creative Storytelling.Taylor & Francis. p. 21.ISBN 978-1-351-61066-7.

[37] Indick, William (2014-11-21).The Psychology of the Western: How the American Psyche Plays Out on Screen.McFarland. p. 17.ISBN 978-0-7864-9211-4.The Western hero himself epitomizes the animus archetype. He is a character that is completely and utterly masculine... In turn, the Native American is often portrayed as the shadow archetype, the representative of savage, wild emotions, and the dark adversary for the hero in their oedipal rivalry over the maternal landscape.

[38] Larson, Stephanie Greco (2006).Media & Minorities: The Politics of Race in News and Entertainment.Rowman & Littlefield. p. 51.ISBN 978-0-8476-9453-2.

[39] Hanfling, Barrie (2016-04-21).Westerns and the Trail of Tradition: A Year-by-Year History, 1929-1962.McFarland. p. 14.ISBN 978-1-4766-0836-5.

[40] Grant, Barry Keith (2003).John Ford's Stagecoach.Cambridge University Press. p. 9.ISBN 978-0-521-79743-6.

[41] Ferrell, William K. (2000-02-28).Literature and Film as Modern Mythology.Bloomsbury Publishing USA. pp. 59–60.ISBN 978-0-313-00286-1.

[:4-42] Indick, William (2014-11-21).The Psychology of the Western: How the American Psyche Plays Out on Screen.McFarland. pp. 16–17.ISBN 978-0-7864-9211-4.[T]he role of the landscape is typically accentuated, making the scenery in the Western as equally import a character as the hero or villain... a good Western must import a strong sense of the frontier landscape... to depict the glory and majesty of the frontier landscape.

[43] "Paramount Ranch: Old Movie Town & Westworld Filming Location in Agoura Hills".California Through My Lens.2014-03-10.Retrieved2022-07-12.

[44] Bandy, Mary Lea; Stoehr, Kevin L. (October 2012).Ride, Boldly Ride: The Evolution of the American Western.University of California Press. p. 88.ISBN 978-0-520-25866-2.

[45] Lenihan, John H. (1980).Showdown, Confronting Modern America in the Western Film.University of Illinois Press. p. 72.ISBN 978-0-252-01254-9.

[Cowie_20042-46] Cowie, Peter (2004).John Ford and the American West.New York: Harry Abrams Inc. p. 12.ISBN 978-0-8109-4976-8.

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v t e Film genres
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By theme	Animals Beach party Body swap Buddy Buddy cop Female Cannibal Chicano Colonial Coming-of-age Concert Crime Detective Gangster Gentleman thief Gokudō Gong'an Heist Heroic bloodshed Hood Mafia Mafia comedy Mumbai underworld Poliziotteschi Yakuza Dance Disaster Apocalyptic Drug Psychedelic Stoner Dystopian Ecchi Economic Ethnographic Exploitation Blaxploitation Mexploitation Turksploitation Extraterrestrial Food and drink Gendai-geki Ghost Goona-goona epic Gothic Romance Space Suburban Girls with guns Harem Hentai Lolicon Shotacon Tentacle erotica Homeland Isekai Jidaigeki Samurai Kaitō LGBT Yaoi Yuri Luchador Magical girl Martial arts Bruceploitation Chopsocky Gun fu Kung fu Ninja Wuxia Mecha Anime Monster Giant monster Kaiju Mummy Vampire Zombie Zombie comedy Mountain Mouth of Garbage Muslim social Nature Environmental issues Opera Outlaw biker Ozploitation Partisan film Prison Women Race Rape and revenge Road Rubble Rumberas Sexploitation Bavarian porn Commedia sexy all'italiana Mexican sex comedy Nazi exploitation Pornochanchada Nunsploitation Sex report Shoshimin-eiga Slavery Slice of life Snuff South Seas Sports Spy Eurospy Superhero Surfing Swashbuckler Sword-and-sandal Sword and sorcery Travel Trial Vigilante War Anti-war Euro War Submarine Western Acid Contemporary Western Dacoit Western Fantasy Florida Horror Meat pie Northern Ostern Revisionist Science fiction Singing cowboy Space Spaghetti Weird Western Zapata Western
By movement or period	Absolute American eccentric cinema New Objectivity Australian New Wave Auteur films Berlin School Bourekas Brighton School British New Wave Kitchen sink realism Budapest school Calligrafismo Cannibal boom Cinéma du look Cinema Novo Cinema of Transgression Cinéma pur Commedia all'italiana Czechoslovak New Wave Documentary Film Movement Dogme 95 Erra Cinema European art cinema Film d'art Film gris Free Cinema French New Wave German Expressionist German underground horror Nigerian Golden Age Grupo Cine Liberación Heimatfilm Hollywood on the Tiber Hong Kong New Wave Indiewood Iranian New Wave Italian futurist Italian neorealist Japanese New Wave Kammerspielfilm L.A. Rebellion Lettrist Modernist film Mumblecore Neorealist New French Extremity New German New generation New Hollywood New Nollywood New Queer No wave Nuevo Cine Mexicano Pan-Indian film Parallel cinema Persian Film Poetic realist Polish Film School Poliziotteschi Praška filmska škola Prussian film Pure Film Movement Remodernist Romanian New Wave Slow cinema Spaghetti Western Socialist realist Social realist Kitchen sink realism Soviet parallel Structural Surrealist Sword-and-sandal Telefoni Bianchi Third Cinema Toronto New Wave Vulgar auteurism Yugoslav Black Wave
By demographic	Adult Black Children and family Anime Men Seinen Stag Teen Shōnen Shōjo Women Chick flick Josei
By format, technique, approach, or production	3D Actuality Animation Anime Art Cartoon Computer Stop-motion Traditional Anthology Art B movie Behind-the-scenes Black-and-white Blockbuster Cinéma vérité Classical Hollywood cinema Collage Color Compilation Composite Computer screen Cult midnight movie Database cinema Docufiction Ethnofiction Experimental Abstract Feature Featurette Film à clef Film-poem Found footage Grindhouse Hyperlink cinema Independent Guerrilla filmmaking List of American independent films Interstitial art Live action animation Low-budget Major film studios Masala Maximalist film Message picture Meta-film Minimalist film Mockbuster Modernist film Musical short Mythopoeia Neorealist No-budget One-shot Paracinema Participatory Poetry Postmodernist Reverse motion Satire Sceneggiata Semidocumentary Serial Shinpa Short Silent Slow cinema Socialist realist Sound Underground Video nasty Vulgar auteurism Z movie
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