Jump to content

Vientiane

Edit links
Coordinates:17°59′N102°38′E/ 17.98°N 102.63°E/17.98; 102.63
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected fromWiang Chan)
This article is about the urban center and city. For themueang,seeKingdom of Vientiane.For city proper, seeVientiane Prefecture.For the province, seeVientiane province.

Vientiane
ວຽງຈັນ
Capital city
ນະຄອນຫຼວງ​ວຽງຈັນ​
From top, left to right:Patuxai;view of Vientiane from the Patuxai;Wat Si Saket;Pha That Luang
Official seal of Vientiane
Seal
Map
Vientiane is located in Laos
Vientiane
Vientiane
Vientiane is located in Southeast Asia
Vientiane
Vientiane
Vientiane is located in Asia
Vientiane
Vientiane
Coordinates:17°59′N102°38′E/ 17.98°N 102.63°E/17.98; 102.63
CountryLaos
PrefectureVientiane Prefecture
Settled9th century[1]
Government
• MayorAthsphangthong Siphandone
Area
• Total3,920 km2(1,510 sq mi)
Elevation
174 m (570 ft)
Population
(2023[2])
• Total840,940
• Density210/km2(560/sq mi)
GDP
[3]
• TotalUS$3 billion (2022)
• Per capitaUS$3,600 (2022)
Time zoneUTC+7(ICT)
This article containsLao text.Without properrendering support,you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead ofLao script.

Vientiane(/viˌɛntiˈɑːn/vee-EN-tee-AHN;Lao:ວຽງຈັນ,Viangchan,pronounced[wíaŋtɕàn],RTGS:Wiang Chan) is thecapitaland largest city ofLaos.Comprising the fiveurbandistrictsofVientiane Prefecture,the city is located on the banks of theMekong,right at the border withThailand.Vientiane was the administrative capital during French rule and, due to economic growth in recent times, is now the economic center of Laos. The city had a population of 840,000 as of the 2023Census.

Vientiane is the home of the most significant national monuments such asPha That Luang,a national symbol of Laos and an icon ofBuddhism in Laos.Other significant Buddhist temples can be found there as well, such asHaw Phra Kaew,which formerly housed theEmerald Buddha.

Etymology

[edit]

"Vientiane" is the French spelling derived from the LaoViangchan/wíaŋtɕàn/.[4]The name was previously written "ວຽງຈັນທນ໌"(in Thai, เวียงจันทน์) but now usually written"ວຽງຈັນ".In Lao,viang(ວຽງ) refers to a 'walled city' whereaschan(ຈັນ,previouslyຈັນທນ໌) derives from Sanskritcandana(चन्दन,/t͡ɕand̪ana/), 'sandalwood' and can be translated as the 'walled city of sandalwood'. Some Laotians mistakenly believe it refers to the 'walled city of the moon' aschancan also represent 'moon', although this was previously distinguished in writing as "ຈັນທຣ໌".[4][5]Other romanisations include "Viangchan" and "Wiangchan".[6]

History

[edit]
Ban Tha Lat, Mon inscription (9th CE), was found in 1968, in an area where other pieces of archaeological evidence testified to an ancient Mon presence. It is now at Ho Phra Kaeo Museum, Vientiane, Laos[7][8]
Buddhasculptures at Pha That Luang
Haw Phra Kaewor Temple of the Emerald Buddha

Dvaravati city state kingdoms

[edit]

By the 6th century in theChao Phraya RiverValley,Mon peopleshad coalesced to create theDvaravati kingdoms.In the north,Haripunjaya(Lamphun) emerged as a rival power to theDvaravati.By the 8th century the Mon had pushed north to create city states, in Fa Daet (modernKalasin,northeastern Thailand), Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong) near modernTha Khek,Laos,Muang Sua(Luang Prabang), and Chantaburi (Vientiane). In the 8th century CE, Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong) was the strongest of these early city states, and controlled trade throughout the middle Mekong region. The city states were loosely bound politically, but were culturally similar and introducedTherevada BuddhismfromSri Lankanmissionaries throughout the region.[9][10][11][12]: 6, 7 [13][14]

Myth

[edit]

The great Laotian epic, thePhra Lak Phra Lam,claims that Prince Thattaradtha founded the city when he left the legendary Lao kingdom ofMuong Inthapatha Maha Nakhonebecause he was denied the throne in favor of his younger brother. Thattaradtha founded a city calledMaha Thani Si Phan Phaoon the western banks of theMekong River;this city was said to have later become today'sUdon Thani,Thailand.One day, a seven-headedNagatold Thattaradtha to start a new city on the east bank of the river oppositeMaha Thani Si Phan Phao.The prince called this cityChanthabuly Si Sattanakhanahud;which was said to be the predecessor of modern Vientiane.[citation needed]

Contrary to thePhra Lak Phra Lam,most historians believe Vientiane was an early Mon settlement, which later came under the domination of the Khmer Empire. In the 11th and 12th centuries, the time when theLaoandThai peopleare believed to have enteredSoutheast AsiafromSouthern China,the few remaining Mon and Khmer in the area moved or assimilated into the Lao civilization, which would soon overtake the area.[citation needed]

Khmer domination

[edit]

The earliest reference of the name Vientiane can be seen on a Vietnamese inscription of DukeĐỗ Anh Vũ,dated 1159 during the Khmer-Viet conflict. The inscription says that in 1135, Văn Đan (Vientiane), a vassal of Zhenla (Khmer Empire), invaded Nghe An, but was repelled by the Duke; the Duke led an army chased the invaders as far as Vũ Ôn? (unattested), and then returned with captives.[15]: 65 This name may have traced it origin toWèndān,a supposedly kingdom located in theKhorat Plateau,mentioned by a ninth-century Chinese writer described a trade route which started atHanoiand crossed the western mountains to Wèndān.

Lan Xang and French colonial rule

[edit]

In 1354, whenFa Ngumfounded the kingdom ofLan Xang.[16]: 223 Vientiane became an important administrative city, even though it was not made the capital. KingSetthathirathofficially established it as the capital of Lan Xang in 1563, to avoid Burmese invasion.[17]When Lan Xang fell apart in 1707, it became an independentKingdom of Vientiane.In 1779, it was conquered by the Siamese general PhrayaChakriand made a vassal ofSiam.

When KingAnouvongraised an unsuccessful rebellion, it was obliterated bySiamesearmies in 1827. The city was burned to the ground and was looted of nearly all Laotian artifacts, including Buddha statues and people. Vientiane was in great disrepair, depopulated and disappearing into the forest when the French arrived. It eventually passed toFrenchrule in 1893. It became the capital of the French protectorate of Laos in 1899. During the French colonial period, the city was rebuilt and various Buddhist temples such asPha That Luang,Haw Phra Kaewwere repaired.

During French rule, the Vietnamese were encouraged to migrate to Laos, which resulted in 53% of the population of Vientiane being Vietnamese in the year 1943.[18]As late as 1945, the French drew up an ambitious plan to move massive Vietnamese population to three key areas (i.e. the Vientiane Plain, theSavannakhet region,and theBolaven Plateau), which was only interrupted by the Japanese invasion of Indochina.[18]If this plan had been implemented, according toMartin Stuart-Fox,the Lao might well have lost control over their own country.[18]

DuringWorld War II,Vientiane fell with little resistance and was occupied by Japanese forces, under the command ofSako Masanori.[19]On 9 March 1945, French paratroopers arrived and reoccupied the city on 24 April 1945.[20]: 736 

Independence

[edit]

The city became the national capital of thenewly independent Lao statein 1953.

As theLaotian Civil Warbroke out between theRoyal Lao Governmentand thePathet Lao,Vientiane became unstable. In August 1960,Kong Leseized the capital and insisted thatSouvanna Phoumabecome prime minister. In mid-December,Phoumi Nosavanthen seized the capital, overthrew the Phouma Government, and installedBoun Oumas prime minister. In mid-1975, Pathet Lao troops moved towards the city and Americans began evacuating the capital. On 23 August 1975, a contingent of 50 Pathet Lao women symbolically liberated the city.[20]On 2 December 1975, thecommunist partyof thePathet Laotook over Vientiane, defeated theKingdom of Laos,and renamed the country the Lao People's Democratic Republic, which ended theLaotian Civil War.The next day, anInsurgency in Laosbegan in the jungle, with the Pathet Lao fighting factions of Hmong and royalists.

Vientiane was the host of the incident-free2009 Southeast Asian Games.Eighteen competitions were dropped from the previous games held in Thailand, due to Laos' landlocked borders and the lack of adequate facilities in Vientiane.

Geography

[edit]

Vientiane is on a bend of theMekongRiver, at which point it forms the border withThailand.The city government administers the five urbandistrictsof theVientiane Prefecture.

Climate

[edit]

Vientiane features atropical savanna climate(KöppenAw) with distinctwetanddry seasons.Vientiane’s dry season spans from November through March. April marks the onset of the wet season which in Vientiane lasts about seven months. Vientiane tends to be very hot and humid throughout the course of the year, though temperatures in the city tend to be somewhat cooler during the dry season than the wet season. The lowest recorded temperature was 3.3 °C or 37.9 °F in January 1955, and the highest was 42.6 °C or 108.7 °F in April 2024.

Climate data for Vientiane (1991–2020, extremes 1907–present)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 36.0
(96.8) 		38.0
(100.4) 		40.2
(104.4) 		42.6
(108.7) 		42.5
(108.5) 		39.5
(103.1) 		38.2
(100.8) 		37.8
(100.0) 		37.5
(99.5) 		36.8
(98.2) 		36.0
(96.8) 		36.0
(96.8) 		42.6
(108.7)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 29.0
(84.2) 		31.0
(87.8) 		33.4
(92.1) 		34.8
(94.6) 		33.6
(92.5) 		32.6
(90.7) 		31.8
(89.2) 		31.4
(88.5) 		31.7
(89.1) 		31.7
(89.1) 		30.8
(87.4) 		28.9
(84.0) 		31.7
(89.1)
Daily mean °C (°F) 22.9
(73.2) 		24.8
(76.6) 		27.4
(81.3) 		29.1
(84.4) 		28.7
(83.7) 		28.4
(83.1) 		27.9
(82.2) 		27.6
(81.7) 		27.6
(81.7) 		27.2
(81.0) 		25.5
(77.9) 		22.9
(73.2) 		26.7
(80.1)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 18.2
(64.8) 		19.3
(66.7) 		21.7
(71.1) 		24.2
(75.6) 		25.0
(77.0) 		25.4
(77.7) 		25.3
(77.5) 		25.0
(77.0) 		24.6
(76.3) 		23.9
(75.0) 		21.5
(70.7) 		19.2
(66.6) 		22.8
(73.0)
Record low °C (°F) 3.3
(37.9) 		7.6
(45.7) 		11.7
(53.1) 		13.8
(56.8) 		19.1
(66.4) 		20.0
(68.0) 		19.5
(67.1) 		20.0
(68.0) 		18.8
(65.8) 		12.9
(55.2) 		8.9
(48.0) 		5.0
(41.0) 		3.3
(37.9)
Averageprecipitationmm (inches) 7.4
(0.29) 		16.8
(0.66) 		43.8
(1.72) 		89.4
(3.52) 		225.6
(8.88) 		263.8
(10.39) 		299.8
(11.80) 		340.8
(13.42) 		265.0
(10.43) 		87.4
(3.44) 		15.4
(0.61) 		5.0
(0.20) 		1,663.2
(65.48)
Average precipitation days(≥ 1.0 mm) 2 2 5 7 15 18 20 21 17 8 2 1 119
Averagerelative humidity(%) 70 68 66 69 78 82 82 84 83 78 72 70 75
Mean monthlysunshine hours 221.0 214.7 209.2 213.9 188.8 140.7 116.0 124.3 157.7 209.5 225.3 224.9 2,246
Source 1:World Meteorological Organization,[21]Deutscher Wetterdienst(extremes 1907–1990),[22]Pogoda.ru.net,[23]The Yearbook of Indochina (1939–1940)[24]
Source 2:NOAA(humidity 1961–1990)[25]

Tourism

[edit]
Wat Si Muang
Buddha Park

The capital attracts many tourists to its many temples and Buddhist monuments. A popular attraction for foreign visitors isPha That Luang,an important national cultural monument of Laos and one of its best knownstupas.It was originally built in 1566 by KingSetthathirathand was restored in 1953. The golden stupa is 45 metres (148 ft) tall and is believed to contain a relic of the Buddha.[26]

Another site that is also popular amongst tourists isWat Si Muang.The temple was built on the ruins of a Khmer Hindu shrine, the remains of which can be seen behind the ordination hall.[27]It was built in 1563 and is believed to be guarded by the spirit of a local girl, Nang Si. Legend tells that Nang Si, who was pregnant at the time, leapt to her death as a sacrifice, just as the pillar was being lowered into the hole. In front of the temple stands a statue of KingSisavang Vong.[27]

The memorial monument,Patuxai,built between 1957 and 1968, is perhaps the most prominent landmark in the city.[26]While theArc de TriompheinParisinspired the architecture, the design incorporates typical Lao motifs including Kinnari, a mythical bird woman. Energetic visitors can climb to the top of the monument for a panoramic view of the city.

Buddha Parkwas built in 1958 byLuang Pu Bunleua Sulilatand contains a collection of Buddhist and Hindu sculptures, scattered amongst gardens and trees. The park is 28 kilometres (17 mi) south of Vientiane at the edge of theMekong River.[28]

Vientiane is home to one of the three bowling alleys in Laos (the other two are inLuang PrabangandPakse).

Other sites include:

Vientiane fromPatuxai

Education

[edit]

TheNational University of Laos,one of three universities in the country, is in Vientiane.[30]

International schools include:

Broadcasting

[edit]

Economy

[edit]

Vientiane is the driving force behind economic change in Laos. In recent years, the city has experienced rapid economic growth from foreign investment.[33]In 2011, thestock exchangeopened with two listed company stocks, with the cooperation ofSouth Korea.[34]

Transportation

[edit]
Further information:Transportation in Laos

By bus

[edit]
Older taxis in Vientiane are being replaced by newer Chinese-made cars, like thisSoueast Lioncel.[35]

There are regularbusservices connectingVientiane Bus Stationwith the rest of the country. In Vientiane, regular bus services around the city are provided by Vientiane Capital State Bus Enterprise.[36]These buses were set up and run with the help of the Japan International Cooperation Agency.

Daily non-stop bus services run between Vientiane and Nong Khai, Udon Thani, and Khon Kaen in Thailand.

By rail

[edit]
Thanaleng Train Station

TheFirst Thai-Lao Friendship Bridge,built in the 1990s, crosses the river 18 kilometres downstream of the city ofNong Khaiin Thailand, and is the major crossing between the two countries. The official name of the bridge was changed in 2007 by the addition of "First", after theSecond Friendship BridgelinkingMukdahanin Thailand withSavannakhetin Laos was opened early in 2007.

Ametre gaugerailway link over the first bridge was formally inaugurated on 5 March 2009, previously ending atThanaleng Railway Station,in Dongphosy village (Vientiane Prefecture), 20 km east of Vientiane.[37][38]As of November 2010, Lao officials plan to convert the station into a cargo rail terminal forfreight trains,allowing cargo to be transported from Bangkok into Laos more cheaply than via road.[39]The rail link has since been extended 7.5km further into the city, to terminate atVientiane (Khamsavath) railway station,a bigger and newer station closer to the city, with connections to the Central Bus Terminal and the Laos China Railway Station. The first passenger train arrived fromKrung Thep Aphiwat Central Terminalin Bangkok on 20 July 2024. The new station has immigration facilities, offices, shops and more platforms.

TheBoten–Vientiane railway(sometimes referred to as theChina–Laos railwayorLaos–China railway) is an 414 kilometres (257 mi)1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in)standard gaugeelectrified railway inLaos,running between the capital Vientiane and the town ofBotenon the border withChina.The line was officially opened on 3 December 2021.[40]

By air

[edit]
Wattay International Airport

Vientiane is served byWattay International Airportwith international connections to other Asian destinations such asSingapore,Hong Kong,Malaysia,Thailand,South Korea,JapanandChina.Lao Airlineshas regular flights to several domestic destinations in the country (including several flights daily toLuang Prabang,plus a few flights weekly to other local destinations).[41]In Thailand,Udon Thani International Airport,one of Wattay's main connections, is less than 90 km distant.

Healthcare

[edit]

The "Centre Medical de l'Ambassade de France" is available to the foreign community in Laos. TheMahosot Hospitalis an important local hospital in treating and researching diseases and is connected with theUniversity of Oxford.In 2011 the Alliance Clinic opened near the airport, with a connection to Thai hospitals. The Setthathirat International Clinic has foreign doctors. A free, 24/7 ambulance service is provided byVientiane Rescue,a volunteer-run rescue service established in 2010.[42]

Notable people

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^Lao Statistics Bureau (21 October 2016)."Results of Population and Housing Census 2015"(PDF).Archivedfrom the original on 30 June 2020.Retrieved8 January2018.
  2. ^Vientiane Capital
  3. ^Vientiane Capital Records 4.83% Economic Growth in 2022
  4. ^abAskew, Marc; Long, Colin; Logan, William (2006).Vientiane: Transformations of a Lao Landscape.Routledge.pp. 15, 46.ISBN978-1-134-32365-4.Archivedfrom the original on 16 November 2023.Retrieved22 November2020.
  5. ^Goscha, Christopher E.; Ivarsson, Søren (2003).Contesting Visions of the Lao Past: Laos Historiography at the Crossroads.NIAS Press.pp. 34 n.62, 204 n.18.ISBN978-87-91114-02-1.Archivedfrom the original on 16 November 2023.Retrieved22 November2020.
  6. ^"Definition of 'Viangchan'".Collins English Dictionary.Glasgow:HarperCollins.Archivedfrom the original on 11 June 2019.Retrieved11 June2019.Viangchan in British. (ˌwiːɛŋˌtæn). noun: another spelling of Vientiane
  7. ^Lorrillard, Michel (12 November 2019),The Diffusion of Lao Scripts(PDF),p. 6,archived(PDF)from the original on 20 September 2021,retrieved26 February2021
  8. ^Mon inscription in Laos,archivedfrom the original on 7 March 2021,retrieved26 February2021
  9. ^Maha Sila Viravond."HISTORY OF LAOS"(PDF).Refugee Educators' Network.Archived(PDF)from the original on 3 April 2020.Retrieved29 December2017.
  10. ^M.L. Manich."HISTORY OF LAOS (includlng the hlstory of Lonnathai, Chiangmai)"(PDF).Refugee Educators' Network.Archived(PDF)from the original on 17 May 2017.Retrieved29 December2017.
  11. ^Martin Stuart-Fox (6 February 2008),Historical Dictionary of Laos,Scarecrow Press, p. 328,ISBN9780810864115,archivedfrom the original on 24 January 2023,retrieved26 February2021
  12. ^Phra Thep Rattanamoli (1976)."The That Phanom chronicle: a shrine history and its interpretation".Archivedfrom the original on 7 February 2021.Retrieved27 February2021.
  13. ^Kislenko, Arne (2009),Culture and Customs of Laos,Bloomsbury Academic, p. 19,ISBN9780313339776,archivedfrom the original on 24 January 2023,retrieved26 February2021
  14. ^"The Mon and Khmer Kingdoms".31 March 2015.Archivedfrom the original on 24 September 2021.Retrieved26 February2021.
  15. ^Taylor, K. W. (1995).Essays Into Vietnamese Pasts.Cornell University Press.ISBN978-1-501-71899-1.
  16. ^Coedès, George(1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.).The Indianized States of Southeast Asia.trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press.ISBN978-0-8248-0368-1.
  17. ^"Vientiane marks 450 years anniversary".Archived fromthe originalon 16 August 2011.Retrieved18 July2015.
  18. ^abcStuart-Fox, Martin (1997).A History of Laos.Cambridge University Press. p. 51.ISBN978-0-521-59746-3.Archivedfrom the original on 24 August 2023.Retrieved30 June2020.
  19. ^"Far East and Australasia".Archived fromthe originalon 21 November 2010.Retrieved25 November2010.
  20. ^abStuart-Fox, Martin (2002)."Laos: History".The Far East and Australasia 2003.Regional surveys of the world. Psychology Press. pp. 735–742.ISBN9781857431339.Archived fromthe originalon 10 May 2016.Retrieved20 February2023.
  21. ^"World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991–2020".World Meteorological Organization. Archived fromthe originalon 16 July 2021.Retrieved2 August2023.
  22. ^"Klimatafel von Vientiane (Viangchan) / Laos"(PDF).Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world(in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst.Archived(PDF)from the original on 5 March 2020.Retrieved23 January2016.
  23. ^КЛИМАТ УЛАН-БАТОРА(in Russian). Pogoda.ru.net.Archivedfrom the original on 16 November 2023.Retrieved4 January2015.
  24. ^"The Yearbook of Indochina (1939-1940)"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 16 June 2023.Retrieved16 June2023.
  25. ^"Vientiane Climate Normals 1961–1990".National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.Archivedfrom the original on 17 July 2020.Retrieved29 November2013.
  26. ^abLao National Tourism Administration – Tourist Sites in Vientiane CapitalArchived23 July 2011 at theWayback Machine
  27. ^ab"Wat Si Muang".Archivedfrom the original on 10 February 2008.Retrieved18 July2015.
  28. ^"Buddha Park – Vientiane – Laos – Asia for Visitors".Archivedfrom the original on 1 June 2015.Retrieved18 July2015.
  29. ^"China Gives Southeast Asia's Poorest First Time Access to Consumer Goods – China Briefing News".China Briefing News.23 January 2008.Archivedfrom the original on 14 May 2014.Retrieved7 May2012.
  30. ^"National University of Laos (NUOL)".National University of Laos (NUOL).NUOL.Archivedfrom the original on 1 August 2017.Retrieved8 December2014.
  31. ^"Lycée français international de Vientiane Josué-Hoffet".AEFE.Archivedfrom the original on 16 June 2023.Retrieved16 June2023.
  32. ^"China Radio International".Archivedfrom the original on 4 February 2011.Retrieved11 February2011.
  33. ^Work begins on major new Vientiane shopping centre | Lao VoicesArchived3 May 2011 at theWayback Machine
  34. ^"Laos stocks soar on debut – yes, both of them".Financial Times.Archived fromthe originalon 27 July 2011.
  35. ^Matthias Gasnier (13 August 2012)."Laos 2012 Update: Chinese models keep spreading".bestsellingcarsblog.com.Archivedfrom the original on 7 December 2013.Retrieved10 November2013.
  36. ^"Timetables".Vientiane Capital State Bus Enterprise.VCSBE.Archivedfrom the original on 1 June 2015.Retrieved8 December2014.
  37. ^"Inaugural train begins Laos royal visit".Railway Gazette International.5 March 2009.Archivedfrom the original on 22 July 2010.Retrieved3 August2009.
  38. ^Andrew Spooner (27 February 2009)."First train to Laos".The Guardian.Archivedfrom the original on 11 November 2014.Retrieved13 March2011.
  39. ^Rapeepat Mantanarat (9 November 2010)."Laos rethinks rail project".TTR Weekly. Archived fromthe originalon 27 July 2011.Retrieved13 March2011.
  40. ^"Trung lão thiết lộ kim nhật thông xa - đồ phiến tân văn - trung hoa nhân dân cộng hòa quốc giao thông vận thâu bộ".www.mot.gov.cn.Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2021.Retrieved3 December2021.
  41. ^"Route Map".Lao Airlines.Archivedfrom the original on 1 August 2017.Retrieved8 December2014.
  42. ^"About".Vientiane Rescue.Archivedfrom the original on 11 October 2016.Retrieved11 October2016.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Askew, Marc, William Stewart Logan, and Colin Long.Vientiane: Transformations of a Lao Landscape.London: Routledge, 2007.ISBN978-0-415-33141-8
  • Sharifi et al.,Can master planning control and regulate urban growth in Vientiane, Laos?.Landscape and Urban Planning, 2014.DOI: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.07.014
  • Flores, Penelope V.Good-Bye, Vientiane: Untold Stories of Filipinos in Laos.San Francisco, CA: Philippine American Writers and Artists, Inc, 2005.ISBN978-0-9763316-1-2
  • Renaut, Thomas, and Arnaud Dubus.Eternal Vientiane.City heritage. Hong Kong: Published by Fortune Image Ltd. for Les Editions d'Indochine, 1995.
  • Schrama, Ilse, and Birgit Schrama.Buddhist Temple Life in Laos: Wat Sok Pa Luang.Bangkok: Orchid Press, 2006.ISBN978-974-524-073-5
  • Women's International Group Laos.Vientiane Guide.Vientiane: Women's International Group, 1993.
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vientiane&oldid=1239948713"