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Wilfrid

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For other uses, seeWilfred (given name)andWilfred (disambiguation).

Saint

Wilfrid
Bishop of York
Appointed664
Term ended678
PredecessorChad
SuccessorBosa of York
Orders
Consecration664
Personal details
Bornc. 633
Northumbria
Died709 or 710
Oundle,Northamptonshire
Sainthood
Feast day12 October or 24 April
Venerated in
Attributesbaptising, preaching, landing from a ship and received by the king; or engaged in theological disputation with his crozier near him and a lectern before him
Patronage
ShrinesRipon,Sompting(Sussex), andFrisia(Roeder).

Wilfrid[a](c. 633– 709 or 710) was an Englishbishopandsaint.Born aNorthumbriannoble, he entered religious life as a teenager and studied atLindisfarne,atCanterbury,inFrancia,and at Rome; he returned to Northumbria in about 660, and became the abbot of a newly founded monastery atRipon.In 664 Wilfrid acted as spokesman for the Roman position at theSynod of Whitby,and became famous for his speech advocating that the Roman method for calculating the date of Easter should be adopted. His success prompted the king's son,Alhfrith,to appoint him Bishop of Northumbria. Wilfrid chose to be consecrated in Gaul because of the lack of what he considered to be validly consecrated bishops in England at that time. During Wilfrid's absence Alhfrith seems to have led an unsuccessful revolt against his father,Oswiu,leaving a question mark over Wilfrid's appointment as bishop. Before Wilfrid's return Oswiu had appointedCeaddain his place, resulting in Wilfrid's retirement to Ripon for a few years following his arrival back in Northumbria.

After becomingArchbishop of Canterburyin 668,Theodore of Tarsusresolved the situation by deposing Ceadda and restoring Wilfrid as the Bishop of Northumbria. For the next nine years Wilfrid discharged his episcopal duties, founded monasteries, built churches, and improved theliturgy.However hisdiocesewas very large, and Theodore wished to reform the English Church, a process which included breaking up some of the larger dioceses into smaller ones. When Wilfrid quarrelled withEcgfrith,the Northumbrian king, Theodore took the opportunity to implement his reforms despite Wilfrid's objections. After Ecgfrith expelled him from York, Wilfrid travelled to Rome to appeal to the papacy. PopeAgathoruled in Wilfrid's favour, but Ecgfrith refused to honour the papal decree and instead imprisoned Wilfrid on his return to Northumbria before exiling him.

Wilfrid spent the next few years inSelsey,now inWest Sussex,where he founded anepiscopal seeand converted the pagan inhabitants of theKingdom of Sussexto Christianity. Theodore and Wilfrid settled their differences, and Theodore urged the new Northumbrian king,Aldfrith,to allow Wilfrid's return. Aldfrith agreed to do so, but in 691 he expelled Wilfrid again. Wilfrid went to Mercia, where he helped missionaries and acted as bishop for the Mercian king. Wilfrid appealed to the papacy about his expulsion in 700, and the pope ordered that an English council should be held to decide the issue. This council, held atAusterfieldinSouth Yorkshirein 702, attempted to confiscate all of Wilfrid's possessions, and so Wilfrid travelled to Rome to appeal against the decision. His opponents in Northumbria excommunicated him, but the papacy upheld Wilfrid's side, and he regained possession ofRiponandHexham,his Northumbrian monasteries. Wilfrid died in 709 or 710. After his death, he was venerated as a saint.

Historians then and now have been divided over Wilfrid. His followers commissionedStephen of Riponto write aVita Sancti Wilfrithi(orLife of Saint Wilfrid) shortly after his death, and the medieval historianBedealso wrote extensively about him. Wilfrid lived ostentatiously, and travelled with a large retinue. He ruled a large number of monasteries, and claimed to be the first Englishman to introduce theRule of Saint Benedictinto English monasteries. Some modern historians see him mainly as a champion of Roman customs against the customs of theBritish and Irish churches,others as an advocate formonasticism.

Background

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Main article:Heptarchy
Map of the island of Great Britain. At the far north are the Picts, then below them Strathclyde and Northumbria. In the middle western section are Gwynedd, Powys, Dyfedd, and Gwent. Along the southern shore are Dumnonia, the West and South Saxons, and Kent, running from west to east. In the centre of the island is Mercia. Along the eastern central coast are the East Angles and Lindsey.
Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the late 7th century

During Wilfrid's lifetime Britain and Ireland consisted of a number of small kingdoms. Traditionally theEnglish peoplewere thought to have been divided into seven kingdoms, but modern historiography has shown that this is a simplification of a much more confused situation.[6]A late 7th-century source, theTribal Hidage,lists the peoples south of the Humber river; among the largest groups of peoples are the West Saxons (laterWessex), theEast AnglesandMercians(later the Kingdom of Mercia), and theKingdom of Kent.Smaller groups who at that time had their own royalty but were later absorbed into larger kingdoms include the peoples ofMagonsæte,Lindsey,Hwicce,theEast Saxons,the South Saxons,[7]the Isle of Wight, and theMiddle Angles.[8]Other even smaller groups had their own rulers, but their size means that they do not often appear in the histories.[7]There were also native Britons in the west, in modern-day Wales andCornwall,who formed kingdoms including those ofDumnonia,Dyfed,andGwynedd.[9]

Between the Humber andForththe English had formed into two main kingdoms,Deiraand Bernicia, often united as the Kingdom of Northumbria.[10]A number of Celtic kingdoms also existed in this region, includingCraven,Elmet,Rheged,andGododdin.A native British kingdom, later called theKingdom of Strathclyde,survived as an independent power into the 10th century in the area which became modern-dayDunbartonshireandClydesdale.[11]To the north-west of Strathclyde lay the Gaelic kingdom ofDál Riata,and to the north-east a small number of Pictish kingdoms.[12]Further north still lay the great Pictish kingdom ofFortriu,which after theBattle of Dun Nechtainin 685 came to be the strongest power in the northern half of Britain.[13][14][15]The Irish had always had contacts with the rest of the British Isles, and during the early 6th century they emigrated from the island of Ireland to form the kingdom of Dál Riata, although exactly how much conquest took place is a matter of dispute with historians. It also appears likely that the Irish settled in parts of Wales, and even after the period of Irish settlement, Irish missionaries were active in Britain.[16]

Christianity had only recently arrived in some of these kingdoms.[17]Some had been converted by theGregorian mission,a group of Roman missionaries who arrived in Kent in 597 and who mainly influenced southern Britain. Others had been converted by the Hiberno-Scottish mission, chiefly Irish missionaries working in Northumbria and neighbouring kingdoms.[18]A few kingdoms, such as Dál Riata, became Christian but how they did so is unknown.[19]The native Picts, according to the medieval writer Bede, were converted in two stages, initially by native Britons underNinian,and subsequently by Irish missionaries.[20]

Sources

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The main sources for knowledge of Wilfrid are the medievalVita Sancti Wilfrithi,written by Stephen of Ripon soon after Wilfrid's death, and the works of the medieval historian Bede, who knew Wilfrid during the bishop's lifetime.[21][22]Stephen'sVitais a hagiography, intended to show Wilfrid as a saintly man, and to buttress claims that he was a saint.[23][24]TheVitais selective in its coverage, and gives short shrift to Wilfrid's activities outside of Northumbria. Two-thirds of the work deals with Wilfrid's attempts to return to Northumbria, and is a defence and vindication of his Northumbrian career.[23]Stephen's work is flattering and highly favourable to Wilfrid, making its use as a source problematic;[25]despite its shortcomings however, theVitais the main source of information on Wilfrid's life.[26][27]It views the events in Northumbria in the light of Wilfrid's reputation and from his point of view, and is highly partisan.[28]Another concern is that hagiographies were usually full of conventional material, often repeated from earlier saints' lives,[29]as was the case with Stephen's work.[30]It appears that theVita Sancti Wilfrithiwas not well known in the Middle Ages, as only two manuscripts of the work survive.[31]

Bede also covers Wilfrid's life in hisHistoria ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum,but this account is more measured and restrained than theVita.[25]In theHistoria,Bede used Stephen'sVitaas a source, reworking the information and adding new material when possible. Other, more minor, sources for Wilfrid's life include a mention of Wilfrid in one of Bede's letters.[32]A poeticalVita Sancti WilfrithibyFrithegodwritten in the 10th century is essentially a rewrite of Stephen'sVita,produced in celebration of the movement of Wilfrid'srelicsto Canterbury.[21]Wilfrid is also mentioned in theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle,[33]but as theChroniclewas probably a 9th-century compilation, the material on Wilfrid may ultimately have derived either from Stephen'sVitaor from Bede.[34]Another, later, source is theVita Sancti Wilfrithiwritten byEadmer,a 12th-century Anglo-Norman writer and monk from Canterbury. This source is highly influenced by the contemporary concerns of its writer, but does attempt to provide some new material besides reworking Bede.[35]

Many historians, including the editor of Bede's works,Charles Plummer,have seen in Bede's writings a dislike of Wilfrid. The historian Walter Goffart goes further, suggesting that Bede wrote hisHistoriaas a reaction to Stephen'sVita Sancti Wilfrithi,and that Stephen's work was written as part of a propaganda campaign to defend a "Wilfridian" party in Northumbrian politics.[36]Some historians, includingJames Fraser,find that a credible view,[28]but others such as Nick Higham are less convinced of Bede's hostility to Wilfrid.[36]

Early life

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Childhood and early education

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Wilfrid was born in Northumbria around 633.[37]James Fraser argues that Wilfrid's family were aristocrats from Deira, pointing out that most of Wilfrid's early contacts were from that area.[38]A conflict with his stepmother when he was about 14 years old drove Wilfrid to leave home, probably without his father's consent.[39]Wilfrid's background is never explicitly described as noble, but the king's retainers were frequent guests at his father's house, and on leaving home Wilfrid equipped his party with horses and clothes fit for a royal court.[27]

QueenEanflædbecame Wilfrid's patroness following his arrival at the court of her husband, King Oswiu.[39]She sent him to study under Cudda, formerly one of her husband's retainers, but by that time in about 648 a monk on the island of Lindisfarne.[21]The monastery on the island had recently been founded byAidan,who had been instrumental in converting Northumbria to Christianity.[27]At Lindisfarne Wilfrid is said to have "learned the wholePsalterby heart and several books ".[40]Wilfrid studied at Lindisfarne for a few years before going to the Kentish king's court atCanterburyin 652, where he stayed with relatives of Queen Eanflæd.[21]The queen had given Wilfrid a letter of introduction to pass to her cousin, KingEorcenberht,to ensure that Wilfrid was received by the king.[27]While in Kent, Wilfrid's career was advanced by Eanflæd's cousinHlothere,who was later theKing of Kentfrom 673 to 685.[41]The Kentish court included a number of visiting clergymen at that time, includingBenedict Biscop,a noted missionary.[42]Wilfrid appears to have spent about a year in Kent, but the exact chronology is uncertain.[43]

Time at Rome and Lyon

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An underground stone lined crypt.
7th-centurycryptatHexham monastery,where Wilfrid may have deposited any relics he brought back from the continent

Wilfrid left Kent for Rome in the company of Benedict Biscop,[44]another of Eanflæd's contacts.[21]This is the first pilgrimage to Rome known to have been undertaken by English natives,[45]and took place some time between 653 and 658.[27]According to Wilfrid's later biographer, Stephen of Ripon, Wilfrid left Biscop's company atLyon,where Wilfrid stayed under the patronage ofAnnemund,the archbishop. Stephen says that Annemund wanted to marry Wilfrid to the archbishop's niece, and to make Wilfrid the governor of a Frankish province, but that Wilfrid refused and continued on his journey to Rome.[21]There he learned the Roman method ofcalculating the date of Easter,and studied the Roman practice of relic collecting.[46]He developed a close friendship withBoniface Consiliariusduring his time in Rome. After an audience with the pope, Wilfrid returned to Lyon.[21]

Stephen of Ripon says that Wilfrid stayed in Lyon for three years, leaving only after the archbishop's murder. However, Annemund's murder took place in 660 and Wilfrid returned to England in 658, suggesting that Stephen's chronology is awry.[21][b]Stephen says that Annemund gave Wilfrid a clericaltonsure,although this does not appear to mean that he became a monk, merely that he entered the clergy. Bede is silent on the subject of Wilfrid's monastic status,[48]although Wilfrid probably became a monk during his time in Rome, or afterwards while he was in Gaul.[49]Some historians, however, believe that Wilfrid was never a monk.[48]While in Gaul, Wilfrid absorbed Frankish ecclesiastical practices, including some aspects from the monasteries founded byColumbanus.This influence may be seen in Wilfrid's probable adoption of a Frankish ceremony in his consecration of churches later in his life, as well as in his employment of Frankish masons to build his churches.[50]Wilfrid would also have learned of theRule of Saint Benedictin Gaul, as Columbanus' monasteries followed that monastic rule.[51]

Abbot of Ripon

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After Wilfrid's return to Northumbria in about 658,Cenwalh,King of Wessex,recommended Wilfrid toAlhfrith,Oswiu's son, as a cleric well-versed in Roman customs and liturgy.[52]Alhfrith was a sub-king of Deiria under his father's rule, and the most likely heir to his father's throne as his half-brothers were still young.[53]Shortly before 664 Alhfrith gave Wilfrid a monastery he had recently founded at Ripon,[44][52]formed around a group of monks fromMelrose Abbey,followers of theIrish monastic customs.[53]Wilfrid ejected the abbot, Eata, because he would not follow the Roman customs;[52]Cuthbert,later a saint, was another of the monks expelled.[21]Wilfrid introduced theRule of Saint Benedictinto Ripon, claiming that he was the first person in England to make a monastery follow it,[54]but this claim rests on theVita Sancti Wilfrithiand does not say where Wilfrid became knowledgeable about theRule,nor exactly what form of theRulewas being referred to.[55]Shortly afterwards Wilfrid was ordained a priest byAgilbert,Bishop of Dorchesterin the kingdom of the Gewisse, part of Wessex.[39]Wilfrid was a protégé of Agilbert, who later helped in Wilfrid's consecration as a bishop.[56]The monkCeolfrithwas attracted to Ripon fromGilling Abbey,which had recently been depopulated as a result of the plague. Ceolfrith later became Abbot ofWearmouth-Jarrowduring the time the medieval chronicler and writer Bede was a monk there.[57]Bede hardly mentions the relationship between Ceolfrith and Wilfrid, but it was Wilfrid who consecrated Ceolfrith a priest and who gave permission for him to transfer to Wearmouth-Jarrow.[58]

Whitby

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Main article:Synod of Whitby

Background to Whitby

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The Roman churches and those in Britain and Ireland (often called "Celtic" churches) used different methods to calculate the date of Easter. The church in Northumbria had traditionally used the Celtic method, and that was the date observed by King Oswiu. His wife Eanflæd and a son, Alhfrith, celebrated Easter on the Roman date,[59]which meant that while one part of the royal court was still observing theLentenfast, another would be celebrating with feasting.[60]

Oswiu called a church council held atWhitby Abbeyin 664 in an attempt to resolve thiscontroversy.Although Oswiu himself had been brought up in the "Celtic" tradition, political pressures may have influenced his decision to call a council, as well as fears that if dissent over the date of Easter continued in the Northumbrian church it could lead to internal strife.[59]The historian Richard Abels speculates that the expulsion of Eata from Ripon may have been the spark that led to the king's decision to call the council.[61]Regional tensions within Northumbria between the two traditional divisions,Berniciaand Deira, appear to have played a part, as churchmen in Bernicia favoured the Celtic method of dating and those in Deira may have leaned towards the Roman method.[62]Abels identifies several conflicts contributing to both the calling of the council and its outcome, including a generational conflict between Oswiu and Alhfrith and the death of the Archbishop of Canterbury,Deusdedit.Political concerns unrelated to the dating problem, such as the decline of Oswiu's preeminence among the other English kingdoms and the challenge to that position by Mercia, were also factors.[63]

Synod

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Wilfrid attended the synod, or council, of Whitby, as a member of the party favouring the continental practice of dating Easter, along withJames the Deacon,Agilbert, and Alhfrith. Those supporting the "Celtic" viewpoint were King Oswiu,Hilda,the Abbess of Whitby,Cedd,a bishop, andColmán of Lindisfarne,theBishop of Lindisfarne.[64]

Wilfrid was chosen to present the Roman position to the council;[64]he also acted as Agilbert's interpreter, as the latter did not speak the local language.[65][c]Bede describes Wilfrid as saying that those who did not calculate the date of Easter according to the Roman system were committing a sin.[66]Wilfrid's speech in favour of adopting Roman church practices helped secure the eclipse of the "Celtic" party in 664,[37][67][d]although most Irish churches did not adopt the Roman date of Easter until 704, andIonaheld out until 716.[68][e]Many of the Irish monasteries did not observe the Roman Easter, but they were not isolated from the continent; by the time of Whitby the southern Irish were already observing the Roman Easter date, and Irish clergy were in contact with their continental counterparts.[69]Those monks and clergy unable to accept the Whitby decision left Northumbria, some going to Ireland[70]and others to Iona.[52]

York

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Elevation to the episcopate

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King Oswiu of Northumbria's family tree

After the supporters of the Celtic dating had withdrawn following the Council of Whitby, Wilfrid became the most prominent Northumbrian cleric. As a result, and because of his performance at Whitby,[71]Wilfrid was elected to a bishopric in Northumbria about a year after the council.[72]It is unclear where his diocese was located, although he was considered to be Alhfrith's bishop.[52]TheVita Sancti Wilfrithistates that, nominated by both Oswiu and Alhfrith, he was made bishop atYork,and that he was ametropolitan bishop,but York at that time was not aMetropolitan Diocese.[73][f]Bede says that Alhfrith alone nominated Wilfrid,[75]and that Oswiu subsequently proposed an alternative candidate, "imitating the actions of his son".[76]Several theories have been suggested to explain the discrepancies between the two sources.[73]One is that Alhfrith wished the seat to be at York,[52]another is that Wilfrid was bishop only in Deira, a third supposes that Wilfrid was never bishop at York and that his diocese was only part of Deira.[73]At that time the Anglo-Saxon dioceses were not strictly speaking geographical designations, rather they were bishoprics for the tribes or peoples.[77]

Wilfrid refused to be consecrated in Northumbria at the hands of Anglo-Saxon bishops. Deusdedit had died shortly after Whitby, and as there were no other bishops in Britain whom Wilfrid considered to have beenvalidly consecrated[52]he travelled toCompiègne,to be consecrated by Agilbert, theBishop of Paris.[78]During his time in Gaul Wilfrid was exposed to a higher level of ceremony than that practised in Northumbria, one example of which is that he was carried to his consecration ceremony on a throne supported by nine bishops.[79]

Delays and difficulties

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Wilfrid delayed his return from Gaul, only to find on his arrival back in Northumbria that Ceadda had been installed as bishop in his place.[44]The reason for Wilfrid's delay has never been clear, although the historiansEric Johnand Richard Abels theorise that it was caused by Alhfrith's unsuccessful revolt against Oswiu. They suggest that the rebellion happened shortly after Whitby, perhaps while Wilfrid was in Gaul for his consecration. Because Oswiu knew that Alhfrith had been a supporter of Wilfrid's, Oswiu prevented Wilfrid's return, suspecting Wilfrid of supporting his rivals.[71][80]That Ceadda was supported by Oswiu, and Wilfrid had been a supporter of Oswiu's son, lends further credence to the theory that Alhfrith's rebellion took place while Wilfrid was in Gaul.[81]Stephen of Ripon reported that Wilfrid was expelled by "Quartodecimans",or those who supported the celebration of Easter on the 14th day of the Jewish monthNisan,whether or not this was a Sunday. However, as the Irish church had never been Quartodecimans, Stephen in this instance was constructing a narrative to put Wilfrid in the best light.[82]

During his return to Northumbria Wilfrid's ship was blown ashore on the Sussex coast, the inhabitants of which were at that time pagan. On being attacked by the locals, Wilfrid's party killed the head priest before refloating their ship and making their escape.[21]The historian Marion Gibbs suggests that after this episode Wilfrid visitedKentagain, and took part in the diplomacy related toWigheard's appointment to the see of Canterbury. Wilfrid may also have taken part in negotiations to persuade King Cenwalh of Wessex to allow Agilbert to return to his see.[83]

Favourable outcome

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Denied episcopal office, Wilfrid spent the three years from 665 to 668 as abbot of the monastery at Ripon.[84]He occasionally performed episcopal functions in Mercia and Kent, but never did so north of the riverHumber.[52]The historian James Fraser argues that Wilfrid may not have been allowed to return to Northumbria and instead went into exile at the Mercian court,[75]but most historians have argued that Wilfrid was at Ripon.[21][52][84]

Wulfhere of Mercia's family tree

Wilfrid's monasteries in Mercia may date from this time,[85]as KingWulfhere of Merciagave him large grants of land in Mercia.[21]Wilfrid may have persuaded KingEcgberht of Kentin 669 to build a church in an abandoned Roman fort atReculver.[86]When Theodore, the newly appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, arrived in England in 669[87]it was clear that something had to be done about the situation in Northumbria. Ceadda's election to York was improper,[84]and Theodore did not consider Ceadda's consecration to have been valid.[88]Consequently, Theodore deposed Ceadda,[g]leaving the way open for Wilfrid,[84]who was finally installed in his see in 669,[72]the first Saxon to occupy the see of York.[90]Wilfrid spent the next nine years building churches, including at the monastery at Hexham, and attending to diocesan business.[21]He continued to exercise control over his monastic houses of Ripon and Hexham while he was bishop.[89]Oswiu's death on 15 February 670 eliminated a source of friction and helped to assure Wilfrid's return.[91]

While at York, Wilfrid was considered the "bishop of the Northumbrian peoples"; Bede records that Wilfrid's diocese was contiguous with the area ruled by Oswiu.[92]The diocese was restricted to north of the Humber, however.[93]Wilfrid may also have sought to exercise some ecclesiastical functions in thePictish kingdom,as he is accorded the title "bishop of the Northumbrians and the Picts" in 669. Further proof of attempted Northumbrian influence in the Pictish regions is provided by the establishment for the Picts in 681 of a diocese centred onAbercorn,in the old territory of the British kingdom of Gododdin. The grants of land to Wilfrid west of thePenninestestify to Northumbrian expansion in that area.[70]TheVita Sancti Wilfrithiclaims that Wilfrid had ecclesiastical rule over Britons and Gaels.[94]In 679, while Wilfrid was in Rome, he claimed authority over "all the northern part of Britain, Ireland and the islands, which are inhabited by English and British peoples, as well as by Gaelic and Pictish peoples".[95]

Diocesan affairs

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Wilfrid did not attend theCouncil of Hertfordheld in September 672, but he did send representatives. Among the council's resolutions was one postponing a decision on the creation of new dioceses, which affected Wilfrid later.[96]Another ruling confirmed that the Roman calculation for the date of Easter should be adopted, and that bishops should act only in their own dioceses.[97]During the middle 670s Wilfrid acted as middleman in the negotiations to return aMerovingianprince,Dagobert II,from his exile in Ireland to Gaul.[98][h]Wilfrid was one of the first churchmen in Northumbria to use writtenchartersas records of gifts to his churches. He ordered the creation of a listing of all benefactions received by Ripon, which was recited at the dedication ceremony.[21]

Wilfrid was an advocate for the use of music in ecclesiastical ceremonies. He sent to Kent for a singing master to instruct his clergy in the Roman style of church music, which involved a double choir who sang inantiphonsand responses.[21]Bede says that this singing master was named Æddi (or Eddius in Latin) and had the surname Stephen. Traditionally historians have identified Æddi as Stephen of Ripon, author of theVita Sancti Wilfrithi,which has led to the assumption that theVitawas based on the recollections of one of Wilfrid's long-time companions. Recent scholarship has come to believe that theVitawas not authored by the singing master, but by someone who joined Wilfrid in the last years of Wilfrid's life, not a close companion.[100]

Wilfrid introduced theRule of Saint Benedictinto the monasteries he founded.[21]It appears likely that he was the first to introduce the Benedictine Rule into England, as evidence is lacking thatAugustine's monastery at Canterbury followed theRule.[101]He also was one of the first Anglo-Saxon bishops to record the gifts of land and property to his church, which he did at Ripon. Easter tables, used to calculate the correct date to celebrate Easter, were brought in from Rome where theDionysiac Easter tableshad been recently introduced.[21]He set up schools and became a religious advisor to the Northumbrian queenÆthelthryth,first wife ofEcgfrith.Æthelthryth donated the land atHexhamwhere Wilfrid founded a monastery and built a church using some recycled stones from the Roman town ofCorbridge.[102][103]When Wilfrid arrived in York as bishop the cathedral's roof was on the point of collapse; he had it repaired and covered in lead, and had glass set in the windows.[104]

The historianBarbara Yorkesays of Wilfrid at this time that he "seems to have continued a campaign against any survival of 'Irish errors' and distrusted any communities that remained in contact with Iona or other Irish religious houses which did not follow the Roman Easter".[105]He also worked to combat pagan practices, building a church atMelroseon a pagan site.[106]Contemporaries said of him that he was the first native bishop to "introduce the Catholic way of life to the churches of the English".[107]He did not neglect his pastoral duties in his diocese,[27]making visits throughout the diocese to baptise and perform other episcopal functions, such as consecrating new churches.[108]Some of the monasteries in his diocese were put under his protection by their abbots or abbesses, who were seeking someone to help protect their endowments.[109]In ruling over such monasteries, Wilfrid may have been influenced by the Irish model of a group of monasteries all ruled by one person, sometimes while holding episcopal office.[110]

Wilfrid was criticised for dressing his household and servants in clothing fit for royalty.[111]He was accompanied on his travels by a retinue of warriors, one of whom, while at York, Wilfrid sent to abduct a young boy who had been promised to the church but whose family had changed their mind.[112]Wilfrid also educated young men, both for clerical and secular careers.[113]

Expulsion

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Dispute with the king

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Map of Northumbria, showing the bishopric of Whithorn on the west coast, Abercorn on the north coast, Lindisfarn on the northeast coast and york in the south. The bishopric of Hexham is in the centre. The abbey of Ripon is between York and Hexham and Whitby is on the coast south of Lindisfarne.
Map showing monasteries and bishoprics in Northumbria around 670. Bishoprics are underlined.

In 677[114]or 678, Wilfrid and Ecgfrith quarrelled, and Wilfrid was expelled from his see.[21]AbbessHilda of Whitbywas a leader in a faction of the Northumbrian church that disliked Wilfrid, and her close ties with Theodore helped to undermine Wilfrid's position in Northumbria.[44]Another contributory factor in Wilfrid's expulsion was his encouragement of Æthelthryth's entry into a nunnery;[103]he had personally given her the veil, the ceremony of entering a nunnery, on her retirement to Ely Abbey.[115]Æthelthryth had donated the lands Wilfrid used to found Hexham Abbey, and the historianN. J. Highamargues that they had been part of the queen'sdower lands,which, when Ecgfrith remarried, his new queen wanted to recover.[116]The historian Eric John feels that Wilfrid's close ties with the Mercian kingdom also contributed to his troubles with Egfrith, although John points out that these ties were necessary for Wilfrid's monastic foundations, some of which were in Mercia.[101]Wilfrid not only lost his diocese, he lost control of his monasteries as well.[84]

Theodore took advantage of the situation to implement decrees of some councils on dividing up large dioceses.[84]Theodore set up new bishoprics from Wilfrid's diocese, with seats atYork,Hexham, Lindisfarne, and one in the region ofLindsey.The Lindsey see was quickly absorbed by theDiocese of Lichfield,but the other three remained separate.[117]The bishops chosen for these sees,Eataat Hexham,Eadhædat Lindsey, and Bosa at York, had all either been supporters of the "Celtic" party at Whitby, or been trained by those who were.[89]Eata had also been ejected from Ripon by Wilfrid.[52]The new bishops were unacceptable to Wilfrid, who claimed they were not truly members of the Church because of their support for the "Celtic" method of dating Easter, and thus he could not serve alongside them.[89]Another possible problem for Wilfrid was that the three new bishops did not come from Wilfrid's monastic houses nor from the communities where the bishops' seats were based. This was contrary to the custom of the time, which was to promote bishoprics from within the locality.[118]Wilfrid's deposition became tangled up in a dispute over whether or not the Gregorian plan for Britain, with two metropolitan sees, the northern one set at York, would be followed through or abandoned.[119]Wilfrid seems to have felt that he had metropolitan authority over the northern part of England, but Theodore never acknowledged that claim, instead claiming authority over the whole of the island of Britain.[120]

Appeal to Rome

[edit]

Wilfrid went to Rome after his expulsion to appeal against Theodore and Ecgfrith's decisions,[114][121]the first Englishman to challenge a royal or ecclesiastical decision by petitioning the papacy.[84][i]On the way he stopped at the court ofAldgisl,theFrisian kinginUtrechtfor most of 678.[114]Wilfrid had been blown off course on his trip from England to the continent, and ended up in Frisia according to some historians.[123]Others state that he intended to journey via Frisia to avoidNeustria,whoseMayor of the Palace,Ebroin,disliked Wilfrid.[21]He wintered in Frisia, avoiding the diplomatic efforts of Ebroin, who according to Stephen attempted to have Wilfrid killed. During his stay, Wilfrid attempted to convert the Frisians, who were still pagan at that time. Wilfrid's biographer says that most of the nobles converted,[124]but the success was short-lived.[125]After Frisia, he stopped at the court of Dagobert II in Austrasia, where the king offered Wilfrid theBishopric of Strasbourg,which Wilfrid refused.[21]Once in Italy, Wilfrid was received byPerctarit,aLombardking, who gave him a place at his court.[126]

PopeAgathoheld a synod in October 679, which although it ordered Wilfrid's restoration and the return of the monasteries to his control, also directed that the new dioceses should be retained.[114]Wilfrid was given the right to replace any bishop in the new dioceses to whom he objected.[84][j]The council had been called to deal with theMonothelete controversy,and Wilfrid's concerns were not the sole focus of the council. In fact, the historianHenry Chadwickthought that one reason Wilfrid secured the mostly favourable outcome was that Agatho wished for Wilfrid's support and testimony that the English Church was free of the monothelete heresy.[128]Although Wilfrid did not win a complete victory, he did secure a papal decree limiting the number of dioceses in England to 12.[129]Wilfrid also secured the right for his monasteries of Ripon and Hexham to be directly supervised by the pope, preventing any further interference in their affairs by the diocesan bishops.[130]

Wilfrid returned to England after the council via Gaul. According to Stephen of Ripon, after the death of Dagobert II, Ebroin wished to imprison Wilfrid, but Wilfrid miraculously escaped.[131]In 680 Wilfrid returned to Northumbria and appeared before a royal council. He produced the papal decree ordering his restoration, but was instead briefly imprisoned and then exiled by the king.[132][133]Wilfrid stayed for a short time in the kingdom of the Middle Angles and at Wessex,[84]but soon took refuge in Sussex with KingÆthelwealh of Sussex.[134]

Missions in Sussex

[edit]
Map showing Selsey on the southern coast of England in the central section.
Map showing the location of Selsey

Wilfrid spent the next five years preaching to, and converting the pagan inhabitants of Sussex, the South Saxons. He also foundedSelsey Abbey,[44]on an estate near Selsey of 87hides,given to Wilfrid by Æthelwealh, king of the South Saxons.[135]Bede attributes Wilfrid's ability to convert the South Saxons to his teaching them how to fish, and contrasts it with the lack of success of the Irish monk Dicuill.[136]Bede also says that the Sussex area had been experiencing a drought for three years before Wilfrid's arrival, but miraculously when Wilfrid arrived, and started baptising converts, rain began to fall.[137]Wilfrid worked with BishopErkenwaldof London, helping to set up the church in Sussex. Erkenwald also helped reconcile Wilfrid and Theodore before Theodore's death in 690.[138]The mission was jeopardised when King Æthelwealh died during an invasion of his kingdom byCædwalla of Wessex.[84]Wilfrid previously had contact with Cædwalla, and may have served as his spiritual advisor before Cædwalla's invasion of Sussex.[139]After Æthelwealh's death and Cædwalla's accession to the throne of Wessex, Wilfrid became one of the new king's advisors, and the king was converted.[140]Cædwalla confirmed Æthelwealh's grant of land in the Selsey area and Wilfrid built hiscathedral churchnear the entrance toPagham Harbour,believed to be what is nowChurch Norton.[141]

Cædwalla sent Wilfrid to theIsle of Wight,which was still pagan, with the aim of converting the inhabitants.[84][k]The king also gave Wilfrid a quarter of the land on the island as a gift.[143]In 688, the king relinquished his throne and went on a pilgrimage to Rome to be baptised, but died shortly after the ceremony.[140]Wilfrid was probably influential in Cædwalla's decision to be baptised in Rome.[139]

During his time in Sussex Wilfrid was reconciled with Archbishop Theodore; theVita Sancti Wilfrithisays that Theodore expressed a desire for Wilfrid to succeed him at Canterbury.[144]Wilfrid may have been involved in founding monasteries nearBathas well as in other parts of Sussex, but the evidence backing this is based on the wording used in the founding charters resembling wording used by Wilfrid in other charters, not on any concrete statements that Wilfrid was involved.[145]

Return to Northumbria and exile

[edit]

Return from exile

[edit]

In 686 Wilfrid was recalled to Northumbria after the death of Ecgfrith in battle with the Picts.[72][146]During the 680s Theodore had created two more dioceses in Northumbria, at Ripon, and at Abercorn in the Pictish kingdom, but both were short-lived.[117]After Ecgfrith's death, Theodore wrote to the new king of Northumbria, Aldfrith, and toÆthelred,king of Mercia and the Abbess of Whitby, Ælfflæd, suggesting that an agreement be made allowing Wilfrid's return to Northumbria. Aldfrith agreed, Wilfrid returned to the north, and Bosa was removed from York. Wilfrid did not recover the whole of his previous bishopric however, as Hexham and Lindisfarne remained separate sees.[21][l]

Wilfrid appears to have lived at Ripon, and for a time he acted as administrator of the see of Lindisfarne after Cuthbert's death in 687.[146]In 691, the subdivision issue arose once more, along with quarrels with King Aldfrith over lands,[21]and attempts were made to make Wilfrid either give up all his lands or to stay confined to Ripon.[145]A proposal to turn Ripon into a bishopric was also a source of dispute. When no compromise was possible Wilfrid left Northumbria for Mercia, and Bosa was returned to York.[21]

Something of the reception to Wilfrid's expulsion can be picked up in a Latin letter which has survived only in an incomplete quotation byWilliam of Malmesburyin hisGesta pontificum Anglorum.We have it on William's authority that the letter was written byAldhelmof Malmesbury and addressed to Wilfrid's abbots. In it, Aldhelm asks the clergymen to remember the exiled bishop "who, nourishing, teaching, reproving, raised you in fatherly love" and appealing to lay aristocratic ideals of loyalty, urges them not to abandon their superior.[148][149]Neither William nor the citation itself gives a date, but the letter has been assigned to Wilfrid's exile under Aldfrith in the 690s.[150]

Mercia

[edit]

During his stay in Mercia Wilfrid acted as bishop with the consent of King Æthelred.[151]Information on Wilfrid's life at this time is meagre, as theVita Sancti Wilfrithisays little of this period.[152]He is generally considered to have beenBishop of Leicesteruntil about 706, when he is held to have been transferred to Hexham.[153]Wilfrid became involved in the missionary efforts to theFrisians,which he had started in 678 during his stay in Frisia. Wilfrid helped the missionary efforts ofWillibrord,which were more successful than his own earlier attempts.[125]Willibrord was a monk of Ripon who was also a native of Northumbria.[154]

Wilfrid was present at the exhumation of the body of Queen Æthelthryth at Ely Abbey in 695. He had been her spiritual adviser in the 670s, and had helped the queen become a nun against the wishes of her husband King Ecgfrith of Northumbria. The queen had joined Ely Abbey, where she died in 679. The ceremony in 695 found that her body had not decayed, which led to her being declared a saint.[155]Wilfrid's testimony as to the character and virginity of Æthelthryth was recorded by Bede.[115]

In about 700, Wilfrid appealed once more toPope Sergius Iover his expulsion from York, and the pope referred the issue back to a council in England. In 702 King Aldfrith held acouncilatAusterfieldthat upheld Wilfrid's expulsion, and once more Wilfrid travelled to Rome to appeal to the pope.[156]TheVita Sancti Wilfrithigives a speech, supposedly delivered by Wilfrid there, in defence of Wilfrid's record over the previous 40 years.[157]The council was presided over byBerhtwald,the new archbishop of Canterbury, and the decision of the council was that Wilfrid should be deprived of all his monasteries but Ripon, and that he should cease to perform episcopal functions. When Wilfrid continued his appeal to the papacy, his opponents had him and his supportersexcommunicated.[21]

Rome and final return to Northumbria

[edit]

On his way to Rome Wilfrid stopped in Frisia to visit Willibrord.[124]Following Wilfrid's arrival in RomePope John VIheld a council, which declared that the King of Northumbria should follow the earlier papal decrees restoring Wilfrid to his see.[156]Wilfrid was disconcerted to find that thepapal courtspoke Greek, and his biographer noted that Wilfrid was displeased when the pope discussed the appeal with advisers in a language Wilfrid could not understand.[158]The pope also ordered another council to be held in Britain to decide the issue, and ordered the attendance of Bosa, Berhtwald and Wilfrid. On his journey back to England Wilfrid had a seizure atMeaux,but he had returned to Kent by 705.[21]

Aldfrith died soon after Wilfrid's arrival back in England. The new king,Eadwulf,had been considered one of Wilfrid's friends, but after his accession to the throne he ordered Wilfrid to stay out of Northumbria. Eadwulf's reign lasted only a few months before he was expelled to make way for Aldfrith's sonOsred,[21]to whom Wilfrid acted as spiritual adviser.[44]Wilfrid may have been one of Osred's chief supporters, along with Oswiu's daughter Abbess Ælfflæd of Whitby,[159]and the noblemanBeornhæth.[160]Once Osred was secure on the throne Wilfrid was restored to Ripon and Hexham in 706. When Bosa of York died, Wilfrid did not contest the decision to appoint John of Beverley to York. This appointment meant John's transfer from Hexham, leaving Wilfrid free to perform episcopal functions at Hexham,[21]which he did until his death.[161]

Other aspects

[edit]

Cult of St Oswald

[edit]
Main article:Oswald of Northumbria

Sometime after the translation of the relics ofOswald of NorthumbriatoBardney AbbeybyOsthrythbetween 675 and 679,[162]Wilfrid, along with Hexham Abbey, began to encourage and promote the cult of the dead king. Barbara Yorke sees this advocacy as a major factor in the prominence given to Oswald in Bede'sHistoria ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum.[163]Historian D. P. Kirby regards Wilfrid's championing of Oswald as being a contributing factor in Wilfrid's expulsion from York in 678. Kirby believes that Ecgfrith felt Wilfrid was promoting Oswald's branch of the Northumbrian royal family over his own.[89]One of Wilfrid's protégés, Willibrord, became a missionary to the Frisians in 695, perhaps inspired by Wilfrid's example. Willibrord may have felt it expedient to leave Northumbria, where he was known as one of Wilfrid's followers.[164]

Monastic network

[edit]
A crowned man hands a scroll to a tonsured man. The crowned man is standing on the steps of a building, surrounded by other men. The man receiving the scroll stands in front of the building, also surrounded by other men.
Later engraving of a picture commissioned in 1519 showing Cædwalla confirming a grant of land, at Selsey, to Wilfrid

Wilfrid's network of monasteries extended across at least three of the kingdoms of England in his day.[165]They included Hexham, Ripon, Selsey, andOundle,[27]as well as possiblyPeterborough,Brixworth,Evesham,Wing,andWithington.[166]At his monasteries and dioceses he built churches in a style akin to that of the continent and Rome,[167]travelling between them with a large entourage of up to 120 followers.[69]He made many contacts and friends, not only in Northumbria and the other English kingdoms, but also in Gaul, Frisia, and Italy. Nobles sent their sons to him forfostering,and Wilfrid was known to help his protégés, no matter if they became clerics or not. The historianPeter Brownspeculated that one reason for Wilfrid's exile in 678 was that he was overshadowing the king as a patron.[168]His contacts extended to the Lombard kingdom in Italy, where they included King Perctarit and his sonCunipert.[27]

Wilfrid was a prolific founder of churches, which he then controlled until his death, and was a great fundraiser, acquiring lands and money from many of the kings he was in contact with.[169]He was also noted for his ability to attract support from powerful women, especially queens. Queen Eanflæd, his first patron, introduced him to a number of helpful contacts, and he later attracted the support of Queen Æthelthryth, who gave the endowment for Hexham Abbey.[170]Ælfflæd,sister of King Aldfrith of Northumbria and daughter of Wilfrid's old patron Queen Eanflæd, helped to persuade the Northumbrians to allow Wilfrid to return from his last exile.[171][172]

Builder and artistic patron

[edit]

Wilfrid built a church capable of accommodating a congregation of 2,000 at Hexham, using stone fromHadrian's Wall.[168]The 12th-century writerAilred of Rievaulx,whose family helped restore Hexham, credited Wilfrid as the designer of a church beautifully embellished with paintings and sculpture.[173][174]It appears that the churches at Hexham and Ripon (which Wilfrid also built) were aisledbasilicas,of the type that was common on the continent. Ripon was the first church in Northumbria to incorporate aporticus,similar to those of churches in Kent.[175]12th-century pilgrims' accounts declared that the church at Hexham rivalled those of Rome.[21]The crypts at both Ripon and Hexham are unusual, and perhaps were intended by Wilfrid to mimic theRoman catacombswhich he had seen on his travels.[21]They are still extant, although the fabric of Wilfrid's churches above ground has been replaced by later structures. The churches were finished with glazed windows, made by glassmakers brought over from the continent.[176]

As well as his building projects Wilfrid also commissioned works to embellish the churches, including altar cloths made of silk woven with gold threads, and agospel bookwritten onparchment dyed purple,with gold lettering. The gospels were then enclosed in a gold book cover set with gems. When the church he had built at Ripon was consecrated, a three-day feast was held to accompany the ceremony.[27][m]

Resignation and death

[edit]

After his final return to Northumbria Wilfrid retired to the monastery atRipon,where he lived until his death during a visit to Oundle,[178]at the age of 75.[179]A little over a year before his death in either 709[178]or 710[180][n]Wilfrid suffered another stroke or seizure, which led him to make arrangements for the disposition of his monasteries and possessions. He was buried near the altar of his church in Ripon. Bede records the epitaph that was placed on the tomb.[21][o]Wilfrid was succeeded at Hexham by Acca of Hexham, a protégé who had accompanied him to Rome in 703.[181][182]The monastery at Ripon celebrated the first anniversary of Wilfrid's death with a commemoration service attended by all the abbots of his monasteries and a spectacular white arc[p]was said to have appeared in the sky starting from the gables of the basilica where his bones were laid to rest.[161][184][185]

Wilfrid left large sums of money to his monastic foundations, enabling them to purchase royal favour.[186]Soon after his death aVita Sancti Wilfrithi,was written by Stephen of Ripon, a monk of Ripon.[178]The first version appeared in about 715 followed by a later revision in the 730s,[105]the first biography written by a contemporary to appear in England.[187]It was commissioned by two of Wilfrid's followers, Acca of Hexham, and the Abbot of Ripon, Tatbert.[27]Stephen'sVitais concerned with vindicating Wilfrid and making a case for his sainthood, and so is used with caution by historians,[139][188]although it is nevertheless an invaluable source for Wilfrid's life and the history of the time.[27]

Legacy

[edit]
Three stained glass windows, each depicting a mitred and robed figure. All three are carrying staves.
Wilfrid (right), with saintsCuthbert(centre) andAidan(left), depicted in a stained-glass window in the church of St John Lee nearAcombin Northumberland;Hexham Abbeyis nearby.

Wilfrid'sfeast dayis 12 October[189]or 24 April.[190]Both dates were celebrated in early medieval England, but the April date appeared first in the liturgical calendars.[21]The April date is the date when hisrelicsweretranslatedto a new shrine.[191]Immediately after his death Wilfrid's body was venerated as a cult object, and miracles were alleged to have happened at the spot where the water used to wash his body was discarded.[21]A cult grew up at Ripon after his death and remained active until 948, when KingEadreddestroyed the church at Ripon; after the destruction, Wilfrid's relics were taken by ArchbishopOda of Canterbury,[192]and held inCanterbury Cathedral.[193]This account appears in a foreword written by Oda forFrithegod's later poem on Wilfrid's life.[194]However, according toByrhtferth'sVita Sancti Oswaldi,orLife of Saint Oswald,Oda's nephew,Oswald, Archbishop of York,preserved the relics at Ripon and restored the community there to care for them.[21]The two differing accounts are not easily reconciled, but it is possible that Oswald collected secondary relics that had been overlooked by his uncle and installed those at Ripon.[195][q]The relics that were held at Canterbury were originally placed in the High Altar in 948, but after the fire at Canterbury Cathedral in 1067, Wilfrid's relics were placed in their own shrine.[196]

After theNorman Conquest of England,devotion continued to be paid to Wilfrid, with 48 churches dedicated to him and relics distributed between 11 sites.[21]During the 19th century, the feast of Wilfrid was celebrated on the Sunday followingLammasin the town of Ripon with a parade and horse racing, a tradition which continued until at least 1908.[197]Wilfrid is venerated in the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church[190]and the Anglican Communion.[189]He is usually depicted either as a bishop preaching and baptising or else as a robed bishop holding an episcopal staff.[191]

Wilfrid was one of the first bishops to bring relics of saints back from Rome. The papacy was trying to prevent the removal of actual body parts from Rome, restricting collectors to things that had come in contact with the bodily remains such as dust and cloth.[198]Wilfrid was known as an advocate of Benedictine monasticism,[48]and regarded it as a tool in his efforts to "root out the poisonous weeds planted by the Scots".[199]He built at Ripon and Hexham, and lived a majestic lifestyle.[54]As a result of his various exiles, he founded monastic communities that were widely scattered over the British Isles, over which he kept control until his death.[186]These monastic foundations, especially Hexham, contributed to the blending of the Gaelic and Roman strains of Christianity in Northumbria, which inspired a great surge of learning and missionary activity; Bede and Alcuin were among the scholars who emerged from Northumbrian monasteries influenced by Wilfrid. Missionaries inspired by his example went from Northumbria to the continent, where they converted pagans in Germany and elsewhere.[200]

One commentator has said that Wilfrid "came into conflict with almost every prominent secular and ecclesiastical figure of the age".[201]Hindley, a historian of the Anglo-Saxons, states that "Wilfrid would not win his sainthood through the Christian virtue of humility".[39]The historian Barbara Yorke said of him that "Wilfrid's character was such that he seems to have been able to attract and infuriate in equal measure".[186]His contemporary, Bede, although a partisan of the Roman dating of Easter, was a monk and always treats Wilfrid a little uneasily, showing some concern about how Wilfrid conducted himself as a clergyman and as a bishop.[202]The historian Eric John feels that it was Wilfrid's devotion to monasticism that led him to believe that the only way for the Church to be improved was through monasticism. John traces Wilfrid's many appeals to Rome to his motivation to hold together his monastic empire, rather than to self-interest. John also challenges the belief that Wilfrid was fond of pomp, pointing out that the comparison between the Irish missionaries who walked and Wilfrid who rode ignores the reality that the quickest method of travel in the Middle Ages was on horseback.[101]

The historianPeter Hunter Blairsummarises Wilfrid's life as follows: "Wilfrid left a distinctive mark on the character of the English church in the seventh century. He was not a humble man, nor, so far as we can see, was he a man greatly interested in learning, and perhaps he would have been more at home as a member of the Gallo-Roman episcopate where the wealth which gave him enemies in England would have passed unnoticed and where his interference in matters of state would have been less likely to take him to prison."[203]R. W. Southern,another modern historian, says that Wilfrid was "the greatest papal enthusiast of the century".[158]James Campbell, a historian specialising in the Anglo-Saxon period, said of him "He was certainly one of the greatest ecclesiastics of his day. Ascetic, deemed a saint by some, the founder of several monasteries according to the rule of St Benedict, he established Christianity in Sussex and attempted to do so in Frisia. At the same time, his life and conduct were in some respects like those of a great Anglo-Saxon nobleman."[204]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^Originally spelledWilfrith.[5]
  2. ^Annemund was murdered at the command ofBalthild,the regent ofChlothar III.[47]
  3. ^Agilbert was later expelled from his English bishopric by the King of Wessex when the king could not understand Agilbert.[65]
  4. ^It is unclear how much of the speech in Bede's account of the council is actually Wilfrid's and how much was composed by Bede.[64]
  5. ^Some Welsh churches did not adopt the Roman Easter until 768.[68]
  6. ^York did not attain metropolitan status until 735.[74]
  7. ^Theodore shortly afterwards reconsecrated Ceadda and gave him thebishopric of Lichfield.[89]TheVita Sancti Wilfrithisays that Wilfrid urged Theodore to appoint Ceadda to Lichfield.[21]
  8. ^Dagobert became king ofAustrasiain 676, but was assassinated in 680.[99]
  9. ^And he was the only English bishop to appeal a royal verdict to the papacy until 1088 whenWilliam de St-Calaisappealed a decision of KingWilliam II of Englandto Rome.[122]
  10. ^The copy of the decrees of Agatho has had interpolations added to it, partly to support the laterCanterbury–York disputesover primacy that started under ArchbishopLanfrancafter theNorman conquest of England.However, theLife of Wilfridalso confirms the basics of the council decrees, it is only in the decrees discussion of metropolitan status for Theodore that it is possibly corrupt.[127]
  11. ^When Wilfrid returned to Northumbria, he gave the Wight mission to his nephew,[84]Beornwine, who was not apparently an ordained priest.[142]
  12. ^The only authority for the expulsion of Bosa is Stephen of Ripon'sVita Sancti Wilfrithi,and it is possible that Bosa was not expelled, as he was still bishop at his death in 706.[147]
  13. ^The book, which was given to Ripon, does not survive.[177]
  14. ^Both years are given as death dates in sources. The discrepancy over his death date involves the fact that two dates were associated with Wilfrid's cult, 24 April and 12 October. Stephen of Ripon expressly states that Wilfrid died on a Thursday, and neither date in 709 was a Thursday. 24 April 710, however, was a Thursday, and is likely to be Wilfrid's death date. A complication is the fact that the October date is the more common commemoration date, but the April date is the one first associated with Wilfrid's cult, appearing in 7th- and 8th-century saints calendars. The October date probably arose because the April date conflicted withLentandEaster.[21]
  15. ^The epitaph is recorded in Book V, Chapter XIX. An online translation is at the Medieval Sourcebook, part of the Online Reference Book for Medieval Studies by theCity University of New York.
  16. ^The historianClare Stancliffebelieves the white arc was actually amoonbowor "lunar rainbow". Using information on the years that a moonbow was most likely to occur she establishes Thursday 24 April 710 as the date of Wilfrid's death.[183]
  17. ^The early 12th century writer Eadmer, who wrote aVita Sancti Wilfrithi,took this approach to the problem of the differing accounts of Wilfrid's relics, and appears to have been the first writer to suggest this solution.[35]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^Hutchinson-HallOrthodox Saintsp. 78
  2. ^"About the Diocese".Roman Catholic Diocese of Middlesbrough.Retrieved1 February2022.
  3. ^"St. Wilfrid".Roman Catholic Diocese of Leeds. 16 February 2019.Retrieved1 February2022.
  4. ^"History".Ripon Cathedral. Archived fromthe originalon 9 October 2016.
  5. ^FraserFrom Caledonia to Pictlandp. 47
  6. ^Keynes "Heptarchy"Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England
  7. ^abYorkeKings and Kingdomspp. 9–11
  8. ^KirbyEarliest English Kingspp. 5–7
  9. ^YorkeConversion of Britainp. 37
  10. ^YorkeKings and Kingdomsp. 74
  11. ^YorkeConversion of Britainp. 38
  12. ^YorkeKings and Kingdomspp. 83–86
  13. ^Charles-Edwards "'Continuation of Bede"Seanchaspp. 137–145
  14. ^Woolf "Dun Nechtain"Scottish Historical Reviewpp. 182–201
  15. ^Woolf "Verturian hegemony"Merciapp. 106–112
  16. ^YorkConversion of Britainpp. 50–56
  17. ^KirbyEarliest English Kingsp. 2
  18. ^YorkeConversion of Britainpp. 123–124
  19. ^YorkeConversion of Britainpp. 114–115
  20. ^YorkeConversion of Britainpp. 128–129
  21. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajThacker "Wilfrid"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
  22. ^BlairWorld of Bedep. 151
  23. ^abGoffartNarrators of Barbarian Historypp. 285–286
  24. ^CoredonDictionary of Medieval Terms and Phrasesp. 146
  25. ^abBrown "Royal and Ecclesiastical"Renascencep. 28
  26. ^Laynesmith "Stephen of Ripon"Early Medieval Europep. 163
  27. ^abcdefghijkFletcherBarbarian Conversionpp. 175–180
  28. ^abFraserFrom Caledonia to Pictlandpp. 266–267
  29. ^BlairIntroduction to Anglo-Saxon Englandp. 322
  30. ^HeffernanSacred Biographypp. 137–142
  31. ^Higham(Re-)reading Bedepp. 98 and 237 footnote 200
  32. ^GoffartNarrators of Barbarian Historyp. 322
  33. ^Under the years 656, 661, 664, 675, 678, 685, 709, and 710. See the index toMichael Swanton'sAnglo-Saxon Chronicle
  34. ^Swanton "Introduction"Anglo-Saxon Chroniclepp. xviii–xix
  35. ^abPhilpott "Eadmer, his Archbishops and the English State"Medieval Statep. 101
  36. ^abHigham(Re-)reading Bedepp. 58–63
  37. ^abMayr-HartingComing of Christianityp. 107–112
  38. ^FraserCaledonia to Pictlandpp. 190–191
  39. ^abcdHindleyA Brief History of the Anglo-Saxonspp. 78–83
  40. ^Quoted in YorkeConversion of Britainp. 181
  41. ^YorkeKings and Kingdomspp. 36–37
  42. ^KirbyEarliest English Kingsp. 36
  43. ^BlairWorld of Bedep. 156
  44. ^abcdefThacker "St. Wilfrid"Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon Englandp. 474–476
  45. ^HerrinFormation of Christendompp. 267–268
  46. ^Brown "Royal and Ecclesiastical"Renascencepp. 29–31
  47. ^LevisonEngland and the Continentp. 10
  48. ^abcCubitt "Clergy in Early Anglo-Saxon England"Historical Researchp. 277
  49. ^Farmer "Introduction"Age of Bedep. 22
  50. ^Coates "Construction of Episcopal Sanctity"Historical Researchpp. 1–2
  51. ^Coates "Ceolfrid"Journal of Medieval Historypp. 76–77
  52. ^abcdefghijKirbyEarliest English Kingspp. 87–88
  53. ^abHighamConvert Kingsp. 42
  54. ^abLawrenceMedieval Monasticismp. 57
  55. ^BlairWorld of Bedep. 199
  56. ^BlairWorld of Bedepp. 111–112
  57. ^BlairWorld of Bedepp. 162–163
  58. ^Coates "Ceolfrid"Journal of Medieval Historyp. 82
  59. ^abKirbyMaking of Early Englandpp. 46–47
  60. ^John "Societal and Political Problems"Land, Church and Peoplepp. 52–53
  61. ^Abels "Council of Whitby"Journal of British Studiesp. 9
  62. ^JohnReassessing Anglo-Saxon Englandpp. 24–25
  63. ^Abels "Council of Whitby"Journal of British Studiespp. 2–3
  64. ^abcBlairIntroduction to Anglo-Saxon Englandp. 131
  65. ^abFletcherBarbarian Conversionp. 263
  66. ^BlairWorld of Bedepp. 83–84
  67. ^StentonAnglo-Saxon Englandp. 123–125
  68. ^abYorkeConversion of Britainp. 117
  69. ^abBrownRise of Western Christendompp. 361–362
  70. ^abYorkeKings and Kingdomspp. 84–85
  71. ^abJohnReassessing Anglo-Saxon Englandpp. 32–33
  72. ^abcFryde, et al.Handbook of British Chronologyp. 224
  73. ^abcJohn "Societal and Political Problems"Land, Church, and Peoplepp. 42–49
  74. ^Hall "York"Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon Englandp. 428
  75. ^abFraserCaledonia to Pictlandp. 193
  76. ^Quoted in FraserCaledonia to Pictlandp. 193
  77. ^Abels "Council of Whitby"Journal of British Studiesp. 17
  78. ^Mayr-HartingComing of Christianityp. 129–147
  79. ^ThomsonWestern Churchp. 56
  80. ^Abels "Council of Whitby"Journal of British Studiespp. 18–19
  81. ^Farmer "Introduction"Age of Bedep. 23
  82. ^Rollason "Hagiography and Politics"Holy Men and Holy Womenp. 100
  83. ^Gibbs "Decrees of Agatho"Speculumpp. 220–221
  84. ^abcdefghijklJohnReassessing Anglo-Saxon Englandpp. 34–35
  85. ^KirbyEarliest English Kingsp. 95
  86. ^BlairChurch in Anglo-Saxon Societyp. 95
  87. ^Lapidge "Theodore"Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon Englandp. 445
  88. ^Blair,Introduction to Anglo-Saxon Englandp. 135
  89. ^abcdeKirbyEarliest English Kingspp. 90–93
  90. ^BrownRise of Western ChristendomSecond Edition p. 359
  91. ^FraserCaledonia to Pictlandp. 197
  92. ^KirbyEarliest English Kingsp. 21
  93. ^KirbyEarliest English Kingsp. 22
  94. ^KirbyEarliest English Kingspp. 70–71
  95. ^Quoted in FraserCaledonia to Pictlandp. 196
  96. ^StentonAnglo-Saxon England3rd ed. pp. 133–134
  97. ^BlairIntroduction to Anglo-Saxon Englandp. 136
  98. ^KirbyMaking of Early Englandp. 265
  99. ^Wallace-HadrillLong-haired Kingsp. 238
  100. ^Kirby "Bede"English Historical Reviewpp. 102–104
  101. ^abcJohnReassessing Anglo-Saxon Englandpp. 35–37
  102. ^BlairChurch in Anglo-Saxon Societypp. 190–191
  103. ^abStentonAnglo-Saxon England3rd ed. p. 135
  104. ^BlairIntroduction to Anglo-Saxon Englandp. 146
  105. ^abYorkeConversion of Britainp. 12
  106. ^BlairChurch in Anglo-Saxon Societyp. 186
  107. ^Quoted in BrownRise of Western Christendomp. 359
  108. ^BlairChurch in Anglo-Saxon Societyp. 94
  109. ^Farmer "Introduction"Age of Bedep. 24
  110. ^Campbell "First Century of Christianity"Essays in Anglo-Saxon Historyp. 65
  111. ^DodwellAnglo-Saxon Artp. 179
  112. ^FraserCaledonia to Pictlandp. 78
  113. ^FraserCaledonia to Pictlandp. 63
  114. ^abcdStentonAnglo-Saxon Englandp. 136
  115. ^abGoffartNarratorsp. 322
  116. ^HighamKingdom of Northumbriapp. 135–136
  117. ^abKirbyMaking of Early Englandpp. 48–49
  118. ^BlairChurch in Anglo-Saxon Societypp. 98–99
  119. ^Gibbs "Decrees of Agatho"Speculump. 216
  120. ^FraserCaledonia to Pictlandpp. 209–210
  121. ^HindleyA Brief History of the Anglo-Saxonsp. 48
  122. ^SouthernWestern Societypp. 184–185
  123. ^BlairIntroduction to Anglo-Saxon Englandp. 137
  124. ^abLevisonEngland and the Continentpp. 50–51
  125. ^abHindleyBrief History of the Anglo-Saxonspp. 121–122
  126. ^LevisonEngland and the Continentp. 14
  127. ^Gibbs "Decrees of Agatho"Speculumpp. 217–219
  128. ^Chadwick "Theodore"Archbishop Theodorepp. 88–95
  129. ^LoynAnglo-Saxon Governancep. 57
  130. ^LevisonEngland and the Continentpp. 24–25
  131. ^Eddius Stephanus "Life of Wilfrid"Age of Bedepp. 142–143
  132. ^LyonConstitutional and Legal Historyp. 49
  133. ^Mayr-HartingComing of Christianityp. 118
  134. ^StentonAnglo-Saxon England3rd ed. p. 138
  135. ^Tyler "Reluctant Kings"Historyp. 149
  136. ^Coates "Role of Bishops"Historyp. 180
  137. ^FletcherBarbarian Conversionp. 244
  138. ^YorkeKings and Kingdomsp. 56
  139. ^abcKirbyEarliest English Kingsp. 100
  140. ^abKirbyMaking of Early Englandp. 50
  141. ^MeeHistory of Selseypp. 12–13
  142. ^BlairChurch in Anglo-Saxon Societyp. 90
  143. ^YorkeKings and Kingdomsp. 164
  144. ^KirbyEarliest English Kingsp. 102
  145. ^abBlairChurch in Anglo-Saxon Societyp. 96
  146. ^abStentonAnglo-Saxon Englandp. 139
  147. ^Cubitt "Wilfrid's" Usurping Bishops ""Northern Historypp. 20–21
  148. ^Ehwald (ed.)Aldhelmi Operapp. 500–502
  149. ^WhitelockEnglish Historical Documentsno. 165
  150. ^FoleyImages of Sanctityp. 53.
  151. ^KirbyEarliest English Kingspp. 120–121
  152. ^Kirby "Bede"English Historical Reviewp. 105
  153. ^Fryde, et al.Handbook of British Chronologyp. 218
  154. ^FletcherBarbarian Conversionp. 199
  155. ^GoffartNarratorspp. 260–261
  156. ^abStentonAnglo-Saxon Englandp. 143
  157. ^GoffartNarratorspp. 263–264
  158. ^abSouthernWestern Societypp. 57–58
  159. ^YorkeKings and Kingdomsp. 88
  160. ^YorkeKings and Kingdomsp. 92
  161. ^abGoffartNarratorsp. 271
  162. ^Craid "Oswald"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
  163. ^Yorke "Adaptation of the Anglo-Saxon Royal Courts"Cross Goes Northp. 249
  164. ^JohnReassessing Anglo-Saxon Englandp. 57
  165. ^CampbellAnglo-Saxon Statep. 46
  166. ^Farmer "Introduction"Age of Bedep. 26
  167. ^BrownRise of Western Christendomp. 52
  168. ^abBrownRise of Western Christendompp. 362–363
  169. ^BlairChurch in Anglo-Saxon Societyp. 97
  170. ^Tyler "Reluctant Kings"Historyp. 156
  171. ^Mitchell "Anglo-Saxon Double Monasteries"History Todayp. 37
  172. ^Thacker "Ælfflæd"Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon Englandp. 6
  173. ^DodwellAnglo-Saxon Artpp. 92 and 275 footnote 38
  174. ^Gilbert "Saint Wilfrid's Church at Hexam"Saint Wilfrid at Hexhamp. 81
  175. ^Farmer "Saint Wilfrid"Saint Wilfrid at Hexhamp. 45
  176. ^KirbyMaking of Early Englandp. 259
  177. ^BlairWorld of Bedep. 228
  178. ^abcHindleyBrief History of the Anglo-Saxonsp. 62
  179. ^KirbyMaking of Early Englandp. 158
  180. ^Kirby "Bede"English Historical Reviewp. 101
  181. ^BlairWorld of Bedep. 189
  182. ^LevisonEngland and the Continentp. 61
  183. ^Stancliffe "Dating Wilfrid's Death"Wilfridpp. 21–22
  184. ^FarmerAge of Bedep.182
  185. ^ForsterSt Wilfrid of Riponp.16
  186. ^abcYorkeConversion of Britainp. 163
  187. ^Farmer "Saint Wilfrid"Saint Wilfrid at Hexhamp. 38
  188. ^YorkeKings and Kingdomsp. 73
  189. ^abHolford-Strevens, et al.Oxford Book of Dayspp. 411–412
  190. ^abWalshNew Dictionary of Saintsp. 623–624
  191. ^abFarmerOxford Dictionary of Saintspp. 536–538
  192. ^BlairChurch in Anglo-Saxon Societyp. 314
  193. ^Gem "Significance of the 11th century Rebuilding"Medieval Art and Architecture at Canterbury Before 1220p. 2
  194. ^BrooksEarly History of the Church of Canterburyp. 53
  195. ^Thacker "Saint-making and Relic Collecting"St Oswald of Worcesterpp. 254–255
  196. ^NilsonCathedral Shrinesp. 64
  197. ^"Feast of St Wilfrid"Folklorepp. 464–466
  198. ^Ortenberg "Anglo-Saxon Church and the Papacy"English Church and the Papacyp. 45
  199. ^Quoted in LawrenceMedieval Monasticismp. 57
  200. ^HighamKingdom of Northumbriapp. 155–156
  201. ^Quoted in HindleyBrief History of the Anglo-Saxonsp. 62
  202. ^BrownRise of Western ChristendomSecond Edition pp. 363–364
  203. ^BlairWorld of Bedep. 152
  204. ^Campbell "Bede I"Essays in Anglo-Saxon Historyp. 16

References

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Further reading

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  • Foley, W. T. (1989). "Imitation Apostoli: St Wilfrid of York and the Andrew Script".American Benedictine Review.40:13–31.
  • Pelteret, David (1998). "Saint Wilfrid: Tribal Bishop, Civic Bishop or Germanic Lord?". In Hill, Joyce; Swan, Mary (eds.).The Community, the Family and the Saint: Patterns of Power in Early Modern Europe.Brepols. pp. 159–180.ISBN2-503-50668-2.
  • Sims-Williams, Patrick (April 1988). "St Wilfrid and Two Charters Dated AD 676 and 680".Journal of Ecclesiastical History.39(2): 163–183.doi:10.1017/S0022046900020649.S2CID161662106.
  • Stancliffe, Clare (2003).Bede, Wilfrid, and the Irish.Jarrow Lecture 46. Jarrow, UK: St Paul's Church Jarrow.ISBN978-0-02-167882-2.
  • Wood, I. N.(January 1995). "Northumbrians and Franks in the age of Wilfrid".Northern History.31:10–21.doi:10.1179/007817295790175327.S2CID159866133.
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Christiantitles
Preceded by Bishop of the Northumbrians
664–678 		Succeeded byasBishop of York
Succeeded byasBishop of Lindisfarne
Preceded by Bishop of Leicester
692–705 		Succeeded by
Preceded by Bishop of Hexham
705–709 		Succeeded by

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