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Y chromosome

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Human Y chromosome
Human Y chromosome (afterG-banding)
Y chromosome in human malekaryogram
Features
Length (bp)62,460,029 bp (CHM13)
No.of genes63 (CCDS)[1]
TypeAllosome
Centromere positionAcrocentric[2]
(10.4 Mbp[3])
Complete gene lists
CCDSGene list
HGNCGene list
UniProtGene list
NCBIGene list
External map viewers
EnsemblChromosome Y
EntrezChromosome Y
NCBIChromosome Y
UCSCChromosome Y
Full DNA sequences
RefSeqNC_000024(FASTA)
GenBankCM000686(FASTA)

TheY chromosomeis one of twosex chromosomesintherian mammalsandother organisms.Along with theX chromosome,it is part of theXY sex-determination system,in which the Y is thesex-determiningbecause it is the presence or absence of Y chromosome that determines the male or femalesexofoffspringproduced insexual reproduction.In mammals, the Y chromosome contains theSRYgene, which triggers development ofmale gonads.The Y chromosome is passed only from male parents to male offspring.

Overview[edit]

Discovery[edit]

The Y chromosome was identified as a sex-determining chromosome byNettie StevensatBryn Mawr Collegein 1905 during a study of themealwormTenebrio molitor.Edmund Beecher Wilsonindependently discovered the same mechanisms the same year, working withHemiptera.Stevens proposed that chromosomes always existed in pairs and that the smaller chromosome (now labelled "Y" ) was the pair of the X chromosome discovered in 1890 byHermann Henking.She realized that the previous idea ofClarence Erwin McClung,that the X chromosome determines sex, was wrong and thatsex determinationis, in fact, due to the presence or absence of the Y chromosome. In the early 1920sTheophilus Painterdetermined that X and Y chromosomes determined sex in humans (and other mammals).[4]

The chromosome was given the name "Y" simply to follow on from Henking's "X" alphabetically.[5][6]The idea that the Y chromosome was named after its similarity in appearance to the letter "Y" is mistaken. All chromosomes normally appear as an amorphous blob under the microscope and only take on a well-defined shape duringmitosis.This shape is vaguely X-shaped for all chromosomes. It is entirely coincidental that the Y chromosome, duringmitosis,has two very short branches which can look merged under the microscope and appear as the descender of a Y-shape.[5]: 65–66 

Variations[edit]

See also:Androgen insensitivity syndromeandIntersex

Most therian mammals have only one pair of sex chromosomes in each cell. Males have one Y chromosome and oneX chromosome,while females have two X chromosomes. In mammals, the Y chromosome contains a gene,SRY,which triggers embryonic development as a male. The Y chromosomes of humans and other mammals also contain other genes needed for normal sperm production.[citation needed]

There are exceptions, however. Among humans, some males are born two Xs and a Y ( "XXY", seeKlinefelter syndrome), one X and two Ys (seeXYY syndrome). Some females have three Xs (Trisomy X), and some have a single X instead of two Xs ( "X0", seeTurner syndrome). There are other variations in which, duringembryonic development,theWNT4gene[7]is activated and/or the SRY gene is damaged leading to birth of anXY female(Swyer syndrome[7]). A Y chromosome may also be present but fail to result in the development of a male phenotype in individuals withandrogen insensitivity syndrome,instead resulting in a female or ambiguous phenotype. In other cases, the SRY gene is copied to the X, leading to birth of anXX male.[8]

Origins and evolution[edit]

Before Y chromosome[edit]

Manyectothermicvertebrateshave no sex chromosomes.[9]If these species have different sexes, sex is determined environmentally rather than genetically. For some species, especiallyreptiles,sex depends on the incubation temperature.[10]Some vertebrates arehermaphrodites,though hermaphroditic species are most commonlysequential,meaning the organism switches sex, producing male or femalegametesat different points in its life, but never producing both at the same time. This is opposed tosimultaneoushermaphroditism, where the same organism produces male and female gametes at the same time. Most simultaneous hermaphrodite species are invertebrates, and among vertebrates, simultaneous hermaphroditism has only been discovered in a fewordersof fish.[11]

Origin[edit]

The X and Y chromosomes are thought to have evolved from a pair of identical chromosomes,[12][13]termedautosomes,when an ancestral animal developed an allelic variation (a so-called "sex locus" ) and simply possessing thisallelecaused the organism to be male.[14]The chromosome with this allele became the Y chromosome, while the other member of the pair became the X chromosome. Over time, genes that were beneficial for males and harmful to (or had no effect on) females either developed on the Y chromosome or were acquired by the Y chromosome through the process oftranslocation.[15]

Until recently, the X and Y chromosomes were thought to have diverged around 300 million years ago.[16]However, research published in 2008 analyzing theplatypusgenome[17]suggested that the XY sex-determination system would not have been present more than 166 million years ago, whenmonotremessplit from other mammals.[18]This re-estimation of the age of thetherianXY system is based on the finding that sequences that are on the X chromosomes ofmarsupialsandeutherianmammals are not present on the autosomes of platypus and birds.[18]The older estimate was based on erroneous reports that the platypus X chromosomes contained these sequences.[19][20]

Recombination inhibition[edit]

Most chromosomesrecombineduring meiosis. However, in males, the X and Y pair in a shared region known as thepseudoautosomal region(PAR).[21]The PAR undergoes frequent recombination between the X and Y chromosomes,[21]but recombination is suppressed in other regions of the Y chromosome.[14]These regions contain sex-determining and other male-specific genes.[22]Without this suppression, these genes could be lost from the Y chromosome from recombination and cause issues such as infertility.[23]

The lack of recombination across the majority of the Y chromosome makes it a useful tool in studyinghuman evolution,since recombination complicates the mathematical models used to trace ancestries.[24]

Degeneration[edit]

By one estimate, the human Y chromosome has lost 1,393 of its 1,438 original genes over the course of its existence, andlinear extrapolationof this 1,393-gene loss over 300 million years gives a rate of genetic loss of 4.6 genes per million years.[25]Continued loss of genes at the rate of 4.6 genes per million years would result in a Y chromosome with no functional genes – that is the Y chromosome would lose complete function – within the next 10 million years, or half that time with the current age estimate of 160 million years.[14][26]Comparative genomicanalysis reveals that many mammalian species are experiencing a similar loss of function in their heterozygous sex chromosome. Degeneration may simply be the fate of all non-recombining sex chromosomes, due to three common evolutionary forces: highmutation rate,inefficientselection,andgenetic drift.[14]

With a 30% difference between humans and chimpanzees, the Y chromosome is one of the fastest-evolving parts of thehuman genome.[27]However, these changes have been limited to non-coding sequences and comparisons of the human andchimpanzeeY chromosomes (first published in 2005) show that the human Y chromosome has not lost any genes since the divergence of humans and chimpanzees between 6–7 million years ago.[28]Additionally, a scientific report in 2012 stated that only one gene had been lost since humans diverged from therhesus macaque25 million years ago.[29]These facts provide direct evidence that thelinear extrapolationmodel is flawed and suggest that the current human Y chromosome is either no longer shrinking or is shrinking at a much slower rate than the 4.6 genes per million years estimated by the linear extrapolation model.[citation needed]

High mutation rate[edit]

The human Y chromosome is particularly exposed to high mutation rates due to the environment in which it is housed. The Y chromosome is passed exclusively throughsperm,which undergo multiplecell divisionsduringgametogenesis.Each cellular division provides further opportunity to accumulate base pair mutations. Additionally, sperm are stored in the highly oxidative environment of thetestis,which encourages further mutation. These two conditions combined put the Y chromosome at a greater opportunity of mutation than the rest of the genome.[14]The increased mutation opportunity for the Y chromosome is reported by Graves as a factor 4.8.[14]However, her original reference obtains this number for the relative mutation rates in male and female germ lines for the lineage leading to humans.[30]

The observation that the Y chromosome experiences littlemeioticrecombinationand has an accelerated rate ofmutationand degradative change compared to the rest of thegenomesuggests an evolutionary explanation for the adaptive function ofmeiosiswith respect to the main body of genetic information. Brandeis[31]proposed that the basic function of meiosis (particularly meiotic recombination) is the conservation of the integrity of the genome, a proposal consistent with the idea that meiosis is an adaptation forrepairing DNA damage.[32]

Inefficient selection[edit]

Without the ability to recombine duringmeiosis,the Y chromosome is unable to expose individualallelesto natural selection. Deleterious alleles are allowed to "hitchhike" with beneficial neighbors, thus propagating maladapted alleles into the next generation. Conversely, advantageous alleles may be selected against if they are surrounded by harmful alleles (background selection). Due to this inability to sort through its gene content, the Y chromosome is particularly prone to the accumulation of"junk" DNA.Massive accumulations of retrotransposable elements are scattered throughout the Y.[14]The random insertion of DNA segments often disrupts encoded gene sequences and renders them nonfunctional. However, the Y chromosome has no way of weeding out these "jumping genes". Without the ability to isolate alleles, selection cannot effectively act upon them.[citation needed]

A clear, quantitative indication of this inefficiency is theentropy rateof the Y chromosome. Whereas all other chromosomes in thehuman genomehave entropy rates of 1.5–1.9 bits per nucleotide (compared to the theoretical maximum of exactly 2 for no redundancy), the Y chromosome's entropy rate is only 0.84.[33]This means the Y chromosome has a much lower information content relative to its overall length; it is more redundant.[citation needed]

Genetic drift[edit]

Even if a well adapted Y chromosome manages to maintain genetic activity by avoiding mutation accumulation, there is no guarantee it will be passed down to the next generation. The population size of the Y chromosome is inherently limited to 1/4 that of autosomes: diploid organisms contain two copies of autosomal chromosomes while only half the population contains 1 Y chromosome. Thus, genetic drift is an exceptionally strong force acting upon the Y chromosome. Through sheer random assortment, an adult male may never pass on his Y chromosome if he only has female offspring. Thus, although a male may have a well adapted Y chromosome free of excessive mutation, it may never make it into the next gene pool.[14]The repeat random loss of well-adapted Y chromosomes, coupled with the tendency of the Y chromosome to evolve to have more deleterious mutations rather than less for reasons described above, contributes to the species-wide degeneration of Y chromosomes throughMuller's ratchet.[34]

Gene conversion[edit]

As it has been already mentioned, the Y chromosome is unable to recombine duringmeiosislike the other human chromosomes; however, in 2003, researchers fromMITdiscovered a process which may slow down the process of degradation. They found that human Y chromosome is able to "recombine" with itself, usingpalindromebase pairsequences.[35]Such a "recombination" is calledgene conversion.

In the case of the Y chromosomes, thepalindromesare notnoncoding DNA;these strings of bases contain functioning genes important for male fertility. Most of the sequence pairs are greater than 99.97% identical. The extensive use of gene conversion may play a role in the ability of the Y chromosome to edit out genetic mistakes and maintain the integrity of the relatively few genes it carries. In other words, since the Y chromosome is single, it has duplicates of its genes on itself instead of having a second, homologous, chromosome. When errors occur, it can use other parts of itself as a template to correct them.[35]

Findings were confirmed by comparing similar regions of the Y chromosome in humans to the Y chromosomes ofchimpanzees,bonobosandgorillas.The comparison demonstrated that the same phenomenon of gene conversion appeared to be at work more than 5 million years ago, when humans and the non-human primates diverged from each other.[35]

Gene conversiontracts formed duringmeiosisare long, about 2,068 base pairs, and significantly biased towards the fixation of G or C nucleotides (GC biased).[36]Therecombinationintermediates preceding gene conversion were found to rarely take the alternate route of crossover recombination.[36]The Y-Y gene conversion rate in humans is about 1.52 x 10-5conversions/base/year.[37]These gene conversion events may reflect a basic function of meiosis, that of conserving the integrity of the genome.

Future evolution[edit]

According to some theories, in the terminal stages of the degeneration of the Y chromosome, other chromosomes may increasingly take over genes and functions formerly associated with it and finally, within the framework of this theory, the Y chromosome disappears entirely, and a new sex-determining system arises.[14][neutralityisdisputed][improper synthesis?]Several species ofrodentin the sister familiesMuridaeandCricetidaehave reached these stages,[38][39]in the following ways:

  • TheTranscaucasian mole vole,Ellobius lutescens,theZaisan mole vole,Ellobius tancrei,and the Japanese spinous country ratsTokudaia osimensisandTokudaia tokunoshimensis,have lost the Y chromosome andSRYentirely.[14][40][41]Tokudaiaspp. have relocated some other genes ancestrally present on the Y chromosome to the X chromosome.[41]Both sexes ofTokudaiaspp. andEllobius lutescenshave an XO genotype (Turner syndrome),[41]whereas allEllobius tancreipossess an XX genotype.[14]The new sex-determining system(s) for these rodents remains unclear.
  • Thewood lemmingMyopus schisticolor,theArctic lemming,Dicrostonyx torquatus,and multiple species in the grass mouse genusAkodonhave evolved fertile females who possess the genotype generally coding for males, XY, in addition to the ancestral XX female, through a variety of modifications to the X and Y chromosomes.[38][42][43]
  • In thecreeping vole,Microtus oregoni,the females, with just one X chromosome each, produce X gametes only, and the males, XY, produce Y gametes, or gametes devoid of any sex chromosome, throughnondisjunction.[44]

Outside of the rodents, theblack muntjac,Muntiacus crinifrons,evolved new X and Y chromosomes through fusions of the ancestral sex chromosomes andautosomes.[45]

Modern data cast doubt on this hypothesis.[16]This conclusion was reached by scientists who studied the Y chromosomes of rhesus monkeys. When genomically comparing the Y chromosome of rhesus monkeys and humans, scientists found very few differences, given that humans and rhesus monkeys diverged 30 million years ago.[46]

Some organisms have lost the Y chromosome. For example, most species of Nematodes. However, in order for the complete elimination of Y to occur, it was necessary to develop an alternative way of determining sex (for example, by determining sex by the ratio of the X chromosome to autosomes), and any genes necessary for male function had to be moved to other chromosomes.[16]In the meantime, modern data demonstrate the complex mechanisms of Y chromosome evolution and the fact that the disappearance of the Y chromosome is not guaranteed.

1:1 sex ratio[edit]

Fisher's principleoutlines why almost all species usingsexual reproductionhave asex ratioof 1:1.W. D. Hamiltongave the following basic explanation in his 1967 paper on "Extraordinary sex ratios",[47]given the condition that males and females cost equal amounts to produce:

  1. Suppose male births are less common than female.
  2. A newborn male then has better mating prospects than a newborn female, and therefore can expect to have more offspring.
  3. Therefore, parents genetically disposed to produce males tend to have more than average numbers of grandchildren born to them.
  4. Therefore, the genes for male-producing tendencies spread, and male births become more common.
  5. As the 1:1 sex ratio is approached, the advantage associated with producing males dies away.
  6. The same reasoning holds if females are substituted for males throughout. Therefore, 1:1 is the equilibrium ratio.

Non-therian Y chromosome[edit]

Many groups of organisms in addition to therian mammals have Y chromosomes, but these Y chromosomes do not share common ancestry with therian Y chromosomes. Such groups include monotremes,Drosophila,some other insects, some fish, some reptiles, and some plants. InDrosophila melanogaster,the Y chromosome does not trigger male development. Instead, sex is determined by the number of X chromosomes. TheD. melanogasterY chromosome does contain genes necessary for male fertility. So XXYD. melanogasterare female, andD. melanogasterwith a single X (X0), are male but sterile. There are some species of Drosophila in which X0 males are both viable and fertile.[citation needed]

ZW chromosomes[edit]

Main article:ZW sex-determination system

Other organisms have mirror image sex chromosomes: where the homogeneous sex is the male, said to have two Z chromosomes, and the female is the heterogeneous sex with a Z chromosome and a W chromosome.[48]For example, the ZW sex-determination system is found inbirds,snakes,andbutterflies;the females have ZW sex chromosomes, and males have ZZ sex chromosomes.[48][49][50]

Non-inverted Y chromosome[edit]

There are some species, such as theJapanese rice fish,in which the XY system is still developing and cross over between the X and Y is still possible. Because the male specific region is very small and contains no essential genes, it is even possible to artificially induce XX males and YY females to no ill effect.[51]

Multiple XY pairs[edit]

Monotremes likeplatypusespossess four or five pairs of XY sex chromosomes, each pair consisting of sex chromosomes with homologous regions. The chromosomes of neighboring pairs are partially homologous, such that a chain is formed duringmitosis.[19]The first X chromosome in the chain is also partially homologous with the last Y chromosome, indicating that profound rearrangements, some adding new pieces from autosomes, have occurred in history.[52][53]: fig. 5 

Platypus sex chromosomes have strong sequence similarity with the avianZ chromosome,(indicating closehomology),[17]and the SRY gene so central to sex-determination in most other mammals is apparently not involved in platypus sex-determination.[18]

Human Y chromosome[edit]

The human Y chromosome is composed of about 62 millionbase pairsofDNA,making it similar in size tochromosome 19and represents almost 2% of the total DNA in a malecell.[54][55]The human Y chromosome carries 693genes,107 of which areprotein-coding.[56]However, some genes are repeated, making the number of exclusiveprotein-codinggenes just 42.[56]TheConsensus Coding Sequence (CCDS) Projectonly classifies 63 out of 107 genes, though CCDS estimates are often considered lower bounds due to their conservative classification strategy.[57]All single-copy Y-linked genes arehemizygous(present on only one chromosome) except in cases ofaneuploidysuch asXYY syndromeorXXYY syndrome.Traits that are inherited via the Y chromosome are calledY-linkedtraits, or holandric traits (fromAncient Greekὅλοςhólos,"whole" + ἀνδρόςandrós,"male" ).[58]

Sequence of the human Y chromosome[edit]

At the end of theHuman Genome Project(and after many updates) almost half of the Y chromosome remained un-sequenced even in 2021; a different Y chromosome from the HG002 (GM24385) genome was completely sequenced in January 2022 and is included in the new "complete genome" humanreference genomesequence, CHM13.[56]The completesequencingof a human Y chromosome was shown to contain 62,460,029 base pairs and 41 additionalgenes.[56]This added 30 million base pairs,[56]but it was discovered that the Y chromosome can vary a lot in size between individuals, from 45.2 million to 84.9 million base pairs.[59]

Since almost half of the human Y sequence was unknown before 2022, it could not be screened out as contamination in microbial sequencing projects. As a result, the NCBI RefSeq bacterial genome database mistakenly includes some Y chromosome data.[56]

Structure[edit]

Cytogenetic band[edit]

G-banding ideograms of human Y chromosome
G-banding ideogram of human Y chromosome in resolution 850 bphs. Band length in this diagram is proportional to base-pair length. This type of ideogram is generally used in genome browsers (e.g.Ensembl,UCSC Genome Browser).
G-banding patterns of human Y chromosome in three different resolutions (400,[60] 550[61]and 850[3]). Band length in this diagram is based on the ideograms from ISCN (2013).[62]This type of ideogram represents actual relative band length observed under a microscope at the different moments during themitotic process.[63]
G-bandsof human Y chromosome in resolution 850 bphs[3]
Chr. Arm[64] Band[65] ISCN
start[66] 		ISCN
stop[66] 		Basepair
start 		Basepair
stop 		Stain[67] Density
Y p 11.32 0 149 1 300,000 gneg
Y p 11.31 149 298 300,001 600,000 gpos 50
Y p 11.2 298 1043 600,001 10,300,000 gneg
Y p 11.1 1043 1117 10,300,001 10,400,000 acen
Y q 11.1 1117 1266 10,400,001 10,600,000 acen
Y q 11.21 1266 1397 10,600,001 12,400,000 gneg
Y q 11.221 1397 1713 12,400,001 17,100,000 gpos 50
Y q 11.222 1713 1881 17,100,001 19,600,000 gneg
Y q 11.223 1881 2160 19,600,001 23,800,000 gpos 50
Y q 11.23 2160 2346 23,800,001 26,600,000 gneg
Y q 12 2346 3650 26,600,001 57,227,415 gvar

Non-combining region of Y (NRY)[edit]

Further information:Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup

The human Y chromosome is normally unable to recombine with the X chromosome, except for small pieces ofpseudoautosomal regions(PARs) at thetelomeres(which comprise about 5% of the chromosome's length). These regions are relics of ancienthomologybetween the X and Y chromosomes. The bulk of the Y chromosome, which does not recombine, is called the "NRY", or non-recombining region of the Y chromosome.[68]Single-nucleotide polymorphisms(SNPs) in this region are used to trace direct paternal ancestral lines.

More specifically, PAR1 is at 0.1–2.7 Mb. PAR2 is at 56.9–57.2 Mb. The non-recombining region (NRY) or male-specific region (MSY) sits between. Their sizes is now known perfectly from CHM13: 2.77 Mb and 329.5 kb. Until CHM13 the data in PAR1 and PAR2 was just copied over from X chromosome.[59]

Sequence classes[edit]

Genes[edit]

Number of genes[edit]

The following are some of the gene count estimates of human Y chromosome. Because researchers use different approaches togenome annotationtheir predictions of thenumber of geneson each chromosome varies (for technical details, seegene prediction). Among various projects, CCDS takes an extremely conservative strategy. So CCDS's gene number prediction represents a lower bound on the total number of human protein-coding genes.[69]

Estimated by Protein-coding genes Non-coding RNA genes Pseudogenes Source Release date
CCDS 63 — — [1] 2016-09-08
HGNC 45 55 381 [70] 2017-05-12
Ensembl 63 109 392 [71] 2017-03-29
UniProt 47 — — [72] 2018-02-28
NCBI 73 122 400 [73][74][75] 2017-05-19

Gene list[edit]

See also:Category:Genes on human chromosome Y

In general, the human Y chromosome is extremely gene poor—it is one of the largestgene desertsin the human genome. Disregardingpseudoautosomalgenes, genes encoded on the human Y chromosome include:

Genes on the non-recombining portion of the Y chromosome[76]
Name Xparalog Note
SRY SOX3 Sex-determining region. This is the p arm [Yp].
ZFY ZFX Zinc finger.
RPS4Y1 RPS4X Ribosomal protein S4.
AMELY AMELX Amelogenin.
TBL1Y TBL1X
PCDH11Y PDCH11X X-transposed region (XTR) from Xq21, one of two genes. Once dubbed "PAR3"[77]but later refuted.[78]
TGIF2LY TGIF2LX The other X-transposed gene.
TSPY1,TSPY2 TSPX Testis-specific protein.
AZFa (none) Not a gene. First part of the AZF (Azoospermia factor) region on arm q. Contains the four following genes. X counterparts escape inactivation.
USP9Y USP9X Ubiquitin protease.
DDX3Y DDX3X Helicase.
UTY UTX Histone demethylase.
TB4Y TB4X
AZFb (none) Second AZF region on arm q. Prone to NAHR [non-allelic homologous recombination] with AZFc. Overlaps with AZFc. Contains three single-copy gene regions and repeats.
CYorf15 CXorf15
RPS4Y2 RPS4X Another copy of ribosomal protein S4.
EIF1AY EIF4AX
KDM5D KDM5C
XKRY XK (protein) Found in the "yellow"amplicon.
HSFY1,HSFY2 HSFX1,HSFX2 Found in the "blue" amplicon.
PRY,PRY2 Found in the "blue" amplicon. Identified by similarity toPTPN13(Chr. 4).
RBMY1A1 RBMY Large number of copies. Part of anRBM gene familyof RNA recognition motif (RRM) proteins.
AZFc (none) Final (distal) part of the AZF. Multiple palindromes.
DAZ1,DAZ2,DAZ3,DAZ4 RRM genes in two palindromic clusters.BOLLandDAZLAare autosomal homologs.
CDY1,CDY2 CDY1 is actually two identical copies. CDY2 is two closely related copies in palindrome P5. Probably derived from autosomalCDYL.
VCY1,VCY2 VCX1through 3 Three copies of VCX2 (BPY2). Part of theVCX/VCYfamily. The two copies of BPY1 are instead in Yq11.221/AZFa.

Y-chromosome-linked diseases[edit]

Diseases linked to the Y chromosome typically involve ananeuploidy,an atypical number of chromosomes.

Loss of Y chromosome[edit]

Males can lose the Y chromosome in a subset of cells, known asmosaicloss. Mosaic loss is strongly associated with age,[79]and smoking is another important risk factor for mosaic loss.[80]

Mosaic loss may be related to health outcomes, indicating that the Y chromosome plays important roles outside of sex determination.[80][81]Males with a higher percentage ofhematopoieticstem cellslacking the Y chromosome have a higher risk of certaincancersand have a shorter life expectancy.[81]In many cases, a cause and effect relationship between the Y chromosome and health outcomes has not been determined, and some propose loss of the Y chromosome could be a "neutralkaryotyperelated to normalaging".[82]However, a 2022 study showed that mosaic loss of the Y chromosome causally contributes tofibrosis,heart risks,and mortality.[83]

Further studies are needed to understand how mosaic Y chromosome loss may contribute to other sex differences in health outcomes, such as how male smokers have between 1.5 and 2 times the risk of non-respiratory cancers as female smokers.[84][85]Potential countermeasures identified so far include not smoking orstopping smokingand at least one potential drug that "may help counteract the harmful effects of the chromosome loss" is under investigation.[86][87][better source needed]

Y chromosome microdeletion[edit]

Y chromosome microdeletion(YCM) is a family of genetic disorders caused by missing genes in the Y chromosome. Many affected men exhibit no symptoms and lead normal lives. However, YCM is also known to be present in a significant number of men with reduced fertility or reduced sperm count.[citation needed]

Defective Y chromosome[edit]

This results in the person presenting a femalephenotype(i.e., is born with female-like genitalia) even though that person possesses an XYkaryotype.The lack of the second X results in infertility. In other words, viewed from the opposite direction, the person goes throughdefeminizationbut fails to completemasculinization.[citation needed]

The cause can be seen as an incomplete Y chromosome: the usual karyotype in these cases is 45X, plus a fragment of Y. This usually results in defective testicular development, such that the infant may or may not have fully formed male genitalia internally or externally. The full range of ambiguity of structure may occur, especially ifmosaicismis present. When the Y fragment is minimal and nonfunctional, the child is usually a girl with the features ofTurner syndromeormixed gonadal dysgenesis.[citation needed]

XXY[edit]

Main article:Klinefelter syndrome

Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY) is not ananeuploidyof the Y chromosome, but a condition of having an extra X chromosome, which usually results in defective postnatal testicular function. The mechanism is not fully understood; it does not seem to be due to direct interference by the extra X with expression of Y genes.[citation needed]

XYY[edit]

Main article:XYY syndrome

47, XYY syndrome (simply known as XYY syndrome) is caused by the presence of a single extra copy of the Y chromosome in each of a male's cells. 47, XYY males have one X chromosome and two Y chromosomes, for a total of 47 chromosomes per cell. Researchers have found that an extra copy of the Y chromosome is associated with increased stature and an increased incidence of learning problems in some boys and men, but the effects are variable, often minimal, and the vast majority do not know their karyotype.[88]

In 1965 and 1966Patricia Jacobsand colleagues published a chromosome survey of 315 male patients at Scotland's only special security hospital for thedevelopmentally disabled, finding a higher than expected number of patients to have an extra Y chromosome.[89]The authors of this study wondered "whether an extra Y chromosome predisposes its carriers to unusually aggressive behaviour", and this conjecture "framed the next fifteen years of research on the human Y chromosome".[90]

Through studies over the next decade, this conjecture was shown to be incorrect: the elevated crime rate of XYY males is due to lower median intelligence and not increased aggression,[91]and increased height was the only characteristic that could be reliably associated with XYY males.[92]The "criminal karyotype" concept is therefore inaccurate.[88]

Rare[edit]

The following Y-chromosome-linked diseases are rare, but notable because of their elucidation of the nature of the Y chromosome.

More than two Y chromosomes[edit]

Greater degrees of Y chromosome polysomy (having more than one extra copy of the Y chromosome in every cell, e.g., XYYY) are considerably more rare. The extra genetic material in these cases can lead to skeletal abnormalities, dental abnormalities, decreased IQ, delayed development, and respiratory issues, but the severity features of these conditions are variable.[93]

XX male syndrome[edit]

XX male syndromeoccurs due to agenetic recombinationin the formation of the malegametes,causing theSRYportion of the Y chromosome to move to the X chromosome.[8]When such an X chromosome is present in a zygote, male gonads develop because of the SRY gene.[8]

Genetic genealogy[edit]

Main articles:Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroupandY-chromosomal Adam

In humangenetic genealogy(the application ofgeneticstotraditional genealogy), use of the information contained in the Y chromosome is of particular interest because, unlike other chromosomes, the Y chromosome is passed exclusively from father to son, on the patrilineal line.Mitochondrial DNA,maternally inherited to both sons and daughters, is used in an analogous way to trace the matrilineal line.[citation needed]

Brain function[edit]

Research is currently investigating whether male-pattern neural development is a direct consequence of Y-chromosome-related gene expression or an indirect result of Y-chromosome-relatedandrogenic hormoneproduction.[94]

Microchimerism[edit]

In 1974, male chromosomes were discovered in fetal cells in the blood circulation of women.[95]

In 1996, it was found that male fetal progenitor cells could persist postpartum in the maternal blood stream for as long as 27 years.[96]

A 2004 study at theFred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center,Seattle, investigated the origin of male chromosomes found in the peripheral blood of women who had not had male progeny. A total of 120 subjects (women who had never had sons) were investigated, and it was found that 21% of them had male DNA. The subjects were categorised into four groups based on their case histories:[97]

  • Group A (8%) had had only female progeny.
  • Patients in Group B (22%) had a history of one or more miscarriages.
  • Patients Group C (57%) had their pregnancies medically terminated.
  • Group D (10%) had never been pregnant before.

The study noted that 10% of the women had never been pregnant before, raising the question of where the Y chromosomes in their blood could have come from. The study suggests that possible reasons for occurrence of male chromosome microchimerism could be one of the following:[97]

  • miscarriages,
  • pregnancies,
  • vanished male twin,
  • possibly from sexual intercourse.

A 2012 study at the same institute has detected cells with the Y chromosome in multiple areas of the brains of deceased women.[98]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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