Yajna
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Yajna(Sanskrit:यज्ञ,lit. 'sacrifice, devotion, worship, offering',IAST:yajña) inHinduismrefers to anyritualdone in front of a sacred fire, often withmantras.[1]Yajna has been aVedictradition, described in a layer of Vedic literature calledBrahmanas,as well asYajurveda.[2]The tradition has evolved from offering oblations and libations into sacred fire to symbolic offerings in the presence of sacred fire (Agni).[1]
Yajna rituals-related texts have been called theKarma-kanda(ritual works) portion of the Vedic literature, in contrast to theJnana-kanda(knowledge) portion found in the VedicUpanishads.The proper completion of Yajna-like rituals was the focus ofMimansaschool ofHindu philosophy.[3]Yajna have continued to play a central role in a Hindu's rites of passage, such as weddings.[4]Modern majorHindu templeceremonies, Hindu community celebrations, or monastic initiations may also include Vedic Yajna rites, or alternatively be based onAgamicrituals.
Etymology
[edit]The wordyajna(Sanskrit:यज्ञ,romanized:yajña) has its root in the Sanskrityajmeaning 'to worship, adore, honour, revere' and appears in the early Vedic literature, composed in 2nd millennium BCE.[5][6]In Rigveda, Yajurveda (itself a derivative of this root) and others, it means "worship, devotion to anything, prayer and praise, an act of worship or devotion, a form of offering or oblation, and sacrifice".[5]In post-Vedic literature, the term meant any form of rite, ceremony or devotion with an actual or symbolic offering or effort.[5]
A yajna included major ceremonial devotions, with or without a sacred fire, sometimes with feasts and community events. It has, states Nigal, a threefold meaning of worship of the deities (devapujana), unity (sangatikarana) and charity (dána).[7]
The Sanskrit word is related to theAvestantermyasnaofZoroastrianism.Unlike the Vedicyajna,however, theYasnais the name of a specific religious service, not a class of rituals, and they have "to do with water rather than fire".[8][9]The Sanskrit word is further related to Ancient Greekἅζομαι(házomai), "to revere", deriving from the Proto-Indo-European root*Hyeh₂ǵ-( "to worship" ).
History
[edit]Yajna has been a part of an individual or social ritual sinceVedic times.When the ritual fire – the divineAgni,the god of fire and the messenger of gods – was deployed in a Yajna,mantraswere chanted.[6]The hymns and songs sung and oblations offered into the fire were a form of hospitality towards the Vedic gods. The offerings were believed to be carried byAgnito the gods; the gods in return were expected to grant boons andbenedictions,and thus the ritual served as a means of spiritual exchange between gods and human beings.[6][10]TheVedangas,or auxiliary sciences attached to the Vedic literature, define Yajna as follows:
Definition of a Vedic sacrifice
Yajña, sacrifice, is an act by which we surrender something for the sake of the gods. Such an act must rest on a sacred authority (āgama), and serve for man's salvation (śreyortha). The nature of the gift is of less importance. It may be cake (puroḍāśa), pulse (karu), mixed milk (sāṃnāyya), an animal (paśu), the juice of soma-plant (soma), etc; nay, the smallest offerings of butter, flour, and milk may serve for the purpose of a sacrifice.
—Apastamba Yajna Paribhasa-sutras 1.1,Translator: M Dhavamony[11][12]
In the Upanishadic times, or after 500 BCE, states Sikora, the meaning of the term Yajna evolved from "ritual sacrifice" performed around fires by priests, to any "personal attitude and action or knowledge" that required devotion and dedication.[6]The oldest Vedic Upanishads, such as the Chandogya Upanishad (~700 BCE) in Chapter 8, for example state,[13]
अथ यद्यज्ञइत्याचक्षते ब्रह्मचर्यमेव
तद्ब्रह्मचर्येण ह्येव यो ज्ञाता तं
विन्दतेऽथ यदिष्टमित्याचक्षते ब्रह्मचर्यमेव
तद्ब्रह्मचर्येण ह्येवेष्ट्वात्मानमनुविन्दते ॥ १ ॥
What is commonly calledYajnais really the chaste life of the student of sacred knowledge,
for only through the chaste life of a student does he who is a knower find that,
What is commonly calledIstam(sacrificial offering) is really the chaste life of the student of sacred knowledge,
for only having searched with chaste life of a student does one findAtman(Soul, Self) || 1 ||
The later Vedic Upanishads expand the idea further by suggesting thatYogais a form ofYajna(devotion, sacrifice).[14]TheShvetashvatara Upanishadin verse 1.5.14, for example, uses the analogy ofYajnamaterials to explain the means to see one's soul and God, with inner rituals and without external rituals.[14][15]It states, "by making one's own body as the lower friction sticks, the syllableOmas the upper friction sticks, then practicing the friction of meditation, one may see theDevawho is hidden, as it were ".[15]
Changing nature of Vedic offerings
[edit]The nature of Vedic sacrifice and rituals evolved over time, with major changes during the 1st millennium BCE, changes that influenced concepts later adopted by other traditions such as Buddhism.[16]Early Vedic period sacrifices involved animal sacrifice, but the rituals were progressively reinterpreted over time, substituting the offerings and making it non-violent or symbolic, with the superiority of knowledge and celebration of sound of mantra replacing the physical offerings. Ultimately, the external rituals were reformulated and replaced with "internal oblations performed within the human body".[16]These ideas of substitution, evolution from external actions (karma-kanda) to internal knowledge (jñana-kanda), were highlighted in many rituals-related sutras, as well as specialized texts such as theBrihadaranyaka Upanishad(~800 BCE),Chandogya Upanishad,Kaushitaki UpanishadandPranagnihotra Upanishad.[17][18]
The Vedic textSatapatha Brahmanadefines a sacrifice as an act of abandonment of something one holds of value, such as oblations offered to god anddakshina(fees, gifts) offered during the yajna.[16]For gifts and fees, the text recommends givingcows,clothing, horses or gold.[16]The oblations recommended are cow milk, ghee (clarified butter), seeds, grains, flowers, water and food cakes (rice cake, for example). Similar recommendations are repeated in other texts, such as in theTaittiriya Shakha2.10 of theKrishna Yajurveda).[19]
Tadeusz Skorupski states that these sacrifices were a part of ritual way of life, and considered to have inherent efficacy, where doing these sacrifices yielded repayment and results without the priests or gods getting involved.[16]These Vedic ideas, adds Skorupski, influenced "the formulation of Buddhist theory of generosity".[16]Buddhist ideas went further, criticizing "the Brahmins for their decadence and failure to live in conformity with the Brahmanic legacy of the ancient Brahmins", who claimed the Vedic ancients "lived in self restraint, were ascetics, had no cattle, no gold, and no wealth".[20]The Buddha sought return to more ancient values, states Tadeusz Skorupski, where the Vedic sages "had study as their grain and wealth, guarded the holy life as their treasure, praised morality, austerity and nonviolence; they performed sacrifices consisting of rice, barley and oil, but they did not kill the cows".[20]
Yajamana
[edit]In Vedic rituals, the sacrifice is offered by a patron known as theyajamana.Commonly translated as "sacrificer", yajamana doesn't personally perform the sacrifice but rather hires priests for it. The yajamana acts as the patron, and the sacrifice is conducted for his benefit.[21]
Priests
[edit]Vedic (Shrauta) yajnas are typically performed by four priests of theVedic priesthood:the hota, the adhvaryu, the udgata and the Brahma.[22]The functions associated with the priests were:[23]
- TheHotarecites invocations and litanies drawn from theRigveda.He use three Rig verses, the introductory verse, the accompanying verse and benediction as the third.[24]
- TheAdhvaryuis the priest's assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the ritual like measuring the ground, building the altar explained in theYajurveda.The adhvaryu offers oblations.[24]
- TheUdgatais the chanter of hymns set to melodies and music (sāman) drawn from theSamaveda.The udgatar, like the hota, chants the introductory, accompanying and benediction hymns.[24]
- TheBrahmais the superintendent of the entire performance, and is responsible for correcting mistakes by means of supplementary verses taken from theAtharva Veda.
Offerings and style
[edit]
The central element of all Vedic sacrifices is the ritual fire, which is essential regardless of the complexity of the ceremony. Three ritual fires are traditionally used during a Vedic sacrifice. These are the householder's fire (garhapatya), the southern fire (anvaharyapacanaordaksinagni), and the offertorial fire (ahavaniya).[21]Oblations are offered into the fire. Among the ingredients offered asoblationsin the yajna areghee,milk, grains, cakes andsoma.[25]The duration of a yajna depends on its type, some last only a few minutes whereas others are performed over a period of hours, days or even months. Some yajnas were performed privately, while others were community events.[25][26]In other cases, yajnas were symbolic, such as in theBrihadaranyaka Upanishadhymn 3.1.6, where "the mind is the Brahmin of sacrifice" and the goal of sacrifice was complete release and liberation (moksha).[24]
The blessings offered ranged from long life, gaining friends, health and heaven, more prosperity, to better crops.[27][28]For example,
May myriceplants and my barley, and my beans and mysesame,
and my kidney-beans and my vetches, and mypearl milletand myproso millet,
and mysorghumand my wild rice, and mywheatand mylentils,
prosper by sacrifice (Yajna).— Shukla Yajurveda 18.12,[29]
Yajnas, where milk products, fruits, flowers, cloth and money are offered, are calledhomaorhavan.[30]
Types
[edit]
Kalpa Sutraslist the following yajna types:[31]
- Pāka-yajñās:— Aṣtaka, sthālipāka, parvana, srāvaṇi, āgrahayani, caitri, and āsvīyuji. These yajñās involve consecrating cooked items.
- Soma-yajñās:—Agnistoma,atyajnistoma, uktya, shodasi, vājapeya, atirātra, and aptoryama are the seven soma-yajñās.
- Havir-yajñās:— Agniyādhāna,agnihotra,darśa-pūrṇamāsa, āgrayana, cāturmāsya, niruudha paśu bandha,[32]sautrāmaṇi. These involve offering havis or oblations.
- Pañca-mahā-yajñās: — The "five great yajnas" or mahāsattras. (See below.)
- Veda-vrātas:— They are four in number and done during Vedic education.
- Sixteen yajñās performed during one-timesamskāras:garbhādhānā, pumsavana, sīmanta, jātakarma, nāmakaraṇa, annaprāśana, chudākarma / caula, niskramana, karnavedha, vidyaarambha, upanayana, keshanta, snātaka and vivāha, nisheka, antyeshti. These are specified by theGṛhya Sūtrās.
| Name of sacrifice | What is sacrificed?[16] | To whom?[16] | Frequency |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bhuta-yajna | Food cakes | Sacrifice to living beings (animals, birds, etc.) |
Daily[16][33] |
| Manushya-yajna | Alms and water (seva,dāna) |
Sacrifice to fellow human beings | Daily[16][33] |
| Pitr-yajna | Libationsof water | Sacrifice to ancestors | Daily[16][33] |
| Deva-yajna (homa) | Ghee[34] | Sacrifice to gods | Daily[16][33] |
| Brahma-yajna | Words (reading of the Vedas) | Sacrifice toBrahman (ultimate reality) |
When possible[16][33] |
Methods
[edit]
The Vedic yajna ritual is performed in the modern era on a square altar calledVedi(Bediin Nepal), set in amandapaormandalaorkundam,wherein wood is placed along with oily seeds and other combustion aids.[35]However, in ancient times, the square principle was incorporated into grids to build large complex shapes for community events.[36]Thus a rectangle, trapezia, rhomboids or "large falcon bird" altars would be built from joining squares.[36][37]The geometric ratios of these Vedi altar, with mathematical precision and geometric theorems, are described inShulba Sutras,one of the precursors to the development of mathematics in ancient India.[36]The offerings are calledSamagri(orYajāka,Istam). The proper methods for the rites are part ofYajurveda,but also found in Riddle Hymns (hymns of questions, followed by answers) in variousBrahmanas.[35]When multiple priests are involved, they take turns as in a dramatic play, where not only are praises to gods recited or sung, but the dialogues are part of a dramatic representation and discussion of spiritual themes.[35]
The Vedic sacrifice (yajna) is presented as a kind of drama, with its actors, its dialogues, its portion to be set to music, its interludes, and its climaxes.
— Louis Renou,Vedic India[35]
The Brahmodya Riddle hymns, for example, in Shatapatha Brahmana's chapter 13.2.6, is ayajnadialogue between aHotripriest and aBrahminpriest, which would be played out during the yajna ritual before the attending audience.
Who is that is born again?
It is the moon that is born again.
And what is the great vessel?
The great vessel, doubtless, is this world.
Who was the smooth one?
The smooth one, doubtless, was the beauty (Sri,Lakshmi).
What is the remedy for cold?
The remedy for cold, doubtless, is fire.— Shatapatha Brahmana, 13.2.6.10–18[38]
During weddings
[edit]
Agni and yajna play a central role inHindu weddings.A typical Hindu marriage involves a Yajna, with Agni being considered the witness of the marriage.[39]Various mutual promises between the bride and groom are made in front of the fire, and the marriage is completed by an actual or symbolic walk around the fire. The wedding ritual ofPanigrahana,for example, is the 'holding the hand' ritual[40]as a symbol of their impending marital union, and the groom announcing his acceptance of responsibility to four deities: Bhaga signifying wealth, Aryama signifying heavens/milky way, Savita signifying radiance/new beginning, and Purandhi signifying wisdom. The groom faces west, while the bride sits in front of him with her face to the east, he holds her hand while the Rig vedic mantra is recited in the presence of fire.[4][41]
TheSaptapadi(Sanskrit forseven steps/feet), is the most important ritual in Hindu weddings, and represents the legal part of Hindu marriage.[42]The couple getting married walks around theHoly Fire(Agni), and the yajna fire is considered a witness to the vows they make to each other.[43]In some regions, a piece of clothing or sashes worn by the bride and groom are tied together for this ceremony. Each circuit around the fire is led by either the bride or the groom, varying by community and region. Usually, the bride leads the groom in the first circuit. The first six circuits are led by the bride, and the final one by the groom.[44]With each circuit, the couple makes a specific vow to establish some aspect of a happy relationship and household for each other. The fire altar or the Yajna Kunda is square.
See also
[edit]- Ashvamedha
- Historical Vedic religion
- Homa (ritual)
- Puja
- Śrauta
- Yajurveda
- Vedi (altar)
- Sacrifice
- Yasna,Persian conjugate
References
[edit]- ^abSG Nigal (1986), Axiological Approach to the Vedas, Northern Book,ISBN978-8185119182,pages 80–81
- ^Laurie Patton (2005), The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal, Gene Thursby), Routledge,ISBN978-0415772273,pages 38–39
- ^Randall Collins (1998), The Sociology of Philosophies, Harvard University Press,ISBN978-0674001879,page 248
- ^abHindu Saṁskāras: Socio-religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments, Rajbali Pandey (1969), see Chapter VIII,ISBN978-8120803961,pages 153–233
- ^abcMonier Monier-Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-8120831056(Reprinted in 2011), pages 839–840
- ^abcdJack Sikora (2002), Religions of India, iUniverse,ISBN978-0595247127,page 86
- ^Nigal, p. 81.
- ^Drower, 1944:78
- ^Boyce, 1975:147–191
- ^"Give and take spirit".The Hindu.2019-05-31.ISSN0971-751X.Retrieved2019-06-01.
- ^M Dhavamony (1974).Hindu Worship: Sacrifices and Sacraments.Studia Missionalia. Vol. 23. Gregorian Press, Universita Gregoriana, Roma. pp. 107–108.
- ^Jan Gonda(1980).Handbuch Der Orientalistik: Indien. Zweite Abteilung.BRILL Academic. pp. 345–346.ISBN978-90-04-06210-8.
- ^abRobert Hume,Chandogya Upanishad 8.5.1,Oxford University Press, page 266
- ^abcJack Sikora (2002), Religions of India, iUniverse,ISBN978-0595247127,page 87
- ^abRobert Hume,Shvetashvatara Upanishad 1.5.14,Oxford University Press, page 396
- ^abcdefghijklmTadeusz Skorupski (2015). Michael Witzel (ed.).Homa Variations: The Study of Ritual Change Across the Longue Durée.Oxford University Press. pp. 78–81.ISBN978-0-19-935158-9.
- ^Deussen, Paul (1997).Sixty Upanishads of the Veda.Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 645–651.ISBN978-81-208-1467-7.
- ^Tadeusz Skorupski (2015). Michael Witzel (ed.).Homa Variations: The Study of Ritual Change Across the Longue Durée.Oxford University Press. pp. 79–84.ISBN978-0-19-935158-9.
- ^Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam (ed.).India through the ages.Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p.79.
- ^abTadeusz Skorupski (2015). Michael Witzel (ed.).Homa Variations: The Study of Ritual Change Across the Longue Durée.Oxford University Press. pp. 86–87.ISBN978-0-19-935158-9.
- ^abThe Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation.Oxford University Press. 1998-09-24. pp. 16–18.ISBN978-0-19-535242-9.
- ^Mahendra Kulasrestha (2007), The Golden Book of Upanishads, Lotus,ISBN978-8183820127,page 21
- ^Nigal, p. 79.
- ^abcdRobert Hume,Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 3.1,Oxford University Press, pages 107- 109
- ^abRalph Griffith,The texts of the Shukla YajurvedaEJ Lazarus, page i–xvi, 87–171, 205–234
- ^Frits Staal(2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin,ISBN978-0143099864,page 124
- ^Michael Witzel (2003), "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism (Editor: Gavin Flood), Blackwell,ISBN0-631215352,pages 76–77
- ^Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin,ISBN978-0143099864,pages 127–128
- ^Ralph Griffith,The texts of the Shukla YajurvedaEJ Lazarus, page 163
- ^"What is Havan? – Definition from Yogapedia".Yogapedia.com.Retrieved2020-08-22.
- ^Prasoon, Ch.2, Vedang, Kalp.
- ^"Is Sacrificial Killing Justified? from the Chapter" The Vedas ", in Hindu Dharma".kamakoti.org.Retrieved2019-03-09.
- ^abcdeKlaus K. Klostermaier (2007).A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition.State University of New York Press. pp. 125–127.ISBN978-0-7914-7082-4.
- ^James G. Lochtefeld (2002).The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M.Rosen Publishing Group. p. 186.ISBN978-0-8239-3179-8.
- ^abcdML Varadpande, History of Indian Theatre, Volume 1, Abhinav, ISBN, pages 45–47
- ^abcKim Plofker (2009),Mathematics in India,Princeton University Press,ISBN978-0691120676,pages 16–27
- ^Ralph Griffith,The texts of the white YajurvedaEJ Lazarus, pages 87–171
- ^ML Varadpande, History of Indian Theatre, Volume 1, Abhinav, ISBN, page 48
- ^Hazen, Walter. Inside Hinduism. Lorenz Educational Press.ISBN9780787705862.P. 34.
- ^The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, James G. Lochtefeld (2001),ISBN978-0823931798,Page 427
- ^P.H. Prabhu (2011),Hindu Social Organization,ISBN978-8171542062,see pages 164–165
- ^BBC News article on Hinduism & Weddings,Nawal Prinja (August 24, 2009)
- ^Shivendra Kumar Sinha (2008),Basics of Hinduism,Unicorn Books,ISBN978-81-7806-155-9,
The two rake the holy vow in the presence of Agni... In the first four rounds, the bride leads and the groom follows, and in the final three, the groom leads and the bride follows. While walking around the fire, the bride places her right palm on the groom's right palm and the bride's brother pours some unhusked rice or barley into their hands and they offer it to the fire...
- ^Office of the Registrar General, Government of India (1962),Census of India, 1961, v. 20, pt. 6, no. 2,Manager of Publications, Government of India,
The bride leads in all the first six pheras but follows the bridegroom on the seventh
Publications
[edit]- Agrawala, Vasudeva Sharana. India as known to Pāṇini: a study of the cultural material in the Ashṭādhyāyī. Prithvi Prakashan, 1963.
- Dallapiccola Anna.Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend.......ISBN0-500-51088-1.
- Gyanshruti; Srividyananda. Yajna A Comprehensive Survey. Yoga Publications Trust, Munger, Bihar, India; 1st edition (December 1, 2006).ISBN8186336478.
- Krishnananda (Swami). A Short History of Religious and Philosophic Thought in India. Divine Life Society, Rishikesh.
- Nigal, S.G. Axiological Approach to the Vedas. Northern Book Centre, 1986.ISBN81-85119-18-X.
- Prasoon, (Prof.) Shrikant. Indian Scriptures. Pustak Mahal (August 11, 2010).ISBN978-81-223-1007-8.
- Vedananda (Swami). Aum Hindutvam: (daily Religious Rites of the Hindus). Motilal Banarsidass, 1993.ISBN81-20810-81-3.
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