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Rabbinic literature
Talmud ReadersbyAdolf Behrman
Talmudic literature
Tannaitic
Amoraic(Gemara)
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Halakhic Midrash
Exodus
Leviticus
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400–600 CE
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Torah
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  • Targum Tehillim
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TheJerusalem Talmud(Hebrew:תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשַׁלְמִי,romanized:Talmud Yerushalmi,oftenYerushalmifor short) orPalestinian Talmud,[1][2]also known as theTalmud of the Land of Israel,[3][4]is a collection ofrabbinicnotes on the second-century Jewishoral traditionknown as theMishnah.Naming this version of the Talmud afterPalestineor theLand of Israel—rather thanJerusalem—is considered more accurate, as the text originated mainly fromGalileein ByzantinePalaestina Secundarather than from Jerusalem, where no Jews lived at the time.[5][6]

The Jerusalem Talmud predates its counterpart, theBabylonian Talmud(known in Hebrew as theTalmud Bavli), by about a century, written primarily inJewish Palestinian Aramaic.It was compiled between the late fourth century to the first half of the fifth century.[7]Both versions of the Talmud have two parts, the Mishnah (of which there is only one version), which was finalized byJudah ha-Nasiaround the year 200 CE, and either the Babylonian or the JerusalemGemara.The Gemara is what differentiates the Jerusalem Talmud from its Babylonian counterpart. The Jerusalem Gemara contains the written discussions of generations of rabbis of theTalmudic academies in Syria PalaestinaatTiberiasandCaesarea.

Name

This version of the Talmud is frequently named the Jerusalem Talmud or the Palestinian Talmud. The latter name, after theregion of Palestine– or theLand of Israel– is considered more accurate, as the text originated mainly fromGalileein ByzantinePalaestina Secundarather than from Jerusalem, where no Jews lived at the time.[5]The use of the parallel terms dates to the period of thegeonim(6th–11th century CE), alongside other terms such as "Talmud of the Land of Israel," "Talmud of the West," and "Talmud of the Western Lands."[8]

Origins and historical context

The Jerusalem Talmud probably originated in Tiberias in the School ofJohanan bar Nappaha[9]as a compilation of teachings of the schools of Tiberias, Caesarea,[9]andSepphoris.[citation needed]It is written largely inJewish Palestinian Aramaic,aWestern Aramaic languagethat differs fromits Babylonian counterpart.[10]

This Talmud is a synopsis of the analysis of theMishnahthat was developed for nearly 200 years by theTalmudic academies in Syria Palaestina(principally those ofTiberiasandCaesarea). Because of their location, the sages of these Academies devoted considerable attention to the analysis of the agricultural laws of theLand of Israel.

Manuscripts

TheLeiden Jerusalem Talmud(Or. 4720) is today the only extant complete manuscript of the Jerusalem Talmud and available atLeiden University Libraries.It was copied in 1289 byJehiel ben Jekuthiel Anavand shows elements of a later recension.[11]The additions which are added in thebiblical glossesof the Leiden manuscript do not appear in extant fragments of the same Talmudictractatesfound in Yemen,[12]additions which are now incorporated in every printed edition of the Jerusalem Talmud. These Yemenite fragments, a consequence of isolation the Yemenite community, are important as source material (as evidenced below).

The Leiden manuscript is important in that it preserves some earlier variants to textual readings, such as in TractatePesachim10:3 (70a), which brings down the old Hebrew word forcharoset(the sweet relish eaten at Passover), viz.dūkeh(Hebrew:דוכה), instead ofrūbeh/rabah(Hebrew:רובה), saying with a play on words: "The members of Isse's household would say in the name of Isse: Why is it calleddūkeh?It is because she pounds [the spiced ingredients] with him. "The Hebrew word for" pound "isdakh(דך), which rules out the spelling ofrabah(רבה), as found in the printed editions.Yemenite Jewsstill call itdūkeh.[13]

Leiden University Librarieshas digitised both volumes of the manuscript and made it available in its Digital Collections.[14]

Among the Hebrew manuscripts held in theVatican Libraryis a late 13th-century – early 14th-century copy of TractateSotahand the completeZeraimfor the Jerusalem Talmud (Vat. ebr.133):Berakhot,Peah,Demai,Kilayim,Sheviit,Terumot,Maaserot,Maaser Sheni,ḤallahandOrlah(without the Mishnah for the Tractates, excepting only the Mishnah to the 2nd chapter of Berakhot).[15]L. Ginzbergprinted variant readings from this manuscript on pp. 347–372 at the end of hisFragments of the Yerushalmi(New York 1909).Saul Liebermanprinted variants at the end of his essay,ʿAl ha-Yerushalmi(Hebrew), Jerusalem 1929. Both editors noted that this manuscript is full of gross errors but also retains some valuable readings.

Dating

Premodern estimates

Traditionally, the redaction of this Talmud was thought to have been brought to an abrupt end around 425, whenTheodosius IIsuppressed theNasiof theSanhedrinand put an end to the practice ofsemikhah(formal scholarly ordination). The redaction of the Jerusalem Talmud was done to codify the laws of the Sanhedrin as the redaction of the Mishnah had similarly done during the time ofJudah ha-Nasi.It was thought that the compilers of the Jerusalem Talmud worked to collect the rulings of the Sanhedrin and lacked the time to produce a work of the quality they had intended and that this is the reason why theGemarado not comment upon the whole Mishnah, or that certain sections were lost.[16]

Modern estimates

Current perspectives on the dating of the closure of the text of the Palestinian Talmud rely on an understanding of activity of rabbinic scholarship and literary production, identifying datable historical datapoints mentioned by the text, and its reliance on and citation by other datable (or roughly datable) texts. Broadly, the Palestinian Talmud is dated at some time from the second half of the fourth century to the first half of the fifth century.[17]

Christine Hayes has argued that a lack of evidence forAmoraimactivity in Syria Palaestina after the 370s implies that the text was closed by around 370.[7]However, reference to historical events from around or even slightly after 370 may push the earliest possible date to the late 4th century. For example, the Roman generalUrsicinus,who had a public role between 351 and 359, is mentioned several times in a legendary context, suggesting that these references are somewhat later than his public career.[18]Furthermore, there is also a reference to the Persian campaign of the Roman emperorJulianfrom 363.[17]While less clear, there is also confidence that the Roman official "Proclus" named by the Palestinian Talmud corresponds to a Roman official also namedProclus,who became the governor of Palestine around 380 and eventually climbed to the position ofpraefectus urbi Constantinopolis(Prefect of Constantinople) which he held between 388–392.[17]

The dating of the Palestinian Talmud is definitively prior to that of the Babylonian Talmud, which heavily relies on it.[citation needed]The Babylonian Talmud was composed at some time between the mid-sixth century to the early-seventh century, but prior to the onset of the Arab conquests.[19]This provides an upper absolute boundary as to when the Palestinian Talmud could have been compiled. To further push down the upper boundary, some lines (Demai2:1;Shevi'it6:1) of the Palestinian Talmud are also extant in theTel Rehov inscriptionwhich dates to the 6th or 7th century.[20][21]: 182 

Contents and pagination

In the initial Venice edition, the Jerusalem Talmud was published in four volumes, corresponding to separatesedarimof the Mishnah. Page numbers are by volume as follows:

  1. Zeraim: Berakhot (2a–14d); Pe'ah (15a–21b); Demai (21c–26c); Kilayim (26d–32d); Sheviit (33a–39d); Terumot (40a–48b); Maasrot (48c–52a); Maaser Sheni (52b–58d); Hallah (57a–60b); Orlah (60c–63b); Bikkurim (63c–65d).
  2. Moed: Shabbat (2a–18a); Eruvin (18a–26d); Pesachim (27a–37d); Yoma (38a–45c); Shekalim (45c–51b); Sukkah (51c–55d); Rosh ha-Shanah (56a–59d); Beẓah (59d–63b), Ta'anit (63c–69c); Megillah (69d–75d); Ḥagigah (75d–79d); Mo'ed Ḳaṭan (80a–83d).
  3. Nashim: Yebamot (2a–15a); Sotah (15a–24c); Ketuvot (24c–36b); Nedarim (36c–42d); Gittin (43a–50d); Nazir (51a–58a); Kiddushin (58a–66d).
  4. Nezikin (and Tohorot): Bava Kamma (2a–7c); Bava Metziah (7c–12c); Bava Batra (12d–17d); Sanhedrin (17d–30c); Makkot (30d–32b); Shevuot (32c–38d); Avodah Zarah (39a–45b); Horayot (45c–48c); Niddah (48d–51b).

Each page was printed as afolio,thus it contains four sub-pages (i.e., 7a, 7b, 7c, 7d), in contrast to the Babylonian Talmud which only has two sub-pages (7a, 7b).

In addition, each chapter of the Jerusalem Talmud (paralleling a chapter of Mishnah) is divided into "halachot"; each "halacha" is the commentary on a single short passage of Mishnah. Passages in the Jerusalem Talmud are generally references by a combination of chapter and halacha (i.e., Yerushalmi Sotah 1:1), by a page in the Venice edition (i.e., Yerushalmi Sotah 15a), or both (Yerushalmi Sotah 1:1 15a).

Missing sections

In addition to thesedarimofTohorot(except part ofNiddah) andKodashim,several tractates and parts of tractates are missing from the Jerusalem Talmud. The last four chapters ofShabbat,and the last chapter ofMakkot,are missing. Niddah ends abruptly after the first lines of chapter 4. TractatesAvotandEduyotare missing from both the Jerusalem and Babylonian Talmuds.Tractate Shekalimfrom the Jerusalem Talmud is printed in printings of both the Jerusalem and the Babylonian Talmud.

According to theJewish Encyclopedia,

Yerushalmi has not been preserved in its entirety; large portions of it were entirely lost at an early date, while other parts exist only in fragments. Theeditio princeps(ed. Bomberg, Venice, 1523 et seq.), based on the Leiden manuscript and on which all later editions are based, terminates with the following remark: "Thus far we have found what is contained in this Talmud; and we have endeavored in vain to obtain the missing portions." Of the four manuscripts used for this first edition (comp. the note at the conclusion of Shab. xx. 17d and the passage just cited), only one is now in existence; it is preserved in the library of the University of Leyden (seebelow). Of the six orders of the Mishnah, the fifth, Ḳodashim, is missing entirely from the Palestinian Talmud, while the sixth, Ṭohorot, contains only the first three chapters of the treatise Niddah (iv. 48d–51b).

Comparison to Babylonian Talmud

A page of a medieval Jerusalem Talmud manuscript, from theCairo Geniza.

There are significant differences between the two Talmud compilations. The language of the Jerusalem Talmud is Jewish Aramaic, aWestern Aramaicdialect which differs fromthat of the Babylonian.The Jerusalem Talmud is often fragmentary[5]and difficult to read, even for experienced Talmudists. The redaction of the Babylonian Talmud, on the other hand, is more careful and precise. The traditional explanation for this difference was the idea that the redactors of the Jerusalem Talmud had to finish their work abruptly. A more probable explanation is the fact that the Babylonian Talmud wasn't redacted for at least another 200 years, in which a broad discursive framework was created. The law as laid down in the two compilations is basically similar, except in emphasis and in minor details. In a novel view,David Weiss Halivnidescribes the longer discursive passages in the Babylonian Talmud as the "Stammaitic" layer of redaction, and believe that it was added later than the rest: if one were to remove the "Stammaitic" passages, the remaining text would be quite similar in character to the Jerusalem Talmud.

Neither the Jerusalem nor the Babylonian Talmud covers the entire Mishnah: for example, a Babylonian Gemara exists only for 37 out of the 63 tractates of the Mishnah. In particular:

  • The Jerusalem Talmud covers all the tractates ofZeraim,while the Babylonian Talmud covers only tractateBerachot.The reason might be that most laws from the Orders Zeraim (agricultural laws limited to the land of Israel) had little practical relevance in Babylonia and were therefore not included.[22]The Jerusalem Talmud has a greater focus on the Land of Israel and theTorah's agricultural laws pertaining to the land because it was written in the Land of Israel where the laws applied.
  • The Jerusalem Talmud does not cover the Mishnaic order ofKodashim,which deals with sacrificial rites and laws pertaining to theTemple,while the Babylonian Talmud does cover it. It is not clear why this is, as the laws were not directly applicable in either country following the Temple's 70 CE destruction.
  • In both Talmuds, only one tractate ofTohorot(ritual purity laws related to the Temple and sacrificial system) is examined, since the other tractates deal exclusively with Temple-related laws of ritual purity.

The Babylonian Talmud records the opinions of the rabbis of Israel as well as of those of Babylonia, while the Jerusalem Talmud seldom cites the Babylonian rabbis. The Babylonian version contains the opinions of more generations because of its later date of completion. For both these reasons, it is regarded as a more comprehensive collection of the opinions available. On the other hand, because of the centuries of redaction between the composition of the Jerusalem and the Babylonian Talmud, the opinions of earlyamoraimmight be closer to their original form in the Jerusalem Talmud.

Influence

The influence of the Babylonian Talmud has been far greater than that of the Jerusalem Talmud. In the main, this is because the influence and prestige of the Jewish community of Israel steadily declined in contrast with the Babylonian community in the years after the redaction of the Talmud and continuing until theGaonic era.Furthermore, the editing of the Babylonian Talmud was superior to that of the Jerusalem version, making it more accessible and readily usable.Hai ben Sherira,on the preeminence of the Babylonian Talmud, wrote:

Anything that has been decided halachically in our Talmud (i.e. the Babylonian Talmud), we do not rely on [any contradictory view found in] the Jerusalem Talmud, seeing that many years have passed since instruction coming from there (i.e. the Land of Israel) had ceased on account of persecution, whereas here (i.e. inBabylonia) is where the final decisions were clarified.[23]

However, on the Jerusalem Talmud's continued importance for the understanding of arcane matters, Hai ben Sherira wrote:

Whatever we find in the Jerusalem Talmud and there is nothing that contradicts it in our own Talmud (i.e. the Babylonian Talmud), or which gives a nice explanation for its matters of discourse, we can hold-on to it and rely upon it, for it is not to be viewed as inferior to the commentaries of therishonim(i.e. the early exponents of the Torah).[24]

In addition, the Jerusalem Talmud remains an indispensable source of knowledge of the development of the Jewish Law in the Holy Land. It was also an important resource in the study of the Babylonian Talmud by theKairouanschool ofChananel ben ChushielandNissim ben Jacob,with the result that opinions ultimately based on the Jerusalem Talmud found their way into both theTosafotand theMishneh TorahofMaimonides.

The Babylonian Talmud has traditionally been studied more widely and has had a greater influence on the halakhic tradition than the Jerusalem Talmud. However, some traditions associated with the Jerusalem Talmud are reflected in certain forms of the liturgy, particularly those of theItalian JewsandRomaniotes.

Following the formation of the modern state ofIsrael,there was some interest in restoring Jerusalem Talmud's traditions. For example,David Bar-Hayimof the Machon Shilo institute has issued asiddurreflecting the practices found in the Jerusalem Talmud and other sources.

Commentators

There is no comprehensive commentary to the Jerusalem Talmud by any of theRishonim,but explanations of many individual passages can be found in the literature of the Rishonim. Most significantly, RabbiSamson ben Abraham of Sens(c. 1150 – c. 1230), known as theRash,excerpts and explains many sections of the Jerusalem Talmud in his commentary to the Mishnah of Seder Zeraim. His work, however, is focused on the Mishnah and is not a comprehensive commentary on the entire Jerusalem Talmud.

Judah ben Yakar(died c.1210) wrote a commentary to much of the Jerusalem Talmud, which was quoted by other rishonim but has now been lost.[25]

Kaftor VaFerach,by RabbiIshtori Haparchi(1280–1355), a disciple of RabbiAsher ben Jehiel,theRosh,is one of the few surviving compositions of the Rishonim about all of SederZeraim.However it is aHalachicwork and not per se a commentary on the Jerusalem Talmud.

The only surviving commentaries of Rishonim on the Jerusalem Talmud are the commentaries toTractate ShekalimofMenachem Meiri,[26]Meshulam ben DavidandShemuel ben Shniur.[27]All three of these commentaries are reprinted in the Mutzal Mi'Eish edition of the Jerusalem Talmud Tractate Shekalim.[28]

ManyAcharonim,however, wrote commentaries on all or major portions of the Jerusalem Talmud, and as with the Babylonian Talmud, many also wrote on individual tractates of the Jerusalem Talmud.

One of the first of the Acharonim to write a commentary on the Jerusalem Talmud wasSolomon Sirilio(1485–1554), also known asRash Sirilio,whose commentaries cover only the Seder Zeraim and thetractate Shekalimof SederMoed.Sirilio's commentary remained in manuscript form until 1875, when it was first printed inMainzby Meir Lehmann.[29]In theVilna editionof the Jerusalem Talmud,Rash Sirilioappears only for tractatesBerakhotandPe'ahbut the commentary for the entire Seder Zeraim appears in the Mutzal Mi'Eish edition of the Jerusalem Talmud and is reprinted in theOz Vehadaredition. In addition to his commentary, Sirilio worked to remove mistakes made by manuscript copyists that over time had slipped into the text of the Jerusalem Talmud and his amended text of the Gemara is reproduced alongside his commentary in the Vilna and Mutzal Mi'Eish editions of the Jerusalem Talmud.

Another 16th century commentary on the Yerushalmi is RabbiElazar ben Moshe Azikri's commentary to Tractates Berakhot[30]and Betzah.[31]

Today's modern printed editions almost all carry the commentaries,Korban ha-Eida,byDavid ben Naphtali Fränkel(c. 1704–1762) ofBerlinon the orders of Moed, Nashim and parts of Nezikin, andPnei Moshe,byMoses Margolies(c.1710?–1781) ofAmsterdamon the entire Talmud. The Vilna edition also includes theRidvazby RabbiYaakov Dovid Wilovskyon most of the Talmud. The goal of all three of these commentaries is to explain the simple meaning of the Talmud similar toRashi's commentary on the Bavli, and the authors each wrote an additional commentary—Sheyarei ha-Korban,Marei ha-PanimandTosefot Ridrespectively—that is meant to be a similar style toTosafot.

RabbiChaim Kanievskypublished a commentary on tractates Berakhot through Nedarim (roughly 70% of the Jerusalem Talmud), considered by many to be the clearest commentary. Most of it is reprinted in the Oz Vehadar edition of the Yerushalmi. RabbiYitzchok Isaac Krasilschikovwrote the Toledot Yitzchak and Tevuna commentaries on tractates Berakhot through Rosh Hashanah (roughly 50% of the Jerusalem Talmud), which was published from his manuscript by the Mutzal Me-esh Institute.

A modern edition and commentary, known asOr Simchah,is currently being prepared inArad;another edition in preparation, including paraphrases and explanatory notes in modern Hebrew, isYedid Nefesh.The Jerusalem Talmud has also received some attention fromAdin Steinsaltz,who planned a translation into modern Hebrew and accompanying explanation similar to his work on the Babylonian Talmud before his death.[32]So far only TractatesPe'ahand Shekalim have appeared.[33]

Translations into English

  • The first volume, Berakhoth, was translated into English in 1886 by Dr. Moses Schwab, under the title "The Talmud of Jerusalem". The author has an earlier translation into French, which covers many more volumes.
  • Talmud of the Land of Israel: A Preliminary Translation and ExplanationJacob Neusner,Tzvee Zahavy,others. University of Chicago Press. This translation uses a form-analytical presentation which makes the logical units of discourse easier to identify and follow.
  • Schottenstein Edition of the Yerushalmi TalmudMesorah/ArtScroll. This translation is the counterpart to Mesorah/ArtScroll'sSchottenstein Edition of the Babylonian Talmud(n.b. Fully translated in Hebrew and English. The 51-Volume set is the first and only Orthodox non-academic English translation of the Jerusalem Talmud, the series was completed and available for purchase as of March 6, 2022.)
  • The Jerusalem Talmuded.Heinrich Guggenheimer,Walter de Gruyter. This edition, which is a complete one for the entire Jerusalem Talmud, is a scholarly translation based on the editio princeps and upon the existing manuscripts. The text is fully vocalized and followed by an extensive commentary.

References

  1. ^Moscovitz, Leib (January 12, 2021)."Palestinian Talmud/Yerushalmi".Oxford Bibliographies Online.doi:10.1093/OBO/9780199840731-0151.ISBN978-0-19-984073-1.RetrievedDecember 19,2022.
  2. ^Bokser, Baruch M. (1981). "An Annotated Bibliographical Guide to the Study of the Palestinian Talmud". In Jacob Neusner (ed.).In The Study of Ancient Judaism. Vol. 2, The Palestinian and Babylonian Talmuds.New York: Ktav. pp. 1–119.
  3. ^A Jewish Life on Three Continents: The Memoir of Menachem Mendel Frieden.Stanford University Press. 2013. p. xxxix.ISBN978-0-8047-8620-1.
  4. ^Wolak, Arthur J. (2016).Religion and Contemporary Management: Moses as a Model for Effective Leadership.Anthem Press. p. 129.ISBN978-1-78308-600-9.
  5. ^abcJacobs, Louis(1991).Structure and Form in the Babylonian Talmud.Cambridge University Press.p. 3.ISBN978-0521050319.
  6. ^Schiffman, Lawrence(1991).From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism.KTAV Publishing House, Inc. p. 227.ISBN978-0-88125-372-6.Although it ispopularly knownas the Jerusalem Talmud (Talmud Yerushalmi), a more accurate name for this text is either "Palestinian Talmud" or "Talmud of the Land of Israel." Indeed, for most of the amoraic age, under both Rome and Byzantium, Jews were prohibited from living in the holy city, and the centers of Jewish population had shifted northwards... The Palestinian Talmud emerged primarily from the activity of the sages of Tiberias and Sepphoris, with some input, perhaps entiretractates,from the sages of the "south" (Lydda, modern Lod) and the coastal plain, most notably Caesarea.
  7. ^abHayes, Christine Elizabeth (1997).Between the Babylonian and Palestinian Talmuds: Accounting for Halakhic Difference in Selected Sugyot from Tractate Avodah Zarah.Oxford University Press. pp. 20–21.ISBN978-0-19-535682-3.
  8. ^Bacher, Wilhelm(1907)."Talmud".In I. Singer, C. Adler (ed.).The Jewish Encyclopedia.Vol. 12.Funk & Wagnalls.p. 3.Retrieved2023-09-09.The general designation of the Palestinian Talmud as "Talmud Yerushalmi," or simply as "Yerushalmi," is precisely analogous to that of the Palestinian Targum. The term originated in the geonic period, when, however, the work received also the more precise designations of "Talmud of Palestine," "Talmud of the Land of Israel," "Talmud of the West," and "Talmud of the Western Lands."
  9. ^ab"An Overview of the Talmud Yerushalmi – The Yeshiva World".www.theyeshivaworld.com.May 1, 2017.
  10. ^Harry Gersh,The Sacred Books of the Jews,1968, Stein and Day, New York, p. 123:
    "The two versions also use different dialects, the Palestinian being written in a mixture of Hebrew and west-Aramaic, the Babylonian in a mixture of Hebrew and east-Aramaic."
  11. ^Talmud Yerushalmi Codex Leiden(n.d.).Talmud Yerushalmi Codex Leiden, Scal. 3(in Hebrew). Vol. 1–4 (facsimile ed.). Jerusalem: Makor Publishing Ltd.OCLC829454181.
  12. ^Yehuda Levi Nahum,Hasifat Genuzim Miteman(Revelation of Ancient Yemenite Treasures), Holon (Israel) 1971, pp. 19–29 (article: "Fragment of Mishnah and Jerusalem TalmudShevi'it(chapter 7), by Prof. Zvi Meir Rabinowitz).
  13. ^Yehuda Ratzaby,Dictionary of the Hebrew Language used by Yemenite Jews(אוצר לשון הקדש שלבני תימן), Tel-Aviv 1978, s.v. דּוּכֵּהּ (p. 54).
  14. ^"Talmūd Yerūšalmī: or Jerusalem Talmud Or. 4720".Leiden University Libraries.hdl:1887.1/item:937041.Retrieved2024-04-04.
  15. ^Vatican Library - Vat. ebr. 133,Sotah(ff. 1r–21r),Berakhot(ff. 22r–50v),Pe'ah(ff. 50v–66r),Demai(ff. 66r–80r),Kilayim(ff. 80r–94v),Shevi'it(ff. 94v–107v),Terumot(ff. 107v–125v),Ma'aserot(ff. 126r–135r),Ma'aser Sheni(ff. 135r–144v),Ḥallah(ff. 144v–148v) andOrlah(ff.148v–151v).
  16. ^G. Stemberger,Einleitung in Talmud und Midrasch(München 1992), p. 172–175.
  17. ^abcNewman, Hillel (2011)."Early Halakhic Literature".In Bonfil, Robert; Talgam, Rina; Stroumsa, Guy G.; Irshai, Oded (eds.).Jews in Byzantium: Dialectics of Minority and Majority Culture.Brill.pp. 629–630.
  18. ^Amsler, Monika (2023).The Babylonian Talmud and late antique book culture.Cambridge: Cambridge university press. p. 127.ISBN978-1-009-29733-2.
  19. ^Amsler, Monika (2023).The Babylonian Talmud and late antique book culture.Cambridge: Cambridge university press. pp. 122–123.ISBN978-1-009-29733-2.
  20. ^Yitzhaki, Arieh[in Hebrew](1980). "Ḥūrvat Parwah – Synagogue of 'Reḥob' (חורבת פרוה - בית-הכנסת של רחוב)".Israel Guide - Jerusalem(in Hebrew). Vol. 8. Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, in affiliation with the Israel Ministry of Defence. p. 36.OCLC745203905.
  21. ^Demsky, A.(1979). "The Permitted Villages of Sebaste in the Reḥov Mosaic".Israel Exploration Journal.29(3/4): 182–193.JSTOR27925724.
  22. ^Steinsaltz, Adin(1976).The Essential Talmud.BasicBooks, A Division of HarperCollins Publishers.ISBN0-465-02063-1.
  23. ^Talmud Yerushalmi,vol. 1,B’rachot,Friedman’sOz ve-Hadaredition, New-York 2010, Introduction, p. 17;Geonic Responsa from the Geniza(Simha Assaf), pp. 125–126. The original Hebrew and Aramaic: ומילתא דפסיקא בתלמוד דילנא לא סמכינן בה על תלמודא דבני ארץ ישראל הואיל ושנים רבות איפסיקא הוראה מתמן בשמאדא והכא הוא דאיתבררי מסקני
  24. ^Talmud Yerushalmi,vol. 1,B’rachot,Friedman’sOz ve-Hadaredition, New-York 2010, Introduction, p. 19, who quotes fromSefer Ha-EshkolofAbraham ben Isaac of Narbonne,vol. 2, Benjamin Hirsch (Zvi) Auerbach’s edition, Halberstadt 1868, s.v.Hilchos Sefer-Torah,p.49(Responsum of Rabbi Hai Gaon). The original Hebrew: כל מה שמצינו בתלמוד ארץ ישראל ואין חולק עליו בתלמודנו, או שנותן טעם יפה לדבריו נאחזנו ונסמוך עליו, דלא גרע מפירושי הראשונים
  25. ^"Judah ben Yakar".Encyclopaedia Judaica.Retrieved18 July2017.
  26. ^Printed in most editions of theBet Habechirah[he].
  27. ^The latter two were published byAvraham Sofer[he]and available onlinehere.
  28. ^Available onlinehere.
  29. ^Berakhoth Talmud Yerushalmi(ברכות תלמוד ירושלמי), with commentary by Solomon Sirilio, ed.Meir Lehmann,Mayence1875.
  30. ^Printed in Vilna edition.
  31. ^Published from manuscript by RabbiIsrael Francus[he]in 1967, and reprinted in the Oz Vehadar edition of the Yerushalmi.
  32. ^"Religion: Giving The Talmud to the Jews".Time.1988-01-18. Archived fromthe originalon November 8, 2010.Retrieved2010-05-06.
  33. ^Steinsaltz, Rabbi Adin Even-Israel."The Aleph Society- Let My People Know".The Aleph Society.Archived fromthe originalon 31 December 2006.Retrieved17 March2018.
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