Zaporozhian Sich

Free lands of the Zaporozhian Host the Lower
Вольностi Вiйська Запорозького Низового
Free lands of the Zaporozhian Host the Lower Вольностi Вiйська Запорозького Низового
1552–1775
	Flag
	Historical map of the UkrainianCossack Hetmanate(dark green) and of the territory of the Zaporozhian Cossacks (purple) under the rule of the Russian Empire (1751)
Status	Vassal stateofPoland–Lithuania; (1583–1657)
Demonym(s)	Zaporozhian Cossacks
Government	CossackRepublic
Historical era	Early modern period
• Established	1552
•Disestablished	1775
Preceded by	Succeeded by
	Wild Fields
Novorossiya Governorate
Danubian Sich
Today part of	Ukraine

TheZaporozhian Sich(Polish:Sicz Zaporoska,Ukrainian:Запорозька Січ,Zaporozka Sich;alsoUkrainian:Вольностi Вiйська Запорозького Низового,Volnosti Viiska Zaporozkoho Nyzovoho;Free lands of the Zaporozhian Host the Lower)^[1]was a semi-autonomous polity andproto-state^[2]ofCossacksthat existed between the 16th to 18th centuries, including as an autonomousstratocratic statewithin theCossack Hetmanatefor over a hundred years,^[3]^[4]^[5]centred around the region now home to theKakhovka Reservoirand spanning the lowerDnieperriver inUkraine.In different periods the area came under the sovereignty of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth,theOttoman Empire,theTsardom of Russia,and theRussian Empire.

In 1775, shortly after Russia annexed the territories ceded to it by theOttoman Empireunder theTreaty of Küçük Kaynarca(1774),Catherine the Greatdisbanded the Sich. She incorporated its territory into the Russian province ofNovorossiya.

The termZaporozhian Sichcan also refermetonymicallyand informally to the whole military-administrative organisation of theZaporozhian Cossack host.

Name

The nameZaporizhzhiarefers to the military and political organization of the Cossacks and to the location of their autonomous territory 'beyond the rapids' (za porohamy) of theDnieper River.^[6]TheDnieper rapidswere a major portage on the north–south Dnieper trade route. The termsichis a noun related to the East Slavic verbsich(сѣчь), meaning 'to chop' or 'cut'; it may have been associated with the usual wood sharp-spiked stockades around Cossack settlements.^[7]

Zaporizhzhia was located in the region around theGreat Meadow,which was until 2023 flooded by theKakhovka Reservoirin today's south-eastern Ukraine. The area was also known under the historical termWild Fields.

History

A possible precursor of the Zaporozhian Sich was a fortification (sich) built on theTomakivkaisland^[8](Tomakivka Sich[uk]) in the middle of theDnieper Riverin the present-dayZaporizhzhia regionofUkraine.However, there is no direct evidence about the exact time of the existence of Tomakivka Sich, whereas indirect data suggest that at the time of Tomakivka Sich there was no Zaporozhian Sich yet.^[9]

The history of Zaporozhian Sich spans six time-periods:

the emergence of the Sich (construction ofKhortytsia castle[uk]) (1471–1583)
as part of theLesser Poland Province of the Polish Crownby inclusion in theKiev Voivodeship(1583–1657)
the struggle against theRzeczpospolita(the Polish-Lithuanian state), the Ottoman Empire, and the Crimea Khanate for the independence of the Ukrainian part of the Rzeczpospolita (Commonwealth) (1657–1686)
the struggle with Crimea, the Ottoman Empire, and the Russian Empire for the unique identity of Cossacks (1686–1709)
the standoff with the Russian government during its attempts to cancel the self-governing of the Sich, and its fall (1734–1775)
the formation of theDanubian Sichoutside the Russian Empire and finding ways to return home (1775–1828)

Formation

The Zaporozhian Sich emerged as a method of defence by Slavic colonists against the frequent and devastating raids ofCrimean Tatars,who captured and enslaved hundreds of thousands ofUkrainians,BelarusiansandPolesto supply theCrimean slave tradein operations called "the harvesting of the steppe". The Ukrainians created a self-defence force, theCossacks,fierce enough to stop theTatarhordes, and built fortified camps (sichi) that were later united to form a central fortress, the Zaporozhian Sich.^[6]

PrinceDmytro Vyshnevetskyestablished the first Zaporozhian Sich on the island of Small (Mala)Khortytsiain 1552, building a fortress atNiz Dnieprovsky(Lower Dnieper) and placing a Cossack garrison there;^[10]Tatar forces destroyed the fortress in 1558. The Tomakivka Sich was built on a now-inundated island to the south, near the modern city ofMarhanets;Tatars also razed that sich, in 1593. A third sich soon followed, on Bazavluk island, which survived until 1638, when it was destroyed by a Polish expeditionary force suppressing a Cossack uprising.^{[citation needed]}These settlements, founded during the 16th century, were already complex enough to constitute an earlyproto-state.^[2]

Struggle for independence

Zaporozhian Cossacks Prayer, fragment of theiconof Protection of HolyVirgin Mary.

TheZaporozhian Cossacksbecame included in theKiev Voivodeshipfrom 1583 to 1657, part of theLesser Poland Province of the Polish Crown.They resented Polish rule, however, one of the reasons being religious differences, as the cossacks wereOrthodox Christianswhereas thePoleswere mostlyCatholics.^[2]They thus engaged in a long struggle for independence from surrounding powers, theRzeczpospolita(Polish state), the Ottoman Empire, theCrimean Khanate,and theTsardom of RussiaandRussian Empire.The Sich became the centre of Cossack life, governed by theSich Radaalongside its Kosh Ataman (sometimes called Hetman, from German "Hauptmann" ).

In 1648,Bohdan Khmelnytskycaptured a sich at Mykytyn Rih,^[11]near the present-day city ofNikopol.^[10]From there he began anuprisingagainst the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that led to the establishment of theCossack Hetmanate(1648–1764). After theTreaty of Pereyaslavin 1654, the Zaporozhian Host was split into the Hetmanate, with its capital atChyhyryn,and the more autonomous region ofZaporizhzhia,which continued to be centred on the Sich. During this period the Sich changed location several times but was generally located in theGreat Meadow.TheChortomlyk Sichwas built at the mouth of the Chortomlyk River in 1652. In 1667 theTruce of Andrusovomade the Sich acondominiumruled jointly by Russia and thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

During the reign ofPeter the Great,Cossacks were used for the construction of canals and fortification lines in northern Russia. An estimated 20–30 thousands were sent each year. Hard labour led to a high mortality rate among builders, and only an estimated 40% of Cossacks returned home.^[12]

After theBattle of Poltavain 1709, the Chortomlyk Sich (sometimes referred to as the "Old Sich" (Stara Sich)) was destroyed andBaturyn,the capital of HetmanIvan Mazepa,was razed. Another sich was built at the mouth of the Kamianets river but was destroyed in 1711 by the Russian government. The Cossacks then fled to the Crimean Khanate to avoid persecution and founded the Oleshky Sich in 1711 (today the city ofOleshky). In 1734, they were allowed to return to the Russian Empire. Suffering from discrimination in the Khanate, Cossacks accepted the offer to return and built another Sich in close proximity to the former Chortomlyk Sich, referred to as theNova Sich.^[10]The population in steppe region numbered around 52,000 in the year 1768.^[13]

Fear of the independence of the Sich resulted in the Russian administration abolishing the Hetmanate in 1764. The Cossack officer class was incorporated into theImperial Russiannobility (Dvoryanstvo). The rank and file Cossacks, however, including a substantial portion of the old Zaporozhians, were reduced to peasant status. Tension rose after theTreaty of Küçük Kaynarca,when the need for a southern frontier ended after the annexation of theCrimea.The colonisation ofNovorossiya(New Russia) with Serbian and Romanians sponsored by Russia created further conflict.^[6]After the end of the war between Russia and the Ottoman Empire for possession of theBlack Seaand Crimean steppes, Russia no longer needed the Zaporozhian Cossacks for protection of the border region. Russia finally destroyed the Zaporozhian Sich through military force in 1775.

Destruction and aftermath

In May 1775, Russian GeneralPeter Tekelireceived orders to occupy and destroy the Zaporozhian Sich fromGrigory Potemkin,who had been formally admitted into Cossackdom a few years earlier. Potemkin was given direct orders fromCatherine the Great.On 5 June 1775, Tekeli surrounded the Sich with artillery and infantry. He postponed the assault and even allowed visits while the head of the Host,Petro Kalnyshevsky,was deciding how to react to the Russian ultimatum. The Zaporozhians decided to surrender. The Sich was officially disbanded by the 3 August 1775 manifesto of Catherine, "On the Liquidation of Zaporozhian Sich and Annexation thereof toNovorossiya Governorate",and the Sich was razed to the ground.

Some of the Cossack officer class, thestarshyna,became hereditary Russian nobility and obtained huge lands in spite of their previous attempts to relocate the Sich to either North America or Australia. Under the guidance of astarshynanamed Lyakh, a conspiracy was formed among a group of 50 Cossacks to pretend to go fishing on the river Inhul next to theSouthern Buhin the Ottoman provinces, and to obtain 50 passports for the expedition. The pretext was enough to allow about 5,000 Zaporozhians to flee, some travelling to theDanube Deltawhere they formed a newDanube Sich,as a protectorate of the Ottoman Empire. Others moved toHungaryto form a Sich there as a protectorate of theAustrian Empire.According to folklore, some moved toMalta,becauseKosh otamansand other senior members of the starshyna considered themselves a kind ofMaltese chivalry.^[14]

The leader of the Zaporozhian Host, Petro Kalnyshevsky, was arrested and exiled to theSolovetsky Islands(where he lived to the age of 112 in theSolovetsky Monastery). Four high levelstarshynaswere repressed and exiled, later dying in Siberian monasteries. Lower levelstarshynaswho remained and went over to the Russian side were given army ranks and all the privileges that accompanied them, and allowed to joinHussarandDragoonregiments. Most of the ordinary Cossacks were made peasants and even serfs.^[15]

In 1780, after disbanding the Zaporozhian Cossack Host, General Grigorii Potemkin attempted to gather and reorganize the Cossacks on a voluntary basis, and they helped to defend Ukraine from the Turks during theRusso-Turkish War (1787–1792).He was able to gather almost 12,000 Cossacks and called them the Black Sea Cossacks. After the conflict was over, rather than allowing the Cossacks to settle across Southern Ukraine, the Russian government began to resettle them on theKuban River.In 1860, they changed their name to theKuban Cossacks.

Ukrainian writerAdrian Kaschenko(1858–1921)^[16]and historianOlena Apanovich^[17]note that the abolition of the Zaporozhian Sich had a strong symbolic effect, and memories of the event remained for a long time in local folklore.

Organization and government

The Zaporozhian Host was led by theSich Radathat elected aKosh Otamanas the host's leader. He was aided by a head secretary (pysar), head judge, and head archivist. During military operations theOtamancarried unlimited power supported by his staff as the military collegiate. He decided with an agreement from the Rada whether to support a certain Hetman (such asBohdan Khmelnytsky) or other leaders of state.

Some sources refer to the Zaporozhian Sich as a "Cossack republic",^[18]because the highest power in it belonged to the assembly of all its members, and its leaders (starshyna) were elected. The Cossacks formed a society (hromada) that consisted of "kurins"(each with several hundred Cossacks). A Cossack military court severely punished violence and stealing among compatriots, the bringing of women to the Sich, the consumption of alcohol in periods of conflict, and other offenses. The administration of the Sich providedOrthodox churchesand schools for the religious and secular education of children.

The population of the Sich had a cosmopolitan component, includingUkrainians,Moldavians,Tatars,Poles,Lithuanians,Jews,Russiansand many other ethnicities.^{[citation needed]}The social structure was complex, consisting of destitute gentry andboyars,szlachta(Polish nobility), merchants, peasants, outlaws of every sort, runaway slaves from Turkishgalleys,and runaway serfs (as the ZaporozhianpolkovnykPivtorakozhukha). Some of those who were not accepted to the host formed gangs of their own, and also claimed to be Cossacks. However, after theKhmelnytsky Uprisingthese formations largely disappeared and were integrated mainly into Hetmanate society.

Army and warfare

The Cossacks developed a large fleet of fast, light vessels. Their campaigns were targeted at rich settlements on theBlack Seashores of theOttoman Empire,and several times took them as far asConstantinople^[19]andTrabzon(formerlyTrebizond).