Anarchism

For other uses, seeAnarchy,Anarchism (disambiguation),andAnarchist (disambiguation).

Anarchismis apolitical philosophyandmovementthat is against all forms ofauthorityand seeks to abolish theinstitutionsit claims maintain unnecessarycoercionandhierarchy,typically including thestateandcapitalism.Anarchism advocates for the replacement of the state withstateless societiesandvoluntaryfree associations.As a historicallyleft-wingmovement, this reading of anarchism is placed on thefarthest leftof thepolitical spectrum,usually described as thelibertarianwing of thesocialist movement(libertarian socialism).

Although traces of anarchist ideas are found all throughout history, modern anarchism emerged from theEnlightenment.During the latter half of the 19th and the first decades of the 20th century, the anarchist movement flourished in most parts of the world and had a significant role in workers' struggles foremancipation.Various anarchist schools of thoughtformed during this period. Anarchists have taken part in several revolutions, most notably in theParis Commune,theRussian Civil Warand theSpanish Civil War,whose end marked the end of theclassical era of anarchism.In the last decades of the 20th and into the 21st century, the anarchist movement has been resurgent once more, growing in popularity and influence withinanti-capitalist,anti-warandanti-globalisationmovements.

Anarchists employdiverse approaches,which may be generally divided into revolutionary andevolutionary strategies;there is significant overlap between the two. Evolutionary methods try to simulate what an anarchist society might be like, but revolutionary tactics, which have historically taken a violent turn, aim to overthrow authority and the state. Many facets of human civilization have been influenced by anarchist theory, critique, andpraxis.

Etymology, terminology, and definition

Main article:Definition of anarchism and libertarianism

See also:Glossary of anarchism

Wilhelm Weitlingis an example of a writer who added to anarchist theory without using the exact term.

The etymological origin ofanarchismis from the Ancient Greekanarkhia(ἀναρχία), meaning "without a ruler", composed of the prefixan-( "without" ) and the wordarkhos( "leader" or "ruler" ). The suffix-ismdenotes the ideological current that favoursanarchy.Anarchismappears in English from 1642 asanarchismeandanarchyfrom 1539; early English usages emphasised a sense of disorder.Various factions within theFrench Revolutionlabelled their opponents asanarchists,although few such accused shared many views with later anarchists. Many revolutionaries of the 19th century such asWilliam Godwin(1756–1836) andWilhelm Weitling(1808–1871) would contribute to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation but did not useanarchistoranarchismin describing themselves or their beliefs.

The first political philosopher to call himself ananarchist(French:anarchiste) wasPierre-Joseph Proudhon(1809–1865), marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-19th century. Since the 1890s and beginning in France,libertarianismhas often been used as a synonym for anarchismand its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States.Some usages oflibertarianismrefer toindividualisticfree-marketphilosophy only, andfree-market anarchismin particular is termedlibertarian anarchism.

While the termlibertarianhas been largely synonymous with anarchism,its meaning has more recently been diluted by wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups,including both theNew Leftandlibertarian Marxists,who do not associate themselves withauthoritarian socialistsor avanguard party,and extremecultural liberals,who are primarily concerned withcivil liberties.Additionally, some anarchists uselibertarian socialistto avoid anarchism's negative connotations and emphasise its connections withsocialism.Anarchismis broadly used to describe theanti-authoritarianwing of thesocialist movement.Anarchism is contrasted to socialist forms which are state-oriented or from above.Scholars of anarchism generally highlight anarchism's socialist credentialsand criticise attempts at creating dichotomies between the two.Some scholars describe anarchism as having many influences fromliberalism,and being both liberal and socialist but more so.Many scholars rejectanarcho-capitalismas a misunderstanding of anarchist principles.

Whileopposition to the stateis central to anarchist thought, defininganarchismis not an easy task for scholars, as there is a lot of discussion among scholars and anarchists on the matter, and various currents perceive anarchism slightly differently.Major definitional elements include the will for a non-coercive society, the rejection of the state apparatus, the belief that human nature allows humans to exist in or progress toward such a non-coercive society, and a suggestion on how to act to pursue the ideal of anarchy.

History

Main article:History of anarchism

Pre-modern era

Zeno of Citium(c. 334– c. 262 BC), whoseRepublicinspiredPeter Kropotkin

The most notable precursors to anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece. In China,philosophical anarchism(the discussion on the legitimacy of the state) was delineated byTaoistphilosophersZhuang ZhouandLaozi.AlongsideStoicism,Taoism has been said to have had "significant anticipations" of anarchism.

Anarchic attitudes were also articulated by tragedians and philosophers in Greece.AeschylusandSophoclesused the myth ofAntigoneto illustrate the conflict between laws imposed by the state and personalautonomy.SocratesquestionedAthenianauthorities constantly and insisted on the right of individual freedom of conscience.Cynicsdismissed human law (nomos) and associated authorities while trying to live according to nature (physis).Stoicswere supportive of a society based on unofficial and friendly relations among its citizens without the presence of a state.

Inmedieval Europe,there was no anarchistic activity except some ascetic religious movements. These, and other Muslim movements, later gave birth toreligious anarchism.In theSasanian Empire,Mazdakcalled for anegalitariansociety and theabolition of monarchy,only to be soon executed by EmperorKavad I.

InBasra,religious sects preached against the state.In Europe, various sects developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies.Renewed interest in antiquity during theRenaissanceand in private judgment during theReformationrestored elements of anti-authoritarian secularism, particularly in France.Enlightenmentchallenges to intellectual authority (secular and religious) and therevolutions of the 1790s and 1848all spurred the ideological development of what became the era of classical anarchism.

Modern era

During theFrench Revolution,partisan groups such as theEnragésand thesans-culottessaw a turning point in the fermentation of anti-state and federalist sentiments.The first anarchist currents developed throughout the 18th century asWilliam Godwinespousedphilosophical anarchismin England, morally delegitimising the state,Max Stirner's thinking paved the way toindividualismandPierre-Joseph Proudhon's theory ofmutualismfound fertile soil in France.By the late 1870s, various anarchist schools of thought had become well-defined and a wave of then unprecedentedglobalisationoccurred from 1880 to 1914.This era ofclassical anarchismlasted until the end of theSpanish Civil Warand is considered the golden age of anarchism.

Mikhail Bakunin opposed the Marxist aim ofdictatorship of the proletariatand allied himself with the federalists in the First International before his expulsion by the Marxists.

Drawing from mutualism,Mikhail Bakuninfoundedcollectivist anarchismand entered theInternational Workingmen's Association,a class worker union later known as the First International that formed in 1864 to unite diverse revolutionary currents. The International became a significant political force, withKarl Marxbeing a leading figure and a member of its General Council. Bakunin's faction (theJura Federation) and Proudhon's followers (the mutualists) opposedstate socialism,advocating politicalabstentionismand small property holdings.After bitter disputes, the Bakuninists were expelled from the International by theMarxistsat the1872 Hague Congress.Anarchists were treated similarly in theSecond International,being ultimately expelled in 1896.Bakunin predicted that if revolutionaries gained power by Marx's terms, they would end up the new tyrants of workers. In response to their expulsion from the First International, anarchists formed theSt. Imier International.Under the influence ofPeter Kropotkin,a Russian philosopher and scientist,anarcho-communismoverlapped with collectivism.Anarcho-communists, who drew inspiration from the 1871Paris Commune,advocated for free federation and for the distribution of goods according to one's needs.

By the turn of the 20th century, anarchism had spread all over the world.It was a notable feature of the international syndicalist movement.In China, small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism.Tokyo was a hotspot forrebelliousyouth fromEast Asiancountries, who moved to the Japanese capital to study.InLatin America,Argentinawas a stronghold foranarcho-syndicalism,where it became the most prominent left-wing ideology.During this time, a minority of anarchists adopted tactics of revolutionarypolitical violence,known aspropaganda of the deed.The dismemberment of the French socialist movement into many groups and the execution and exile of manyCommunardsto penal colonies following the suppression of the Paris Commune favoured individualist political expression and acts.Even though many anarchists distanced themselves from these terrorist acts, infamy came upon the movement and attempts were made to prevent anarchists immigrating to the US, including theImmigration Act of 1903,also called the Anarchist Exclusion Act.Illegalismwas another strategy which some anarchists adopted during this period.

Nestor Makhno seen with members of the anarchistRevolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine

Despite concerns, anarchists enthusiastically participated in theRussian Revolutionin opposition to theWhite movement,especially in theMakhnovshchina;however, they met harsh suppression after theBolshevik governmenthad stabilised, including during theKronstadt rebellion.Bolshevik repressions of anarchist organizationsprompted a series of assassination attempts on the Russian Communist leadership.Several anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to Ukraine, before the Bolsheviks crushed the anarchist movement there too.With the anarchists being repressed in Russia, two new antithetical currents emerged, namelyplatformismandsynthesis anarchism.The former sought to create a coherent group that would push for revolution while the latter were against anything that would resemble a political party. Seeing the victories of theBolsheviksin theOctober Revolutionand the resultingRussian Civil War,many workers and activists turned tocommunist partieswhich grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, members of major syndicalist movements such as theGeneral Confederation of Labourand theIndustrial Workers of the Worldleft their organisations and joined theCommunist International.

In theSpanish Civil Warof 1936–39, anarchists and syndicalists (CNTandFAI) once again allied themselves with various currents of leftists. A long tradition ofSpanish anarchismled to anarchists playing a pivotal role in the war, and particularly in theSpanish Revolution of 1936.In response to the armyrebellion,an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain, where theycollectivisedthe land.TheSoviet Unionprovided some limited assistance at the beginning of the war, but the result was a bitter fight between communists and other leftists in a series of events known as theMay Days,as Joseph Stalin asserted Soviet control of theRepublicangovernment, ending in another defeat of anarchists at the hands of the communists.

Post-WWII

Rojava's support efforts for workers to form cooperatives is exemplified in this sewing cooperative.

By the end ofWorld War II,the anarchist movement had been severely weakened.The 1960s witnessed a revival of anarchism, likely caused by a perceived failure ofMarxism–Leninismand tensions built by theCold War.During this time, anarchism found a presence in other movements critical towards both capitalism and the state such as theanti-nuclear,environmental,andpeace movements,thecounterculture of the 1960s,and theNew Left.It also saw a transition from its previous revolutionary nature to provocativeanti-capitalist reformism.Anarchism became associated withpunk subcultureas exemplified by bands such asCrassand theSex Pistols.The establishedfeministtendencies ofanarcha-feminismreturned with vigour during thesecond wave of feminism.Black anarchismbegan to take form at this time and influenced anarchism's move from aEurocentricdemographic.This coincided with its failure to gain traction in Northern Europe and its unprecedented height in Latin America.

Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist, anti-war andanti-globalisationmovements.Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against theWorld Trade Organization(WTO), theGroup of Eightand theWorld Economic Forum.During the protests,ad hocleaderless anonymous cadres known asblack blocsengaged inrioting,property destructionand violent confrontations with thepolice.Other organisational tactics pioneered at this time includeaffinity groups,security cultureand the use of decentralised technologies such as the Internet. A significant event of this period was the confrontations at the1999 Seattle WTO conference.Anarchist ideas have been influential in the development of theZapatistasin Mexico and the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria, more commonly known asRojava,ade factoautonomous regionin northern Syria.

While having revolutionary aspirations, many forms of anarchism are not confrontational nowadays. Instead, they are trying to build an alternative way of social organization, based on mutual interdependence and voluntary cooperation. Scholar Carissa Honeywell takes the example ofFood not Bombsgroup of collectives, to highlight some features of how anarchist groups work: direct action, working together and in solidarity with those left behind. While doing so, they inform about the rising rates of world hunger suggest a policy to tackle hunger, ranging from de-funding the arms industry to addressing Monsanto seed-saving policies and patents, helping farmers and commodification of food and housing.Honeywell also emphasizes that contemporary anarchists are interested in the flourishing not only of humans, but non-humans and the environment as well.Honeywell argues that escalation of problems such as continuous wars and world poverty show that the current framework not only cannot solve those pressing problems for humanity, but are causal factors as well, resulting in the rejection of representative democracy and the state as a whole.

Schools of thought

Anarchist schools of thought have been generally grouped into two main historical traditions,social anarchismandindividualist anarchism,owing to their different origins, values and evolution.The individualist current emphasisesnegative libertyin opposing restraints upon the free individual, while the social current emphasisespositive libertyin aiming to achieve the free potential of society through equality andsocial ownership.In a chronological sense, anarchism can be segmented by the classical currents of the late 19th century and the post-classical currents (anarcha-feminism,green anarchism,andpost-anarchism) developed thereafter.

Beyond the specific factions of anarchist movements which constitute political anarchism lies philosophical anarchism which holds that the state lacks moral legitimacy, without necessarily accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it.A component especially of individualist anarchism,philosophical anarchism may tolerate the existence of aminimal statebut claims that citizens have nomoral obligationto obey government when it conflicts with individual autonomy.Anarchism pays significant attention to moral arguments sinceethicshave a central role in anarchist philosophy.Anarchism's emphasis onanti-capitalism,egalitarianism,and for the extension of community and individuality sets it apart from anarcho-capitalism and other types ofeconomic libertarianism.

Anarchism is usually placed on the far-left of the political spectrum.Much of itseconomicsandlegal philosophyreflectanti-authoritarian,anti-statist,libertarian,andradicalinterpretations ofleft-wingandsocialistpoliticssuch ascollectivism,communism,individualism,mutualism,andsyndicalism,among otherlibertarian socialisteconomic theories.As anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular worldview,many anarchist types and traditions exist and varieties of anarchy diverge widely.One reaction againstsectarianismwithin the anarchist milieu wasanarchism without adjectives,a call for toleration and unity among anarchists first adopted byFernando Tarrida del Mármolin 1889 in response to the bitter debates of anarchist theory at the time.Belief in politicalnihilismhas been espoused by anarchists.Despite separation, the various anarchist schools of thought are not seen as distinct entities but rather as tendencies that intermingle and are connected through a set of shared principles such as autonomy, mutual aid, anti-authoritarianism and decentralisation.

Classical

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon is the primary proponent of mutualism and influenced many future individualist anarchist and social anarchist thinkers.

Inceptive currents among classical anarchist currents weremutualismandindividualism.They were followed by the major currents of social anarchism (collectivist,communistandsyndicalist). They differ on organisational and economic aspects of their ideal society.

Mutualism is an 18th-century economic theory that was developed into anarchist theory by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Its aims include "abolishing the state",reciprocity,free association,voluntary contract,federationandmonetary reformof both credit and currency that would be regulated by a bank of the people.Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism.InWhat Is Property?(1840), Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property."Collectivist anarchism is arevolutionary socialistform of anarchismcommonly associated withMikhail Bakunin.Collectivist anarchists advocate collective ownership of the means of production which is theorised to be achieved through violent revolutionand that workers be paid according to time worked, rather than goods being distributed according to need as in communism. Collectivist anarchism arose alongside Marxism but rejected thedictatorship of the proletariatdespite the stated Marxist goal of a collectiviststateless society.

Anarcho-communism is a theory of anarchism that advocates acommunist societywithcommon ownershipof the means of production,held by afederalnetwork ofvoluntary associations,with production and consumption based on the guiding principle "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need."Anarcho-communism developed from radical socialist currents after theFrench Revolutionbut was first formulated as such in the Italian section of theFirst International.It was later expanded upon in the theoretical work ofPeter Kropotkin,whose specific style would go onto become the dominating view of anarchists by the late 19th century.Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that viewslabour syndicatesas a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically self-managed by workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism aredirect action,workers'solidarityandworkers' self-management.

Individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasise theindividualand theirwillover any kinds of external determinants.Early influences on individualist forms of anarchism includeWilliam Godwin,Max Stirner,andHenry David Thoreau.Through many countries, individualist anarchism attracted a small yet diverse following of Bohemian artists and intellectualsas well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known asillegalismandindividual reclamation.

Post-classical and contemporary

Main article:Contemporary anarchism

Lawrence Jarach (left) andJohn Zerzan(right) are two prominent contemporary anarchist authors, with Zerzan being a prominent voice withinanarcho-primitivismand Jarach a notable advocate ofpost-left anarchy.

Anarchist principles undergird contemporary radical social movements of the left. Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the anti-globalisation movement,whose leading activist networks were anarchist in orientation.As the movement shaped 21st century radicalism, wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled a revival of interest.Anarchism has continued to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources andcombining disparate conceptsto create new philosophical approaches.The anti-capitalist tradition of classical anarchism has remained prominent within contemporary currents.

Contemporary news coverage which emphasizesblack blocdemonstrations has reinforced anarchism's historical association with chaos and violence. Its publicity has also led more scholars in fields such as anthropology and history to engage with the anarchist movement, although contemporary anarchism favours actions over academic theory.Various anarchist groups, tendencies, and schools of thought exist today, making it difficult to describe the contemporary anarchist movement.While theorists and activists have established "relatively stable constellations of anarchist principles", there is no consensus on which principles are core and commentators describe multipleanarchisms,rather than a singularanarchism,in which common principles are shared between schools of anarchism while each group prioritizes those principles differently. Gender equality can be a common principle, although it ranks as a higher priority to anarcha-feminists than anarcho-communists.

Anarchists are generally committed against coercive authority in all forms, namely "all centralized and hierarchical forms of government (e.g., monarchy, representative democracy, state socialism, etc.), economic class systems (e.g., capitalism, Bolshevism, feudalism, slavery, etc.), autocratic religions (e.g., fundamentalist Islam, Roman Catholicism, etc.), patriarchy, heterosexism,white supremacy,and imperialism. "Anarchist schools disagree on the methods by which these forms should be opposed.The principle ofequal libertyis closer to anarchist political ethics in that it transcends both the liberal and socialist traditions. This entails that liberty and equality cannot be implemented within the state, resulting in the questioning of all forms of domination and hierarchy.

Tactics

Anarchists' tactics take various forms but in general serve two major goals, namely, to first opposethe Establishmentand secondly to promote anarchist ethics and reflect an anarchist vision of society, illustrating the unity of means and ends.A broad categorisation can be made between aims to destroy oppressive states and institutions by revolutionary means on one hand and aims to change society through evolutionary means on the other.Evolutionary tactics embrace nonviolence, reject violence and take a gradual approach to anarchist aims, although there is significant overlap between the two.

Anarchist tactics have shifted during the course of the last century. Anarchists during the early 20th century focused more on strikes and militancy while contemporary anarchists use a broader array of approaches.

Classical era

The relationship betweenanarchism and violenceis a controversial subject among anarchists as shown by anarchistLeon CzolgoszassassinatingWilliam McKinley.

During the classical era, anarchists had a militant tendency. Not only did they confront state armed forces, as in Spain and Ukraine, but some of them also employed terrorism aspropaganda of the deed.Assassination attempts were carried out against heads of state, some of which were successful. Anarchists also took part inrevolutions.Many anarchists, especially theGalleanists,believed that these attempts would be the impetus for a revolution against capitalism and the state.Many of these attacks were done by individual assailants and the majority took place in the late 1870s, the early 1880s and the 1890s, with some still occurring in the early 1900s.Their decrease in prevalence was the result of further judicial power and targeting and cataloging by state institutions.

Anarchist perspectives towards violence have always been controversial.Anarcho-pacifists advocate for non-violence means to achieve their stateless, nonviolent ends.Other anarchist groups advocate direct action, a tactic which can include acts ofsabotageor terrorism. This attitude was quite prominent a century ago when seeing the state as atyrantand some anarchists believing that they had every right to oppose its oppression by any means possible.Emma GoldmanandErrico Malatesta,who were proponents of limited use of violence, stated that violence is merely a reaction to state violence as anecessary evil.

Anarchists took an active role instrike actions,although they tended to be antipathetic to formalsyndicalism,seeing it asreformist.They saw it as a part of the movement which sought to overthrow the state and capitalism.Anarchists also reinforced their propaganda within the arts, some of whom practicednaturismandnudism.Those anarchists also built communities which were based on friendship and were involved in the news media.

Revolutionary

Black bloc protesters parading anarcho-communism imagery such as the motto "No War but the Class War"

In the current era, Italian anarchistAlfredo Bonanno,a proponent ofinsurrectionary anarchism,has reinstated the debate on violence by rejecting the nonviolence tactic adopted since the late 19th century by Kropotkin and other prominent anarchists afterwards. Both Bonanno and the French groupThe Invisible Committeeadvocate for small, informal affiliation groups, where each member is responsible for their own actions but works together to bring down oppression utilizing sabotage and other violent means against state, capitalism, and other enemies. Members of The Invisible Committee were arrested in 2008 on various charges, terrorism included.

Overall, contemporary anarchists are much less violent and militant than their ideological ancestors. They mostly engage in confronting the police during demonstrations and riots, especially in countries such as Canada,Greece,andMexico.Militant black bloc protest groups are known for clashing with the police;however, anarchists not only clash with state operators, they also engage in the struggle against fascists and racists, takinganti-fascistaction and mobilizing to prevent hate rallies from happening.

Evolutionary

Anarchists commonly employdirect action.This can take the form of disrupting and protesting against unjust hierarchy, or the form of self-managing their lives through the creation of counter-institutions such as communes and non-hierarchical collectives.Decision-making is often handled in an anti-authoritarian way, with everyone having equal say in each decision, an approach known ashorizontalism.Contemporary-era anarchists have been engaging with variousgrassrootsmovements that are more or less based on horizontalism, although not explicitly anarchist, respecting personal autonomy and participating in mass activism such as strikes and demonstrations. In contrast with thebig-A anarchismof the classical era, the newly coined termsmall-a anarchismsignals their tendency not to base their thoughts and actions on classical-era anarchism or to refer to classical anarchists such as Peter Kropotkin and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon to justify their opinions. Those anarchists would rather base their thought and praxis on their own experience which they will later theorize.

The decision-making process of small anarchist affinity groups plays a significant tactical role.Anarchists have employed various methods in order to build a rough consensus among members of their group without the need of a leader or a leading group. One way is for an individual from the group to play the role of facilitator to help achieve a consensus without taking part in the discussion themselves or promoting a specific point. Minorities usually accept rough consensus, except when they feel the proposal contradicts anarchist ethics, goals and values. Anarchists usually form small groups (5–20 individuals) to enhance autonomy and friendships among their members. These kinds of groups more often than not interconnect with each other, forming larger networks. Anarchists still support and participate in strikes, especiallywildcat strikesas these are leaderless strikes not organised centrally by a syndicate.

As in the past, newspapers and journals are used, and anarchists have gone online in theWorld Wide Webto spread their message. Anarchists have found it easier to create websites because of distributional and other difficulties, hosting electronic libraries and other portals.Anarchists were also involved in developing various software that are available for free. The way these hacktivists work to develop and distribute resembles the anarchist ideals, especially when it comes to preserving users' privacy from state surveillance.

Anarchists organize themselves tosquatand reclaim public spaces. During important events such as protests and when spaces are being occupied, they are often calledTemporary Autonomous Zones(TAZ), spaces where art, poetry, andsurrealismare blended to display the anarchist ideal.As seen by anarchists, squatting is a way to regain urban space from the capitalist market, serving pragmatical needs and also being an exemplary direct action.Acquiring space enables anarchists to experiment with their ideas and build social bonds.Adding up these tactics while having in mind that not all anarchists share the same attitudes towards them, along with various forms of protesting at highly symbolic events, make up acarnivalesqueatmosphere that is part of contemporary anarchist vividity.

Key issues

Main article:Issues in anarchism

As anarchism is a philosophy that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies, and schools of thought, disagreement over questions of values, ideology, and tactics is common. Its diversity has led to widely different uses of identical terms among different anarchist traditions which has created a number ofdefinitional concerns in anarchist theory.The compatibility ofcapitalism,nationalism,andreligionwith anarchism is widely disputed, and anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as communism,collectivism,Marxism, andtrade unionism.Anarchists may be motivated byhumanism,divine authority,enlightened self-interest,veganism,or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such ascivilisation,technology (e.g. within anarcho-primitivism), and thedemocratic processmay be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others.

The state

Anarchist protesters inBostonopposing state-waged war

Objection to thestateand its institutions is asine qua nonof anarchism.Anarchists consider the state as a tool of domination and believe it to be illegitimate regardless of its political tendencies. Instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life, major decisions are taken by a small elite. Authority ultimately rests solely on power, regardless of whether that power isopenortransparent,as it still has the ability to coerce people. Another anarchist argument against states is that the people constituting a government, even the most altruistic among officials, will unavoidably seek to gain more power, leading to corruption. Anarchists consider the idea that the state is the collective will of the people to be an unachievable fiction due to the fact that theruling classis distinct from the rest of society.

Specific anarchist attitudes towards the state vary.Robert Paul Wolffbelieved that the tension between authority and autonomy would mean the state could never be legitimate. Bakunin saw the state as meaning "coercion, domination by means of coercion, camouflaged if possible but unceremonious and overt if need be."A. John SimmonsandLeslie Green,who leaned toward philosophical anarchism, believed that the state could be legitimate if it is governed by consensus, although they saw this as highly unlikely.Beliefs on how to abolish the state also differ.

Gender, sexuality, and free love

Main article:Anarchism and issues related to love and sex

As gender and sexuality carry along them dynamics of hierarchy, many anarchists address, analyse, and oppose the suppression of one's autonomy imposed by gender roles.

Collection ofanarcha-feministprotests, symbols, and flags

Sexuality was not often discussed by classical anarchists but the few that did felt that an anarchist society would lead to sexuality naturally developing.Sexual violence was a concern for anarchists such asBenjamin Tucker,who opposed age of consent laws, believing they would benefit predatory men.A historical current that arose and flourished during 1890 and 1920 within anarchism wasfree love.In contemporary anarchism, this current survives as a tendency to supportpolyamory,relationship anarchy,andqueer anarchism.Free love advocates were against marriage, which they saw as a way of men imposing authority over women, largely because marriage law greatly favoured the power of men. The notion of free love was much broader and included a critique of the established order that limited women's sexual freedom and pleasure.Those free love movements contributed to the establishment of communal houses, where large groups of travelers, anarchists and other activists slept in beds together.Free love had roots both in Europe and the United States; however, some anarchists struggled with the jealousy that arose from free love.Anarchist feminists were advocates of free love, against marriage, and pro-choice (utilising a contemporary term), and had a similar agenda. Anarchist and non-anarchist feminists differed on suffrage but were supportive of one another.

During the second half of the 20th century, anarchism intermingled with thesecond wave of feminism,radicalising some currents of the feminist movement and being influenced as well. By the latest decades of the 20th century, anarchists and feminists were advocating for the rights and autonomy of women, gays, queers and other marginalised groups, with some feminist thinkers suggesting a fusion of the two currents.With thethird wave of feminism,sexual identity and compulsory heterosexuality became a subject of study for anarchists, yielding apost-structuralistcritique of sexual normality.Some anarchists distanced themselves from this line of thinking, suggesting that it leaned towards an individualism that was dropping the cause of social liberation.

Education

Main article:Anarchism and education

Anarchist vs. statist perspectives on education
Ruth Kinna (2019)

	Anarchist education	State education
Concept	Education as self-mastery	Education as service
Management	Community based	State run
Methods	Practice-based learning	Vocational training
Aims	Being a critical member of society	Being a productive member of society

The interest of anarchists in education stretches back to the first emergence of classical anarchism. Anarchists consider proper education, one which sets the foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society, to be an act ofmutual aid.Anarchist writers such as William Godwin (Political Justice) and Max Stirner ( "The False Principle of Our Education") attacked both state education and private education as another means by which the ruling class replicate their privileges.

In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinkerFrancisco Ferrerestablished theEscuela Modernain Barcelona as an opposition to the established education system which was dictated largely by the Catholic Church.Ferrer's approach was secular, rejecting both state and church involvement in the educational process whilst giving pupils large amounts of autonomy in planning their work and attendance. Ferrer aimed to educate the working class and explicitly sought to fosterclass consciousnessamong students. The school closed after constant harassment by the state and Ferrer was later arrested. Nonetheless, his ideas formed the inspiration for a series ofmodern schoolsaround the world.Christian anarchistLeo Tolstoy, who published the essayEducation and Culture,also established a similar school with its founding principle being that "for education to be effective it had to be free."In a similar token, A. S. Neill founded what became the Summerhill School in 1921, also declaring being free from coercion.

Anarchist education is based largely on the idea that a child's right to develop freely and without manipulation ought to be respected and that rationality would lead children to morally good conclusions; however, there has been little consensus among anarchist figures as to what constitutes manipulation. Ferrer believed that moral indoctrination was necessary and explicitly taught pupils that equality, liberty and social justice were not possible under capitalism, along with other critiques of government and nationalism.

Late 20th century and contemporary anarchist writers (Paul Goodman,Herbert Read,andColin Ward) intensified and expanded the anarchist critique of state education, largely focusing on the need for a system that focuses on children's creativity rather than on their ability to attain a career or participate inconsumerismas part of a consumer society.Contemporary anarchists such as Ward claim that state education serves to perpetuate socioeconomic inequality.

While few anarchist education institutions have survived to the modern-day, major tenets of anarchist schools, among them respect for child autonomy and relying on reasoning rather than indoctrination as a teaching method, have spread among mainstream educational institutions. Judith Suissa names three schools as explicitly anarchists' schools, namely the Free Skool Santa Cruz in the United States which is part of a wider American-Canadian network of schools, the Self-Managed Learning College in Brighton, England, and the Paideia School in Spain.

The arts

Main article:Anarchism and the arts

Les chataigniers a Osny(1888) by anarchist painter Camille Pissarro is a notable example of blending anarchism and the arts.

The connection between anarchism and art was quite profound during the classical era of anarchism, especially among artistic currents that were developing during that era such as futurists, surrealists and others.In literature, anarchism was mostly associated with theNew Apocalypticsand theneo-romanticismmovement.In music, anarchism has been associated with music scenes such as punk.Anarchists such asLeo TolstoyandHerbert Readstated that the border between the artist and the non-artist, what separates art from a daily act, is a construct produced by the alienation caused by capitalism and it prevents humans from living a joyful life.

Other anarchists advocated for or used art as a means to achieve anarchist ends.In his bookBreaking the Spell: A History of Anarchist Filmmakers, Videotape Guerrillas, and Digital Ninjas,Chris Robé claims that "anarchist-inflected practices have increasingly structured movement-based video activism."Throughout the 20th century, many prominent anarchists (Peter Kropotkin,Emma Goldman,Gustav LandauerandCamillo Berneri) and publications such asAnarchywrote about matters pertaining to the arts.

Three overlapping properties made art useful to anarchists. It could depict a critique of existing society and hierarchies, serve as a prefigurative tool to reflect the anarchist ideal society and even turn into a means of direct action such as in protests. As it appeals to both emotion and reason, art could appeal to the whole human and have a powerful effect.The 19th-centuryneo-impressionistmovement had an ecological aesthetic and offered an example of an anarchist perception of the road towards socialism.InLes chataigniers a Osnyby anarchist painterCamille Pissarro,the blending of aesthetic and social harmony is prefiguring an ideal anarchistic agrarian community.

Criticism

The most common critique of anarchism is the assertion that humans cannotself-governand so a state is necessary for human survival. PhilosopherBertrand Russellsupported this critique, stating that "[p]eace and war, tariffs, regulations of sanitary conditions and the sale of noxious drugs, the preservation of a just system of distribution: these, among others, are functions which could hardly be performed in a community in which there was no central government."Another common criticism of anarchism is that it fits a world of isolation in which only the small enough entities can be self-governing; a response would be that major anarchist thinkers advocated anarchist federalism.

Another criticism of anarchism is the belief that it is inherently unstable: that an anarchist society would inevitably evolve back into a state.Thomas Hobbesand other early social contract theorists argued that the state emerges in response to natural anarchy in order to protect the people's interests and keep order. PhilosopherRobert Nozickargued that a "night-watchman state",or minarchy, would emerge from anarchy through the process of aninvisible hand,in which people would exercise their liberty and buy protection from protection agencies, evolving into a minimal state. Anarchists reject these criticisms by arguing that humans in astate of naturewould not just be in a state of war.Anarcho-primitivistsin particular argue that humans were better off in a state of nature in small tribes living close to the land, while anarchists in general argue that the negatives of state organization, such as hierarchies, monopolies and inequality, outweigh the benefits.

Philosophy lecturer Andrew G. Fiala composed a list of common arguments against anarchism which includes critiques such as that anarchism is innately related to violence and destruction, not only in the pragmatic world, such as at protests, but in the world of ethics as well. Secondly, anarchism is evaluated as unfeasible or utopian since the state cannot be defeated practically. This line of arguments most often calls for political action within the system to reform it. The third argument is that anarchism is self-contradictory as a ruling theory that has no ruling theory. Anarchism also calls for collective action whilst endorsing the autonomy of the individual, hence no collective action can be taken. Lastly, Fiala mentions a critique towards philosophical anarchism of being ineffective (all talk and thoughts) and in the meantime capitalism and bourgeois class remains strong.

Philosophical anarchism has met the criticism of members of academia following the release of pro-anarchist books such as A. John Simmons'Moral Principles and Political Obligations.Law professor William A. Edmundson authored an essay to argue against three major philosophical anarchist principles which he finds fallacious. Edmundson says that while the individual does not owe the state a duty of obedience, this does not imply that anarchism is the inevitable conclusion and the state is still morally legitimate.InThe Problem of Political Authority,Michael Huemerdefends philosophical anarchism,claiming that "political authority is a moral illusion."

One of the earliest criticisms is that anarchism defies and fails to understand the biological inclination to authority.Joseph Razstates that the acceptance of authority implies the belief that following their instructions will afford more success.Raz believes that this argument is true in following both authorities' successful and mistaken instruction.Anarchists reject this criticism because challenging or disobeying authority does not entail the disappearance of its advantages by acknowledging authority such as doctors or lawyers as reliable, nor does it involve a complete surrender of independent judgment.Anarchist perception of human nature, rejection of the state, and commitment to social revolution has been criticised by academics as naive, overly simplistic, and unrealistic, respectively.Classical anarchism has been criticised for relying too heavily on the belief that the abolition of the state will lead to human cooperation prospering.

Friedrich Engels,considered to be one of the principal founders of Marxism, criticised anarchism's anti-authoritarianism as inherently counter-revolutionary because in his view a revolution is by itself authoritarian.AcademicJohn Molyneuxwrites in his bookAnarchism: A Marxist Criticismthat "anarchism cannot win", believing that it lacks the ability to properly implement its ideas.The Marxist criticism of anarchism is that it has a utopian character because all individuals should have anarchist views and values. According to the Marxist view, that a social idea would follow directly from this human ideal and out of the free will of every individual formed its essence. Marxists state that this contradiction was responsible for their inability to act. In the anarchist vision, the conflict between liberty and equality was resolved through coexistence and intertwining.

See also

• Anarchism by country
• Governance without government
• List of anarchist political ideologies
• List of books about anarchism

Anarchist communities

• List of stateless societies
• List of intentional communities
• List of self-managed social centers

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Tertiary sources

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Further reading

• Barclay, Harold B.(1990).People Without Government: An Anthropology of Anarchy.Kahn & Averill.ISBN978-0-9393-0609-1.
• Baker, Zoe (2023).Means and Ends: The Revolutionary Practice of Anarchism in Europe and the United States.AK Press.ISBN978-1-8493-5498-1.OCLC1345217229.
• Chomsky, Noam(2005). Pateman, Barry (ed.).Chomsky on Anarchism.Oakland:AK Press.ISBN978-1-9048-5926-0.
• Edmundson, William A. (2007).Three Anarchical Fallacies: An Essay on Political Authority.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-5210-3751-8.Criticism of philosophical anarchism.
• Harper, Clifford(1987).Anarchy: A Graphic Guide.Camden Press.ISBN978-0-9484-9122-1.
• Huemer, Michael (2012).The Problem of Political Authority: An Examination of the Right to Coerce and the Duty to Obey.London:Palgrave Macmillan.p. 137.ISBN978-1-1372-8164-7.A defence of philosophical anarchism, stating that "both kinds of 'anarchism' [i.e. philosophical and political anarchism] are philosophical and political claims."
• Kinna, Ruth(2005).Anarchism: A Beginners Guide.Oneworld.ISBN978-1-8516-8370-3.
• Le Guin, Ursula K.(2009).The Dispossessed.HarperCollins.Anarchistic popular fiction novel.
• Sartwell, Crispin(2008).Against the State: An Introduction to Anarchist Political Theory.SUNY Press.ISBN978-0-7914-7447-1.
• Scott, James C.(2012).Two Cheers for Anarchism: Six Easy Pieces on Autonomy, Dignity, and Meaningful Work and Play.Princeton, New Jersey:Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-6911-5529-6.
• Suissa, Judith (1 July 2019b)."Education and Non-domination: Reflections from the Radical Tradition".Studies in Philosophy and Education.38(4): 359–375.doi:10.1007/s11217-019-09662-3.S2CID151210357.
• Wolff, Robert Paul(1998).In Defense of Anarchism.University of California Press.ISBN978-0-5202-1573-3.An argument for philosophical anarchism.
• Woodcock, George(January 1962)."Anarchism in Spain".History Today.12(1): 22–32.Retrieved14 October2020.
• Levy, Carl; Adams, Matthew S. (2019).The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism.Palgrave Macmillan.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2.ISBN978-3-3197-5620-2.S2CID149333615.

External links

• AnarchismatCurlie
• Anarchy Archives– an online research center on the history and theory of anarchism.