Perpetual war

"Forever war" redirects here. For the novel, seeThe Forever War.For other uses, seeThe Forever War (disambiguation).

Aperpetual war,endless warorforever waris a lasting state ofwarwith no clear conditions that would lead to its conclusion. These wars are usually situations of ongoing tension that may escalate at any moment, similar to theCold War.From the late 20th century, the concepts have been used to critique theUnited States Armed Forcesinterventions in foreign nations and themilitary–industrial complexsuch as theVietnam Warand theSoviet-Afghan War,or wars with ambiguous enemies such as thewar on terrororwar on drugs.

Causes

Poor military planning is one of the major reasons that a forever war can occur. If the territory gained in a war is not occupied or controlled properly, this can allow a deadly insurgency to occur, potentially stretching out a conflict that never ends.Similarly, warfare that is fought irregularly, such asrebellionsin Africa, do not have a set of military objectives in mind, usually because these rebel groups intend to commit war crimes against the civilian population. Thus, the lack of actual military goals can in itself be a reason that a forever war can occur. A very large defense budget may also be a factor in the transpiration of a forever war.As of 2018,the United States has an inflation-adjusted military budget that is greater than its budget forWorld War II,which enables it to fight continuously in Iraq and other countries.

Civil warsare prone to militarystalematewhich can prolong the war indefinitely.A lack ofdemocracyis associated with an increased risk of civil war.

Forever wars can occur in order to keep money flowing into institutions, such as themilitary–industrial–congressional complex(MICC).Thus, forever wars can serve as domestic political engines, as policy makers promote policies of continuing and expanding wars.

Forever wars can be to the benefit of small armed groups, who may achieve political goals by wearing down a larger group or country. For example, in the aftermath of the9/11 attacksand the beginning of thewar on terror,Al-Qaedaaimed to involve the United States in a prolonged guerrilla war inAfghanistan,challenging its will to fight such a long war.

Wars between ethnic or ideological groups can become forever wars, as such wars are harder to end with a negotiated peace deal due to the different interests of the two sides.An additional barrier may arise in the case of religious wars if one or both parties believe that the other must be destroyed.

In current events

There are current examples of literal perpetual-like war, such as theMyanmar conflictand theIsraeli–Palestinian conflict,which have both been ongoing for over 75 years. These conflicts are typically characterized by long periods oflow-intensity conflictinterspersed with shorter periods of intense fighting. In a less literal sense, the term has been applied tosuperpowerswho engage in constant hostile military activity around the world. As their militaries are always engaged in combat, it could be said that these countries are in a state of perpetual war, albeit not necessarily one where their citizens experience on a daily basis. In particular, much has been written on the activities ofUnited States.

The concept of a perpetual war has been used sinceopposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War.James Pinckney Harrison argues inThe Endless War: Fifty Years of Struggle in Vietnam(1981)that the Vietnam War was "endless" due to the success of the communist revolution in nationalizing the people.The concept was used byTrần Văn Đôn,a general in theArmy of the Republic of Vietnam,in his bookOur Endless War: Inside Vietnam(1978).

American historianJames Chaceargues in his bookEndless War: How we got involved in Central America(1983)that US policy in Central America is based upon the assumption that UShegemonyis threatened within the region. According to Chace, US involvement in Central America worked towards resisting thedomino effectof the spread of a "communist take-over",largely through establishing the credibility of US military.Though these policies were meant to deter conflict, they themselves created the conditions for instability in the region, which furthered a US response. This resulted in a self-perpetuating, or "endless", loop. He additionally argues US investment in pursuing an expanding military presence in Central America reflects an endless preparation for war.

A key argument of Chace is that much of this military involvement stems from a logic of US paranoia in reaction to theCuban Revolution.A similar argument is put forward by David Keen, politicaleconomistand Professor of Complex Emergencies at theLondon School of Economics.His bookEndless War? Hidden Function of the 'War on Terror'(2006)argues that the United States' strategies and tactics in thewar on terroruse a "militaristic state-cased framework". This framework, though "counterproductive", has an "inner logic" and a "psychological function" of responding to thetraumaofSeptember 11 attacks.

Noam Chomskyposits that a state of perpetual war is an aid to (and is promoted by) the powerful members of dominant political and economic classes, helping maintain their positions of economic and political superiority.

British journalistRobert Fisk,a critic of Western policies in theMiddle East,argues that recent Western conflicts against the Middle East, after the end of the Cold War, have been part of a new perpetual war.He suggests that former U.S. PresidentGeorge H. W. Bushlaunched attacks onIraq,Sudan,andAfghanistanto distract the population from his domestic political problems. In addition, he claims that despite victorious claims after the first Gulf War that Saddam Hussein had been "defanged", he was again the target of Western attacks until his execution in 2006.

Similarly,Ted Koppeldescribed thewar on terroras "Our Children's Children's War".Critics of Western policies have used the term "perpetual war" in reference tonon-military "wars",such as the "War on Drugs","War on Poverty","War on Cancer",Lou Dobbs's "War on the Middle Class", the "War on Terrorism",the "War on Women",orBill O'Reilly's "War on Christmas".

In socioeconomics and politics

The economic make-up of the 5th century BC Athens-ledDelian Leaguealso bears resemblance to the economic ramifications ofpreparingfor perpetual war. Aspects of any givenempire,such as theBritish Empireand its relation to its domestic businesses that were owned by a wealthy minority of individuals, such as theEast India Company,theHudson's Bay Company,andDe Beers,manifest an observed relationship between a minority of individuals influencing Empire or State policy, such as theChild's Warin India, theAnglo-Mysore Warsin India, theAnglo-French conflicts on Hudson Bayin Canada, and theSecond Boer Warin South Africa, follow a pattern where the Empire allocates resources pursuing and sustaining policies that financially profit the Empire's domestic business's owners.

Military–industrial complex

The concept of amilitary–industrial complexwas first suggested by U.S. PresidentDwight D. Eisenhowerand the idea that military action can be seen as a form of market-creation goes back at least as far as speeches beginning in 1930 prior to the publication ofWar Is a Racketin 1935. On January 16, 1961, President Eisenhower delivered his farewell speech expressing great concern for the direction of the newfound armaments industry post-WWII. While recognizing the boom in economic growth after the war, he reminded the people of United States that this was a way of profiting off warfare and that if not regulated enough it could lead to the "grave" expansion of the armaments industry. For his warning of the thirst to profit from warfare through weapon production, Eisenhower coined the term "military industrial complex". He said, "The potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist."Eisenhower feared that the military–industrial complex could lead to a state of perpetual war as the big armament industry will continue to profit from warfare. Additionally,NSC 68can be used as a reference to understand U.S. PresidentHarry S. Truman's reasoning for the continued build up the United States' nuclear arsenal and how this contributed to theCold War.This concept is still present in today's policies asWilliam D. Hartungstates in his article "The Doctrine of Armed Exceptionalism".

War on terror

Main article:War on terror

Traditionally, the term "war"referred to the physical and conventional act of engaging in armed conflict. However, the implications of what war entails has evolved over time. The war on terror has often been cited as a perpetual war, being a war with" no specific battlefield and the enemy isn’t an army. "The war on terror has been directed at countless "enemies," as it has no clear target. Georgetown University HistorianBruce Hoffmandescribes traditional war as a war that "ends with the vanquishing of an opponent, with some form or armistice or truce- some kind of surrender instrument or document."In contrast, the war on terror continues with no end in sight.

Thewar on terrorwas declared in 2001 by PresidentGeorge W. Bush,following theSeptember 11 attacks,but as early as 1996,Osama bin LadenofAl-Qaedamade a threat to the United States, by making a declaration of war. The growing tensions of the Middle East are suggested by Laurence Andrew Dobrot to be very wide cultural misunderstandings and faults the West for not making peace with the Middle East. As the deputy director for the Missile Defense Agency's Airborne Laser Program, Dobrot examines the hostility which has been continuous not only since 2001, but since the birth ofWahhabism.

Dobrot proposed that the U.S should recognize the cultural hostility of the tribal Arabs in order to make the first steps towards progression of making peace.

TheCrusadesarose as European expansion was growing at the peak of unified Islamic dominance. On September 16, 2001, in a speech, President Bush referred to the war on terror as a crusade. He said:

No one could have conceivably imagined suicide bombers burrowing into our society and then emerging all in the same day to fly their aircraft - fly U.S. aircraft into buildings full of innocent people - and show no remorse. This is a new kind of -- a new kind of evil. And we understand. And the American people are beginning to understand. This crusade, this war on terrorism is going to take a while. And the American people must be patient. I'm going to be patient.

Andrew Bacevich described Bush's naming of the war on terror as a crusade as something which does not make the war separate, rather something that shows that it is part of an "eternal war."

War memorials

With the advent of perpetual war, communities have begun to constructwar memorialswith names of the dead while the wars are ongoing. TheNorthwood Gratitude and Honor MemorialinIrvine, Californiawas dedicated in 2010 to American troops who lost their lives in the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, with space for 8,000 names (approximately 4,500 used at time of construction) and the intention to update it yearly.

Views of influential writers

Sun Tzu

Ancient war advisorSun Tzuexpressed views in the 6th century BC about perpetual war. The following quotation from chapter 2, Waging War, of his bookThe Art of Warsuggests the negative impacts of prolonged war:

Sun Tzu said:... When you engage in actual fighting, if victory is long in coming, the men's weapons will grow dull and their ardour will be damped. If you lay siege to a town, you will exhaust your strength... There is no instance of a country having benefited from prolonged warfare... In war, then, let your great object be victory, not lengthy campaigns.

Alexis de Tocqueville

See also:Democratic peace theory

HistorianAlexis de Tocquevillemade predictions in 1840 concerning perpetual war in democratic countries. The following is from Volume 2, chapter 22, "Why Democratic Nations Naturally Desire Peace and Democratic Armies, War", 18th paragraph, in his book,Democracy in America:

No protracted war can fail to endanger the freedom of a democratic country. Not indeed that after every victory it is to be apprehended that the victorious generals will possess themselves by force of the supreme power, after the manner of Sulla and Caesar; the danger is of another kind. War does not always give over democratic communities to military government, but it must invariably and immeasurably increase the powers of civil government; it must almost compulsorily concentrate the direction of all men and the management of all things in the hands of the administration. If it does not lead to despotism by sudden violence, it prepares men for it more gently by their habits. All those who seek to destroy the liberties of a democratic nation ought to know that war is the surest and the shortest means to accomplish it. This is the first axiom of the science.

Fiction

• InGeorge Orwell's novelNineteen Eighty-Four,the three superstates of the world,Eurasia,OceaniaandEastasia,are said to be in a perpetual state of war with each other. The attacks are in the form of rocket attacks (similar to the V2 Attacks on London in WW2) although it is implied in the book that the attacks could be launched by the home Government against their own people in order to perpetuate fear and hatred of the enemy. Therefore, perpetual war may in fact secretly be a strategy used bythe stateto continuously promote its own political agenda. However, the military attacks are limited to the non-aligned areas (North and Central Africa, India etc.), an example of this is The Malabar Front (India) where Oceania won a victory against Eurasia.
• In theDoctor WhoseriesGenesis of the Daleks,the Kaleds and the Thals are in a perpetual state of war and have been for 1000 years. This state of war finally results in both sides occupying one city each on either side of mountains, and leads to both sides' supplies being so completely ravaged by the war that both sides have a collection of black powder weapons, modern and futuristic weapons and armour. It is out of this war that the Daleks are created byDavros.
• Also in theDoctor Whoseries, theSontaransand theRutanshave been in a perpetual state of war for over 50,000 years.There appears to be no end in sight, with each side continually attempting to completely obliterate the other. This has resulted in either side constantly gaining and losing territory (including theMilky Waygalaxy, which is known in Doctor Who as the "Mutter's Spiral" ).
• And again inDoctor WhoinDestiny of the Daleks,the Daleks and the Movellans have basically been drawn into an Endless War, due to their battle computers both giving a logical set of orders, only to have one set countered by the other battle computer with an equally logical set of orders. As both sides are using logical instructions, neither side could win as both sides would be able to counter the advances of the other as both were using logic. The Daleks returned to Skaro to find Davros to see if he could give them an advantage. The Movellans tried to get the Doctor to give them the same advantage.
• In the2000ADseriesRogue Trooper,the North (Norts) and South (Southers) of the Planet Nu-Earth, for hundreds of years, have been in a perpetual state of war against each other using conventional, biological, chemical, and nuclear weapons.The length of the war as well as the weapons involved have turned the planet uninhabitable without protective suits. It was for this reason that the Southers created the GIs or Genetic Infantry which would be able to survive in the environment.
• Joe Haldeman'sThe Forever Waris about a war that is made perpetual due to theEinsteiniantime dilationeffects due to space travel. The novel is said to have been shaped by Haldeman's experience in the Vietnam War as the book contains references to the war paired up with sci-fi concepts. A quote by Haldeman shows great influence from Hobbes' concept of perpetual war, "Life begins in a bloody mess and sometimes it ends the same way, and only odd people seek out blood between those times, maybe crazy people."
• In the originalStar Trekepisode "A Taste of Armageddon",the neighboring planets of Eminiar and Vendikar have been at war for 500 years. To avoid the physical devastation of an actual war, the belligerents agreed to conduct only computer-simulated attacks as long as the resulting" victims "voluntarily kill themselves in" disintegration stations ".
• The 2006 filmChildren of Mendisplays themes of perpetual war by exploring the wars on Terror and Poverty. The movie is set in a dystopia suffering universal infertility. The social and political world has become chaotic as few people exercise social power from their wealthy positions. Meanwhile, there is constant conflict all around the world, which specifically the oppressed group suffers. Manohla Dargis ofThe New York Timestakes notice to the norm of bombs casually exploding in public places, such as a cafe. Dargis writes, "It imagines the unthinkable: What if instead of containing Iraq, the world has become Iraq, a universal battleground of military control, security zones, refugee camps and warring tribal identities?"

See also

• Arab–Israeli conflict
• Attrition warfare
• Endemic warfare
• Just war
• List of ongoing armed conflicts
• List of wars extended by diplomatic irregularity
• Permanent war economy
• Perpetual peace
• Rogue state
• Roman–Persian Wars,noted for being "never-ending" by classical authors
• Si vis pacem, para bellum
• Syrian civil war
• The Report from Iron Mountain
• War as metaphor
• War Is a Racket

References

• Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace,byGore Vidal.Nation Books, 2002.ISBN1-56025-405-X
• Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace,edited byHarry Elmer Barnes,The Caxton Printers Ltd., 1953 -Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace

External links

• Homeland Security: When The Phoenix Comes Home To Roost,by Douglas Valentine.
• The Eternal War Parade,from Intervention Magazine.
• The State,byRandolph Bourne– origin of the phrase, "war is the health of the state".
• The War on Drugs as the Health of the State,byBob Black.
• The Doctrine of Armed Exceptionalism.byWilliam Hartung.