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Golden age of arcade video games

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Thegolden age of arcade video gameswas the period of rapid growth, technological development, and cultural influence ofarcade video gamesfrom the late 1970s to the early 1980s. The release ofSpace Invadersin 1978 led to a wave ofshoot-'em-upgames such asGalaxianand thevector graphics-basedAsteroidsin 1979, made possible by new computing technology that had greater power and lower costs. Arcade video games switched from black-and-white to color, with titles such asFroggerandCentipedetaking advantage of the visual opportunities of bright palettes.

Video game arcadesbecame a part of popular culture and a primary channel for new games.Video game genreswere still being established, but included space-themedshooter gamessuch asDefenderandGalaga,maze chase gamesthat followed the design established byPac-Man,driving andracing gameswhich more frequently used 3D perspectives such asTurboandPole Position,characteraction gamessuch asPac-ManandFrogger,and the beginning of what would later be calledplatform gamestouched off byDonkey Kong.Games began starring namedplayer characters,such asPac-Man,Mario,andQ*bert,and some of these characters crossed over into other media including songs, cartoons, and movies. The 1982 filmTronwas closely tied to an arcadegame of the same name.

The golden age of arcade games began to wane in 1983 due to a plethora ofclonesof popular titles that saturated arcades, the rise of home video game consoles, both coupled with amoral panicon the influence of arcades and video games on children. This fall occurred during the same time as thevideo game crash of 1983but for different reasons, though both marred revenues within the North American video game industry for several years. The arcade game sector revitalized later during the early 1990s particularly with the mainstream success offighting games.

Time period[edit]

Although the exact years differ, most sources agree the period lasted from about the late 1970s to early 1980s.

Technology journalist Jason Whittaker, inThe Cyberspace Handbook,places the beginning of thegolden agein 1978, with the release ofSpace Invaders.[1]Video game journalistSteven L. Kentargues in his bookThe Ultimate History of Video Gamesthat it began the following year, whenSpace Invadersgained popularity in the United States[2]and whenvector displaytechnology, first seen in arcades in 1977'sSpace Wars,rose to prominence via Atari'sAsteroids.Kent says the period ended in 1983, which saw "a fairly steady decline" in the coin-operated video game business and arcades.[3][4]

Walter DayofTwin Galaxiesplaces this period's beginning in the late 1970s, when color arcade games became more prevalent and arcade video games started appearing outside of their traditionalbowling alleyandbarlocales, through to its ending in the mid-1980s.[5]RePlaymagazine in 1985 dated the arcade industry's "video boom" years from 1979 to 1982.[6]The golden age of arcade games largely coincided with, and partly fueled, thesecond generation of game consolesand themicrocomputer revolution.

One outlier is theHistory of Computing Projectwebsite, which says the era began in 1971, when the creator ofPongfiled a pivotal patent regarding video game technology and when the first arcade video game machine,Computer Space,was released.[7]It defines the era as covering the "mainstream appearance of video games as a consumer market" and "the rise of dedicated hardware systems and the origin of multi-game cartridge based systems".[8]

Business[edit]

The golden age was a time of great technical and design creativity in arcade games. The era saw the rapid spread ofvideo arcadesacross North America, Europe, and Asia. The number of video game arcades in North America was doubled between 1980 and 1982;[9]reaching a peak of 10,000 video game arcades across the region (compared to 4,000 as of 1998).[10]Beginning withSpace Invaders,video arcade games also started to appear in supermarkets, restaurants,liquor stores,gas stations,and many other retail establishments looking for extra income.[11]Video game arcades at the time became as common asconvenience stores,while arcade games likePac-ManandSpace Invadersappeared in most locations across the United States, including evenfuneral homes.[12]The sales of arcade video game machines increased during this period from $50 million in 1978 to $900 million in 1981,[9]with 500,000 arcade machines sold in the United States at prices ranging as high as $3,000 in 1982 alone.[13]By 1982, there were 24,000 full arcades, 400,000 arcade street locations and 1.5 million arcade machines active in North America.[14]The market was very competitive; the average life span of an arcade game was four to six months. Some games likeRobby Rotofailed because they were too complex to learn quickly.Qixwas briefly very popular but, Taito's Keith Egging later said, "too mystifying for gamers...impossible to master and when the novelty wore off, the game faded".[15]Around this time, the home video game industry (second-generationvideo game consolesand earlyhome computer games) emerged as "an outgrowth of the widespread success of video arcades".[16]

In 1980, the U.S. arcade video game industry's revenue generated fromquarterstripled to $2.8 billion.[17]By 1981, the arcade video game industry in the United States was generating more than $5 billion a year[1][18]with some estimates as high as $10.5 billion for all video games (arcade and home) in the U.S. that year, which was three times the amount spent on movie tickets in 1981.[19]The total revenue for the U.S. arcade video game industry in 1981 was estimated at more than $7 billion[20]though some analysts estimated the real amount may have been much higher.[20]By 1982, video games accounted for 87% of the $8.9 billion in commercial games sales in the United States.[21]In 1982, the arcade video game industry's revenue in quarters was estimated at $8 billion[22]surpassing the annual gross revenue of both pop music ($4 billion) andHollywoodfilms ($3 billion) combined that year.[22][23]It also exceeded the revenues of all major sports combined at the time,[23]earning three times the combined ticket and television revenues ofMajor League Baseball,basketball, andAmerican football,as well as earning twice as much as all thecasinosinNevadacombined.[24]This was also more than twice as much revenue as the $3.8 billion generated by the home video game industry (during thesecond generation of consoles) that same year;[22]both the arcade and home markets combined added up to a total revenue between $11.8 billion and $12.8 billion for the U.S. video game industry in 1982. In comparison, the U.S. video game industry in 2011 generated total revenues between $16.3 billion and $16.6 billion.[25]

Prior to the golden age,pinballmachines were more popular than video games. The pinball industry reached a peak of 200,000 machine sales and $2.3 billion revenue in 1979, which had declined to 33,000 machines and $464 million in 1982.[21]In comparison, the best-selling arcade games[citation needed]of the golden age,Space InvadersandPac-Man,had each sold over 360,000[26]and 400,000[27]cabinets, respectively, with each machine costing between $2000 and $3000 (specifically $2400 inPac-Man'scase).[28]In addition,Space Invadershad grossed $2 billion in quarters by 1982,[23]whilePac-Manhad grossed over $1 billion by 1981[29]and $2.5 billion by the late 1990s.[30][31]In 1982,Space Invaderswas considered the highest-grossing entertainment product of its time, with comparisons made to the thenhighest-grossing filmStar Wars,[23][32]which had grossed $486 million,[32]whilePac-Manis today considered thehighest-grossing arcade gameof all time.[33]Many other arcade games during the golden age also had hardware unit sales at least in the tens of thousands, includingMs. Pac-Manwith over 115,000 units,Asteroidswith 70,000,[12]Donkey Kongwith over 60,000,[34]Defenderwith 55,000,[35]Galaxianwith 40,000,[36]Donkey Kong Juniorwith 35,000,[34]Mr. Do!with 30,000,[37]andTempestwith 29,000 units.[38]A number of arcade games also generated revenues (from quarters) in the hundreds of millions, includingDefenderwith more than $100 million[18]in addition to many more with revenues in the tens of millions, includingDragon's Lairwith $48 million andSpace Acewith $13 million.[39]

The most successful arcade game companies of this era includedTaito(which ushered in the golden age with theshooter gameSpace Invaders[4]and produced other successful arcadeaction gamessuch asGun FightandJungle King),Namco(the Japanese company that createdGalaxian,Pac-Man,Pole PositionandDig Dug) andAtari(the company that introduced video games into arcades withComputer SpaceandPong,and later producedAsteroids). Other companies such asSega(who later entered the home console market against its former arch rival, Nintendo),Nintendo(whosemascot,Mario,was introduced in 1981'sDonkey Kongas "Jumpman" ),Bally Midway Manufacturing Company(which was later purchased by Williams),Cinematronics,Konami,Centuri,WilliamsandSNKalso gained popularity around this era.

During this period,Japanese video gamemanufacturers became increasingly influential in North America. By 1980, they had become very influential through licensing their games to American manufacturers.[40]Japanese companies eventually moved beyond licensing their games to American companies such as Midway, and by 1981 instead began directly importing machines to the North American market as well as building manufacturing facilities in the United States.[41]By 1982–1983, Japanese manufacturers had more directly captured a large share of the North American arcade market, which Gene Lipkin ofData East USApartly attributed to Japanese companies having more finances to invest in new ideas.[42]

Technology[edit]

Arcades catering to video games began to gain momentum in the late 1970s, withSpace Invaders(1978) followed by games such asAsteroids(1979) andGalaxian(1979). Arcades became more widespread in 1980 withPac-Man,Missile CommandandBerzerk,and in 1981 withDefender,Donkey Kong,Froggerand others. Thecentral processing unit(CPU)microprocessorsin these games allowed for more complexity than earliertransistor-transistor logic(TTL)discrete circuitrygames such as Atari'sPong(1972). The arcade boom that began in the late 1970s is credited with establishing the basic techniques ofinteractive entertainmentand for driving down hardware prices to the extent of allowing thepersonal computer(PC) to become a technological and economic reality.[43]

While color monitors had been used by severalracing video gamesbefore (such asIndy 800[44]andSpeed Race Twin[45]), it was during this period thatRGBcolor graphics became widespread, following the release ofGalaxianin 1979.[46]Galaxianintroduced atile-based video gamegraphics system, which reduced processing and memory requirements by up to 64 times compared to the previousframebuffersystem used bySpace Invaders.[47]This allowedGalaxianto render multi-colorsprites,[48]which were animated atop ascrollingstarfield backdrop, providing the basis for the hardware developed byNintendofor arcade games such asRadar Scope(1980) andDonkey Kongfollowed by theNintendo Entertainment Systemconsole.[49]

The golden age also saw developers experimenting withvector displays,which produce crisp lines that can't be duplicated byraster displays.A few of these vector games became great hits, such as 1979'sAsteroids,1980'sBattlezone,1981'sTempestand 1983'sStar Warsfrom Atari. However, vector technology fell out of favor with arcade game companies due to the high cost of repairing vector displays.[citation needed]

Several developers at the time were also experimenting withpseudo-3Dandstereoscopic 3Dusing2Dspritesonraster displays.In 1979,Nintendo'sRadar Scopeintroduced a three-dimensionalthird-person perspectiveto theshoot 'em upgenre, later imitated byshooterssuch asKonami'sJuno FirstandActivision'sBeamriderin 1983.[50]In 1981, Sega'sTurbowas the first racing game to feature a third-person rear view format,[51]and usespritescaling with full-colour graphics.[52]Namco'sPole Positionfeatured an improved rear-view racer format in 1982 that remained the standard for the genre; the game provided a perspective view of the track, with its vanishing point swaying side to side as the player approaches corners, accurately simulating forward movement into the distance.[53]That same year, Sega releasedZaxxon,which introduced the use ofisometric graphicsand shadows;[54]andSubRoc-3D,which introduced the use ofstereoscopic 3Dthrough a special eyepiece.[55]

This period also saw significant advances indigital audiotechnology.Space Invadersin 1978 was the first game to use a continuousbackground soundtrack,with four simplechromaticdescendingbass notesrepeating in a loop, though it was dynamic and changed tempo during stages.[56]Rally-Xin 1980 was the first game to feature continuousbackground music,[57]which was generated using a dedicatedsound chip,a Namco 3-channelPSG.[58]That same year saw the introduction ofspeech synthesis,which was first used inStratovox,released bySun Electronicsin 1980,[57]followed soon after by Namco'sKing & Balloon.

Developers also experimented withlaserdiscplayers for deliveringfull motion video based gameswith movie-quality animation. The firstlaserdisc video gameto exploit this technology was 1983'sAstron Beltfrom Sega,[59][60]soon followed byDragon's LairfromCinematronics;the latter was a sensation when it was released (and, in fact, the laserdisc players in many machines broke due to overuse). While laserdisc games were usually eithershooter gameswith full-motion video backdrops likeAstron Beltorinteractive movieslikeDragon's Lair,Data East's 1983 gameBega's Battleintroduced a new form of video game storytelling: using brief full-motion videocutscenesto develop a story between the game's shooting stages, which years later became the standard approach to video game storytelling. By the mid-1980s, the genre dwindled in popularity, as laserdiscs were losing out to the VHS format and the laserdisc games themselves were losing their novelty.[61]

16-bitprocessors began appearing in several arcade games during this era.Universal'sGet A Way(1978) was a sit-downracing gamethat used a 16-bit CPU,[62]for which it was advertised as the first game to use a 16-bitmicrocomputer.[63]Another racing game, Namco'sPole Position(1982), used the 16-bitZilog Z8000processor.[64]Atari'sFood Fight(1983) was one of the earliest games to use theMotorola 68000processor.[65]

3D computer graphicsbegan appearing in several arcade games towards the end of the golden age.Funai'sInterstellar,a laserdisc game introduced at Tokyo'sAmusement Machine Show(AM Show) in September 1983,[66][67]demonstratedpre-rendered3D computer graphics.[68]Simutrek'sCube Quest,another laserdisc game introduced at the same Tokyo AM Show in September 1983,[67]combined laserdisc animation with 3Dreal-time computer graphics.[69]Star Rider,introduced byWilliams Electronicsat the Amusement & Music Operators Association (AMOA) in October 1983,[70]also demonstrated pre-rendered 3D graphics.[71]Atari'sI, Robot,developed and released in 1984,[72][73]was the first arcade game to be rendered entirely with real-time 3D computer graphics.[74]

Gameplay[edit]

Space Invaders(1978) established the "multiplelife,progressively difficultlevelparadigm "used by many classic arcade games.[75]Designed byTomohiro NishikadoatTaito,he drew inspiration fromAtari's block-breaker gameBreakout(1976) and severalscience fictionworks. Nishikado added several interactive elements toSpace Invadersthat he found lacking in earlier video games, such as the ability for enemies to react to the player's movement and fire back, with agame overtriggered by enemies killing the player (either by getting hit or enemies reaching the bottom of the screen) rather than a timer running out.[76]In contrast to earlier arcade games which often had a timer,Space Invadersintroduced the "concept of goingroundafter round. "[77]It also gave the player multiplelivesbefore the game ends,[78]and saved thehigh score.[79]It also had a basic story with animated characters along with a "crescendo of action and climax" which laid the groundwork for later video games, according toEugene Jarvis.[80]

With the enormous success ofSpace Invaders,dozens ofdevelopersjumped into the development and manufacturing of arcade video games. Some simply copied the "invading alien hordes" idea ofSpace Invadersand turned out successful imitators like Namco'sGalaxianandGalaga,which extended thefixed shootergenre with new gameplay mechanics, more complex enemy patterns, and richer graphics.[81][82]Galaxianintroduced a "risk-reward" concept,[83]whileGalagawas one of the first games with abonus stage.[84]Sega's 1980 releaseSpace Tacticswas an earlyfirst-personspace combatgame with multi-directionalscrollingas the player moved thecross-hairson the screen.[85]

Others tried new concepts and defined new genres. Rapidly evolving hardware allowed new kinds of games which allowed for different styles of gameplay. The term "action games"began being used in the early 1980s, in reference to a new genre of character action games that emerged from Japanese arcade developers, drawing inspiration frommangaandanimeculture. According to Eugene Jarvis, these new character-driven Japanese action games emphasized "character development, hand-drawn animation and backgrounds, and a more deterministic, scripted, pattern-type" of play. Terms such as "action games" or "character games" began being used to distinguish these new character-driven action games from the space shooters that had previously dominated the video game industry.[86][87][88]The emphasis on character-driven gameplay in turn enabled a wider variety of subgenres.[87]In 1980, Namco releasedPac-Man,which popularized themaze chasegenre, andRally-X,which featured aradartracking the player position on the map.[58]Games such as the pioneering 1981 gamesDonkey KongandQixintroduced new types of games where skill and timing are more important than shooting as fast as possible, withNintendo'sDonkey Kongin particular setting the template for theplatform gamegenre.[89]

The two most popular genres during the golden age were space shooters and character action games.[86]While Japanese developers were creating a character-driven action game genre in the early 1980s, American developers largely adopted a different approach to game design at the time.[86]According to Eugene Jarvis, American arcade developers focused mainly on space shooters during the late 1970s to early 1980s, greatly influenced by Japanese space shooters but taking the genre in a different direction from the "more deterministic, scripted, pattern-type" gameplay of Japanese games, towards a more "programmer-centric design culture, emphasizing algorithmic generation of backgrounds and enemy dispatch" and "an emphasis on random-event generation, particle-effect explosions and physics" as seen in arcade games such as his ownDefender(1981)[86]andRobotron: 2084(1982)[90]as well asAtari'sAsteroids(1979).[91]

Namco'sBosconianin 1981 introduced afree-roamingstyle of gameplaywhere the player's ship freely moves across open space, while also including a radar tracking player & enemy positions.[92]Bega's Battlein 1983 introduced a new form of video game storytelling: using brieffull-motion videocutscenesto develop a story between the game's shooting stages.[61]Other examples of innovative games areAtari Games'Paperboyin 1984 where the goal is to successfully deliver newspapers to customers, and Namco'sPhozonwhere the object is to duplicate a shape shown in the middle of the screen. The theme ofExidy'sVentureisdungeonexploration and treasure-gathering.Q*bertplays upon the user's sense ofdepth perceptionto deliver a novel experience.

Popular culture[edit]

Donkey Kong

Some games of this era were so widely played that they enteredpopular culture.The first wasSpace Invaders,released in 1978. A widely believed, yet false, urban legend held that its popularity caused a national shortage of100 yen coinsin Japan.[93][94][95][96]Its release in North America led to hundreds of favorable articles and stories about the emerging medium of video games printed in newspapers and magazines and aired on television. The Space Invaders Tournament held by Atari in 1980 was the firstvideo game competitionand attracted more than 10,000 participants, establishingvideo gamingas a mainstream hobby.[97]By 1980, 86% of the 13–20 year old population in the United States had played arcade video games,[98]and by 1981, there were more than 35 million gamers visiting video game arcades in the United States.[99]

The game that most affected popular culture in North America wasPac-Man.Its release in 1980 caused such a sensation that it initiated what is now referred to as "Pac-Mania" (which later becamethe title of the last coin-operated game in the series,released in 1987). Released byNamco,the game featured a yellow, circle-shaped creature trying to eat dots through a maze while avoiding pursuing enemies. Though no one could agree what the "hero" or enemies represented (they were variously referred to as ghosts, goblins or monsters), the game was extremely popular. The game spawned ananimated television series,numerous clones,Pac-Man-branded foods, toys, and a hit pop song, "Pac-Man Fever".The game's popularity was such that PresidentRonald Reagancongratulated a player for setting a record score inPac-Man.[100]Pac-Manwas also responsible for expanding the arcade game market to involve large numbers of female audiences across all age groups.[101]Though many popular games quickly entered the lexicon of popular culture, most have since left, andPac-Manis unusual in remaining a recognized term in popular culture, along withSpace Invaders,Donkey Kong,MarioandQ*bert.

Seen as an additional source of revenue, arcade games began popping up outside of dedicated arcades, including bars, restaurants, movie theaters, bowling alleys, convenience stores, laundromats, gas stations, supermarkets, airports, even dentist and doctor offices.Showbiz PizzaandChuck E. Cheesewere founded specifically as restaurants focused on featuring the latest arcade titles.

In 1982, the game showStarcadepremiered. The program focused on players competing to achieve high scores on the latest arcade titles, with the chance to win the grand prize of their own arcade machine if they could hit a target score within a specific time frame. The show ran until 1984 onTBSand syndication.

In 1983, an animated television series produced for Saturday mornings calledSaturday Supercadefeatured video game characters from the era, such as Frogger, Donkey Kong, Q*bert, Donkey Kong Jr., Kangaroo, Space Ace, and Pitfall Harry.

Arcade games at the time affected themusic industry,revenues for which had declined by $400 million between 1978 and 1981 (from $4.1 billion to $3.7 billion), a decrease that was directly credited to the rise of arcade games at the time.[102]Successful songs based on video games also began appearing. The pioneeringelectronic musicbandYellow Magic Orchestra(YMO)sampledSpace Invaderssounds in their 1978self-titled albumand the hit single "Computer Game" from the same album,[103]the latter selling over 400,000 copies in the United States.[104]In turn, YMO had a major influence on much of thevideo game musicproduced during the8-bitand16-bit eras.[105]Other pop songs based onSpace Invaderssoon followed, including "Disco Space Invaders" (1979) by Funny Stuff,[103]"Space Invaders" (1980) by Player One (known as Playback in the US),[106]and the hit songs "Space Invader"(1980) byThe Pretenders[103]and "Space Invaders" (1980) by Uncle Vic.[107]The game was also the basis for Player One's "Space Invaders"(1979), which in turn provided the baseline forJesse Saunders's "On and On" (1984),[108][109]the firstChicagohouse musictrack.[110]The song "Pac-Man Fever"reached No. 9 on theBillboardHot 100and sold over a million singles in 1982,[111]while the albumPac-Man Feversold over a million records, with both receivingGold certifications.[112]That same year, R. Cade and the Video Victims also produced an arcade-inspired album,Get Victimized,featuring songs such as "Donkey Kong".[113]In 1984, former YMO memberHaruomi Hosonoproduced an album entirely from Namco arcade game samples entitledVideo Game Music,an early example of achiptunerecord[114]and the first video game music album.[115]Arcade game sounds also had a strong influence on thehip hop,[116]pop music(particularlysynthpop)[117]andelectro musicgenres during the early 1980s.[118]The booming success of video games at the time led to music magazineBillboardlisting the 15 top-selling video games alongside their record charts by 1982.[16]More than a decade later, the firstelectroclashrecord,I-F's "Space Invaders Are Smoking Grass" (1997), has been described as "burbling electro in avocoderedhomage to Atari-era hi-jinks ",[119]particularlySpace Invaderswhich it was named after.[120]

Arcade games also influenced thefilm industry;beginning withSpace Invaders,arcade games began appearing at many movie theaters.[12]Earlyfilms based on video gameswere also produced, most notablyTron,which grossed over $33 million in 1982[121]which began theTronfranchisewhich included avideo game adaptationthat grossed more than the film.[122]Other films based on video games included the 1983 filmsWarGames(whereMatthew BroderickplaysGalagaat an arcade),[123]Nightmares,andJoysticks,the 1984 filmsThe Last Starfighter,as well asCloak & Dagger(in which an Atari 5200 cartridge implausibly containing the eponymous arcade game becomes the film'sMacGuffin). Arcades also appeared in many other films at the time, such asDawn of the Dead(where they playGun FightandF-1) in 1978,[124]andMidnight Madnessin 1980,Take This Job and Shove ItandPuberty Bluesin 1981, the 1982 releasesRocky III,Fast Times At Ridgemont High,KoyaanisqatsiandThe Toy,the 1983 releasesPsycho II,Spring Break,Strange Brew,Terms of EndearmentandNever Say Never Again,the 1984 releasesFootloose,The Karate Kid(whereElisabeth ShueplaysPac-Man),The Terminator,Night of the CometandThe Adventures of Buckaroo Banzai Across the 8th Dimension,the 1985 releasesThe Goonies,The Heavenly Kid,Pee Wee's Big Adventure,The Boys Next Door[125]andFerris Bueller's Day Off[123]as well as the 1986 filmsSomething Wild,The Color of Money,River's EdgeandPsycho III(where Norman Bates stands next to aBerzerkcabinet).[125]Over the Top,Can't Buy Me Love,Light of DayandProject Xshowcase arcade game cabinets as well. Coin-operated games (both video and mechanical) are central to the plots of the 1988 filmsBigandKung-Fu Master.

In more recent years, there have been critically acclaimed documentaries based on the golden age of arcade games, such asThe King of Kong: A Fistful of Quarters(2007) andChasing Ghosts: Beyond the Arcade(2007). Since 2010, many arcade-related features or films incorporating 1980's nostalgia have been released includingTron: Legacy(2010),Wreck-It Ralph(2012),Ping Pong Summer(2014),Pixels(2015),Everybody Wants Some!!(2016),Summer of 84(2018) andReady Player One(2018) which is based upon the novel byErnest Clineand directed bySteven Spielberg.Television shows have exhibited arcade games includingThe GoldbergsandStranger Things(both of which featureDragon's Lairamong other games).

Strategy guides[edit]

The period saw the emergence of a gaming media, publications dedicated to video games, in the form ofvideo game journalismandstrategy guides.[23]The enormous popularity of video arcade games led to the very first video game strategy guides;[126]these guides (rare to find today) discussed in detail the patterns and strategies of each game, including variations, to a degree that few guides seen since can match. "Turning the machine over" - making the score counter overflow and reset to zero - was often the final challenge of a game for those who mastered it, and the last obstacle to getting the highest score.

Some of these strategy guides sold hundreds of thousands of copies at prices ranging from $1.95 to $3.95 in 1982[126](equivalent to between $6.00 and $12.00 in 2024).[127]That year, Ken Uston'sMastering Pac-Mansold 750,000 copies, reaching No. 5 onB. Dalton's mass-marketbestsellerlist, while Bantam'sHow to Master the Video Gamessold 600,000 copies, appearing onThe New York Timesmass-market paperback list.[126]By 1983, 1.7 million copies ofMastering Pac-Manhad been printed.[128]

List of popular arcade games[edit]

See also:Timeline of arcade video game history,1970s in video games,and1980s in video games

The games below are some of the most popular and/or influential games of the era.[129]

Legend
Vector display
Raster display
Name Year Manufacturer Legacy Notes
Space Invaders 1978 Taito(Japan) /Midway(U.S.) Considered the game that revolutionized thevideo game industry.[130]The firstblockbustervideo game,[131]it established theshoot 'em upgenre,[132]and has influenced mostshooter gamessince.[133]
Galaxian 1979 Namco(Japan) /Midway(U.S.) Created to compete withSpace Invaders.The first game to use multi-colored, animated sprites.[134][135]Aliens move in a swooping formation and attack by dive bombing the player's ship.
Lunar Lander 1979 Atari Arcade version of an earlier minicomputer game concept. First Atari coin-op to use vector graphics.
Asteroids 1979 Atari Atari's most successful coin-operated game. It is one of the first to allow players to enter their initials for a high score.
Battlezone 1980 Atari Custom cabinet with novel 2-way dual-joystick controls incorporating top-fire button, and periscope-like viewer.[136]Early use of first-person pseudo 3-D vector graphics. It is widely considered the first virtual reality arcade game.[137]Also used as the basis for a military simulator.[138]
Berzerk 1980 Stern Electronics Early use of speech synthesis was also translated into other languages in Europe. Indestructible adversary appears in order to eliminate lingering players. This became an oft-employed device (e.g. Hallmonsters inVenture) to increase challenge and limit play duration of arcade games.
Missile Command 1980 Atari Theme of the game was influenced by theCold Warera.
Pac-Man 1980 Namco(Japan) /Midway(U.S.) One of the most popular and influential games, it had the first gamingmascot,establishedmaze chasegenre, opened gaming to female audiences,[139]and introducedpower-ups[140]andcutscenes.[141]
Phoenix 1980 Amstar Electronics /Centuri(U.S.) /Taito(Japan) One of the first games with aboss battle.
Rally-X 1980 Namco Driving game with overhead, scrolling maze. First game with abonusround,background music,[142]and aradar.[58]When released, was predicted to outsell two other new releases:Pac-ManandDefender.
Star Castle 1980 Cinematronics The colors of the rings and screen are provided by a transparent plastic screen overlay.
Wizard of Wor 1980 Midway Allowed two-player competitive or cooperative fighting of monsters in maze-like dungeons.
Centipede 1981 Atari Co-created by programmerDona Bailey.
Defender 1981 Williams Electronics Horizontal scrolling space shooting game that was praised for its audio-visuals and gameplay. Was predicted to be outsold byRally-X,butDefendertrounced it, going on to sell 60,000 units.
Tempest 1981 Atari One of the first games to use a color vector display.
Donkey Kong 1981 Nintendo Laid foundations forplatform gamegenre as well as visual storytelling in video games,[89]and introduced a carpenter protagonist named Jumpman, a character who evolved into Nintendo's mascot,Mario,in subsequent games.
Frogger 1981 Konami(Japan) /Sega-Gremlin(North America) Novel gameplay notable for being free of fighting and shooting.
Scramble 1981 Konami(Japan) /Stern(North America) Firstscrolling shootergame, featuring forced horizontal scrolling motion.
Galaga 1981 Namco(Japan) /Midway(North America) Space shooting game that leapfrogged its predecessor,Galaxian,in popularity.
Gorf 1981 Midway Multiple-mission fixed shooter game. Some of the levels were clones of other popular games. Notable for featuring robotic synthesized speech.
Qix 1981 Taito The objective is to fence off a supermajority of the play area. Unique gameplay that didn't have shooting, racing, or mazes.
Vanguard 1981 SNK(Japan) /Centuri(US) Early scrolling shooter that scrolls in multiple directions, and allows shooting in four directions,[143][144]using four direction buttons, similar to dual-stick controls.[145]Along withFantasy,Super CobraandBosconian,is significant as being among the first video games with a continue screen.[146]
BurgerTime 1982 Data East(Japan) /Bally Midway(US) Platform game where the protagonist builds hamburgers while being pursued by food. Original title changed fromHamburgerwhen brought to the U.S. from Japan.
Dig Dug 1982 Namco(Japan) /Atari(North America) Novel gameplay where underground adversaries were defeated by inflating them or dropping rocks on them. Rated the sixth most popular coin-operated video game of all time.[147]
Donkey Kong Jr. 1982 Nintendo Jumpman was renamed Mario in this sequel. This was the only time Nintendo's mascot was featured as an antagonist in any of their games.
Front Line 1982 Taito One of the first of many 1980s games with commando-style infantry ground combat (guns, grenades and tanks) as the theme.
Joust 1982 Williams Electronics Allowed two-player cooperative or competitive play.
Jungle King 1982 Taito An earlyside-scrolling(and diagonal-scrolling) platformer with vine-swinging mechanics, run & jump sequences, climbing hills, and swimming. Almost immediately re-released asJungle Huntdue to a lawsuit from theEdgar Rice Burroughsestate claiming character copyright infringement on the character ofTarzan.This version changed the Tarzan character to apith helmet-wearing white explorer.[148]
Kangaroo 1982 Sunsoft(Japan) /Atari(US) Unusual for a platform game, there is no jump button. Instead, the player pushes up—or up and diagonally—to jump.
Moon Patrol 1982 Irem(Japan) /Williams Electronics(U.S.) Along withJungle Hunt,one of the first arcade games withparallax scrolling.[149]
Ms. Pac-Man 1982 Midway(North America) /Namco One of the most popular of all time, this game was created from abootleggedhackofPac-Man.It has four different mazes and moving bonus fruit.
Pengo 1982 Sega Amaze gameset in an environment full of ice blocks, which can be used by the player's penguin, who can slide them to attack enemies.[150]
Pole Position 1982 Namco(Japan) /Atari(U.S.) After Sega'sTurborevolutionized sprite scaling with their third-person cockpit racer, Namco brought 16-bit graphics to the arcade, dropped the player's perspective closer to being directly behind the car, and added dramatic curves to the track. The game also incorporated product placements for companies (including licensee Atari) on passing billboards.
Popeye 1982 Nintendo Nintendo used higher resolution foreground sprites displayed over lower resolution backgrounds,[151]achieving comparable visuals to many games in the Midway Card Rack (MCR) system.[152]This display method was previously used on Nintendo'sSky Skipper,from which manyPopeyecabinets were converted.Donkey Kongwas originally intended to be made with Popeye characters, but at the time, Nintendo was unsuccessful at securing the licensing fromKing Features Syndicate.[153]
Q*bert 1982 Gottlieb Became one of the most merchandised arcade games behindPac-ManandDonkey Kong.[154][155]
Robotron 2084 1982 Williams Electronics Popularized the dual joystick control scheme.
Gravitar 1982 Atari Not popular in the arcades due to its difficulty, but the gameplay inspired many clones likeThrustandOids.
Time Pilot 1982 Konami(Japan) /Centuri(U.S.) Time travel themedaerial combat gamewithfree-roaminggameplayin open air space that scrolls indefinitely in all directions, with player's plane always remaining centered.[156][157][158]
Tron 1982 Bally Midway Earned more than the film it was based on.[159]Gameplay consists of four subgames.
Xevious 1982 Namco(Japan) /Atari(U.S.) The first arcade video game to have a TV commercial.[160]It was also responsible for popularizing verticalscrolling shooters.[81]
Zaxxon 1982 Sega First game to employisometric axonometric projection,which the game was named after.
Crystal Castles 1983 Atari Among the first arcade games which do not loop back to earlier stages as the player progresses, but instead offers a defined ending.[161]
Champion Baseball 1983 Sega Asports video gamethat became a major arcade success in Japan, with Sega comparing its success there to that ofSpace Invaders.[162]It was a departure from the "space games"and"cartoon games"that had previously dominated the arcades,[162]and went on to serve as the prototype for laterbaseball video games.[163][164]
Dragon's Lair 1983 Cinematronics(U.S.) /Atari(Europe) / Sidam (Italy) An earlylaserdisc video game,which allowed film-quality animation. The first arcade video game in the United States to charge two quarters per play.[165]It was also the first video game to employ what became known as thequick time event.This game is one of three arcade games that are part of the Smithsonian's permanent collection, along withPac-ManandPong.
Elevator Action 1983 Taito Anaction gamethat is a mix of platformer, puzzle and shooter genres.
Gyruss 1983 Konami(Japan) /Centuri(U.S.) Often remembered for its musical score that plays throughout the game,Bach's "Toccata and Fugue in D minor".[166]
Mappy 1983 Namco(Japan) /Bally Midway(U.S.) Side-scrolling platform game
Mario Bros. 1983 Nintendo A game featuring simultaneous play with Mario and his brotherLuigias Italian-American plumbers in pest-inhabited sewers. Introduced Luigi for the first time, while also establishing he and Mario as plumbers.
Sinistar 1983 Williams Electronics First game to use stereo sound. It was also the first to use the 49-way, custom-designed optical joystick that Williams had produced specifically for this game. Notable for appearance of menacing villain.
Spy Hunter 1983 Bally Midway Overhead view, vehicular combat game that is memorable for its music, "The Peter Gunn Theme",that plays throughout the game.
Star Trek: Strategic Operations Simulator 1983 Sega Space combat simfeaturing five different controls, six different enemies, and 40 differentsimulationlevels. Features voice of Spock and Scotty. One of the most elaboratevector gamesreleased.[167]
Star Wars 1983 Atari Uses several digitized samples of actors' voices from the film.
Tapper 1983 Bally Midway Originally aligned with American beerBudweiser,was revamped asRoot Beer Tapper,so as not to be construed as attempting to peddle alcohol to minors.
Track & Field 1983 Konami(Japan) /Centuri(North America) The first arcadeOlympic sports video game.It helped popularize arcade sports games, which began being produced at levels not seen since the days ofPongand its clones a decade earlier.[168]
1942 1984 Capcom Capcom's first arcade hit. Features Pacific War air combat. Standardized the template for aerial shoot 'em ups featuring vertical scrolling.
Karate Champ 1984 Technōs Japan/Data East(US) The first popular player vs. player fighting game for arcades.[169]Initially released as a dual joystick game with alternating play. The subsequent Player vs. Player version featured four 4-way joysticks.
Kung-Fu Master 1984 Irem(Japan) /Data East(US) The first side-scrolling beat-em-up arcade game.[170]
Punch-Out!! 1984 Nintendo A boxingfighting gamefeaturing digitized voices, dual monitors, and a third-person perspective.
Paperboy 1985 Atari Novel controls and high resolution display.

List of best-selling arcade games[edit]

Further information:List of highest-grossing arcade games

For arcade games, success was usually judged by either the number ofarcade hardwareunits sold to operators, or the amount of revenue generated, from the number of coins (such asquartersor100 yen coins) inserted into machines,[171]and/or the hardware sales (with arcade hardware prices often ranging from $1000 to $4000). This list only includes arcade games that have sold more than 10,000 hardware units.

Decline and aftermath[edit]

Main article:History of arcade video games
See also:Video game crash of 1983

The golden age cooled around the mid-1980s as copies of popular games began to saturate the arcades. Arcade video game revenues in the United States had declined from $8 billion in 1981 to $5 billion in 1983,[187]reaching a low of $4 billion in 1984.[188][189]The arcade market had recovered by 1986, with the help of software conversion kits, the arrival of popularbeat 'em upgames (such asKung-Fu MasterandRenegade), and advancedmotion simulatorgames (such as Sega's "taikan" games includingHang-On,Space Harrier,Out RunandAfter Burner).[188]

Arcades remained commonplace through to the 1990s as there were still new genres being explored. In 1987, arcades experienced a short resurgence withDouble Dragon,which started the golden age ofbeat 'em upgames, agenrethat peaked in popularity withFinal Fighttwo years later.[190]In 1988, arcade game revenues in the United States rose back to $6.4 billion, largely due to the rising popularity ofviolentaction gamesin the beat 'em up andrun and gunshootergenres.[189]However, the growth of home video game systems such as theNintendo Entertainment Systemled to another brief arcade decline toward the end of the 1980s.[188][190][191]In the early 1990s, theGenesis(Mega Drive outside most of North America) andSuper NES(Super Famicom in Japan) greatly improved home play and some of their technology was even integrated into a few video arcade machines.

In the early 1990s, the release ofCapcom'sStreet Fighter IIestablished the modern style offighting gamesand led to a number of similar games, resulting in a renaissance for the arcades.[192][193]Another factor was realism,[194]including the "3D Revolution" from2Dandpseudo-3Dgraphics to truereal-time3D polygon graphics.[87][190]This was largely driven by a technologicalarms racebetweenSegaandNamco.[195]

By the early 2000s, the sales of arcade machines in North America had declined, with 4,000 unit sales being considered a hit by the time.[196]One of the causes of decline was new generations ofvideo game consolesandpersonal computersthat sapped interest from arcades.

Since the 2000s, arcade games have taken different routes globally. In the United States, arcades have become niche markets as they compete with the home console market, and they adapted other business models, such as providing other entertainment options or adding prize redemptions.[197]In Japan, some arcades continue to survive in the early 21st century, with games likeDance Dance RevolutionandThe House of the Deadtailored to experiences that players cannot easily have at home.[198]

Legacy[edit]

The Golden Age of Video Arcade Games spawned numerous cultural icons and even gave some companies their identity. Elements from games such asSpace Invaders,Pac-Man,Donkey Kong,Frogger,andCentipedeare still recognized in today's popular culture, and new entries in the franchises for some golden age games continued to be released decades later.

Pac-ManandDragon's LairjoinedPongfor permanent display at theSmithsonianin Washington, D.C. for their cultural impact in the United States. No other video game has been inducted since.[199]

Emulatorssuch as theInternet ArchiveVirtual Arcade are able to run these classic games inside a web browser window on a modern computer.[200]Computers have gotten faster perMoore's Law.JavaScriptemulators can now run copies of the original console ROMs without porting the code to the new systems.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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  12. ^abcMark J. P. Wolf (2001),The medium of the video game,University of Texas Press,p. 44,ISBN0-292-79150-X,going into virtually every location in the country [..] even a few funeral homes had video games in the basements
  13. ^James A. Inciardi; Robert A. Rothman (1990),Sociology: principles and applications(2 ed.),Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,p. 540,ISBN0-15-582290-X,To cash in on the Pac-Man video mania, game developers also introducedAsteroids,Frogger,Donkey Kong,Tron,and hundreds more. By 1982, arcade games had become a multi-billion dollar industry. In that year alone, almost 500,000 machines were sold at prices ranging as high as $3000 each.
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  18. ^abMark J. P. Wolf (2008),The Video Game Explosion: A History from PONG to PlayStation and Beyond,ABC-CLIO,p. 103,ISBN978-0-313-33868-7
  19. ^James W. Chesebro; Donald G. Bonsall (1989),Computer-mediated communication: human relationships in a computerized world,University of Alabama Press,p. 130,ISBN0-8173-0460-6,In 1981, $10.5 billion was spent on all features of video games, 3 times the amount spent on movie tickets that year (Surrey, 1982, p. 74).
  20. ^abEdward S. Roschild (June 21, 1982),"Videodisks, microcomputers form integrated systems",InfoWorld,vol. 4, no. 24, InfoWorld Media Group, p. 16,ISSN0199-6649,retrievedFebruary 25,2012,The figure of more than $7 billion for last year's video arcade game revenues is a conservative one. Some industry analysts estimate that the real amount spent on video games was as much as five times higher.
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Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]

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