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Settler colonialism

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Graphic depicting theloss of Native American land to U.S. settlersin the 19th century

Settler colonialismis a logic and structure of displacement bysettlers,usingcolonial rule,over an environment for replacing it and itsindigenous peopleswith settlements and the society of the settlers.[1][2][3][4]

Settler colonialism is a form ofexogenous(of external origin, coming from the outside) domination typically organized or supported by animperial authority,which maintains a connection or control to the territory through the settler's colonialism.[5]Settler colonialism contrasts withexploitation colonialism,where the imperial powerconquers territoryto exploit thenatural resourcesand gain a source of cheap or freelabor.As settler colonialism entails the creation of a new society on the conquered territory, it lasts indefinitely unlessdecolonisationoccurs through departure of the settler population or through reforms to colonial structures, settler-indigenous compacts and reconciliation processes.[a][6]

Settler colonial studies has often focused on formerBritish colonies in North America,AustraliaandNew Zealand,which are close to the complete, prototypical form of settler colonialism.[7]However, settler colonialism is not restricted to any specific culture and has been practised by non-Europeans.[2]

Origins as a theory

During the 1960s, settlement and colonization were perceived as separate phenomena fromcolonialism.Settlement endeavours were seen as taking place in empty areas, downplaying the Indigenous inhabitants. Later on in the 1970s and 1980s, settler colonialism was seen as bringing high living standards in contrast to the failed political systems associated with classical colonialism. Beginning in the mid-1990s, the field of settler colonial studies was established[8][page needed]distinct but connected toIndigenous studies.[9]Although often credited with originating the field, Australian historianPatrick Wolfestated that "I didn't invent Settler Colonial Studies. Natives have been experts in the field for centuries."[10]Additionally, Wolfe's work was preceded by others that have been influential in the field, such asFayez Sayegh'sZionist Colonialism in PalestineandSettler CapitalismbyDonald Denoon.[10][8][page needed]

Definition and concept

Settler colonialism is a logic and structure, and not a mere occurrence. Settler colonialism takes claim of environments for replacing existing conditions and members of that environment with those of the settlement and settlers. Intrinsically connected to this is the displacement or elimination of existing residents, particularly through destruction of their environment and society.[1][2][3][4]As such, settler colonialism has been identified as a form ofenvironmental racism.[11]

Some scholars describe the process as inherentlygenocidal,considering settler colonialism to entail the elimination of existing peoples and cultures,[12]and not only their displacement (seegenocide,"the intentional destruction of a people in whole or in part" ).[citation needed]However, the opposite argument has also been made byLorenzo Veracini,who argues that all genocide is settler colonial in nature.[13]

Depending on the definition, it may be enacted by a variety of means, including mass killing of the previous inhabitants, removal of the previous inhabitants and/orcultural assimilation.[14]

Therefore, colonial settling has been called an invasion or occupation, emphazising the violent reality of colonization and its settling, instead of the more domestic meaning of settling.[15]

Settler colonialism is distinct from migration because immigrants aim to join an existing society, not replace it.[16][17]Mahmood Mamdaniwrites, "Immigrants are unarmed; settlers come armed with both weapons and a nationalist agenda. Immigrants come in search of a homeland, not a state; for settlers, there can be no homeland without a state."[17]Nevertheless, the difference is often elided by settlers who minimize the voluntariness of their departure, claiming that settlers are mere migrants, and some pro-indigenous positions which militantly simplify, claiming that all migrants are settlers.[18]

Thesettler stateis a state established through settler colonialism, by and for settlers.[19]

Examples

Areas of colonial settlement in 1914 (without independent settler states).

The settler colonial paradigm has been applied to a wide variety of conflicts around the world, includingNew Caledonia,[20]Western New Guinea,[21]theAndaman Islands,Argentina,[22]Australia,British Kenya,theCanary Islands,[23]Fiji,French Algeria,[24]Generalplan Ost,Hawaii,[25]Hokkaido,Ireland,[26]Israel/Palestine,Italian LibyaandEast Africa,[27][28]Kashmir,[29][30]KoreaandManchukuo,[31][32]Latin America,Liberia,New Zealand,northern Afghanistan,[33][34][35][36]North America,PosenandWest PrussiaandGerman South West Africa,[37]Rhodesia,Sápmi,[38][8][page needed][39][40]South Africa,South Vietnam,[41][42][43]andTaiwan.[7][44]

Africa

See also:White Africans of European ancestryandFrench conquest of Algeria
Areas of Africa controlled byWestern Europeancolonial empires in 1913, shown with current national boundaries
Belgium
France
Germany
Italy
Portugal
Spain
United Kingdom
Independent
Geographic distribution of Europeans and their descendants on the African continent in 1962.[45]
Under 1,000
Over 1,000
Over 10,000
Over 50,000
Over 100,000

Canary Islands

Further information:Conquest of the Canary Islands

During the fifteenth century, theKingdom of Castilesponsored expeditions byconquistadorsto subjugate under Castilian rule theMacaronesianarchipelago of the Canary Islands, located off the coast ofMoroccoand inhabited by the IndigenousGuanchepeople. Beginning with the start of the conquest of the island ofLanzaroteon 1 May 1402 and ending with the surrender of the last Guanche resistance onTenerifeon 29 September 1496 to the now-unifiedSpanish crown,the archipelago was subject to a settler colonial process involving systematic enslavement, mass murder, and deportation of the Guanches, who were replaced with Spanish settlers, in a process foreshadowing the Iberian colonisation of the Americas that followed shortly thereafter. Also like in the Americas, Spanish colonialists in the Canaries quickly turned to the importation of slaves from mainland Africa as a source of labour due to the decimation of the already small Guanche population by a combination of war, disease, and brutal forced labour. HistorianMohamed Adhikarihas labelled the conquest of the Canary Islands as the first overseas European settler colonial genocide.[23][38]

Moroccan-occupied Western Sahara

Marches of 7 November (in green) and military action of 31 October (in red) during theGreen Marchin 1975

Since 1975, theKingdom of Moroccohas sponsored settlement schemes that have encouraged several thousand Moroccan citizens to settleMoroccan-occupiedWestern Saharaas part of theWestern Sahara conflict.On 6 November 1975, theGreen Marchtook place, during which about 350,000 Moroccan citizens crossed intoSaguia al-Hamrain the formerSpanish Saharaafter having received a signal from King Hassan II.[46]As of 2015, it is estimated thatMoroccan settlersconstitute two-thirds of the population of Western Sahara.[47]

Under international law, the transfer of Moroccan citizens into the occupied territory constitutes a direct violation ofArticle 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention(cf.Turkish settlers in Northern CyprusandIsraeli settlers in the Palestinian territories).[48]

South Africa

Main article:Free Burghers in the Dutch Cape Colony
Boerfamily traveling by covered wagon circa 1900

In 1652, the arrival of Europeans sparked the beginning of settler colonialism in South Africa. TheDutch East India Companywas set up at the Cape, and imported large numbers of slaves from Africa and Asia during the mid-seventeenth century.[49]The Dutch East India Company established a refreshment station for ships sailing between Europe and the east. The initial plan by Dutch East India Company officerJan van Riebeeckwas to maintain a small community around the new fort, but the community continued to spread and settle further than originally planned.[50]There was a historic struggle to achieve the intended British sovereignty that was achieved in other parts of theCommonwealth.State sovereignty belonged to theUnion of South Africa(1910–1961), followed by theRepublic of South Africa(1961–1994) and finally the modern dayRepublic of South Africa(1994–present day).[49]

In 1948, the policy ofApartheidwas introduced South Africa in order to segregate the races and ensure the domination of theAfrikanerminority over non-whites, politically, socially and economically.[51]As of 2014, the South African government has re-opened the period for land claims under the Restitution of Land Rights Amendment Act.[52]

Liberia

Liberia is often regarded by scholars as a unique example of settler colonialism and the only known instance of Black settler colonialism.[53]It is frequently described as anAfrican Americansettler colony tasked with establishing aWesternform of governance in Africa.[54]

Liberia was founded as the privatecolony of Liberiain 1822 by theAmerican Colonization Society,aWhite American-run organization, to relocate free African Americans to Africa, as part of theBack-to-Africa movement.[55]This settlement scheme stemmed from fears that free African Americans would assist slaves in escaping, as well as the widespread belief among White Americans that African Americans were inherently inferior and should thus be relocated.[56]U.S. presidentsThomas JeffersonandJames Madisonpublicly endorsed and funded the project.[55]Between 1822 and the early 20th century, around 15,000 African Americans colonized Liberia on lands acquired from the region's indigenous African population. The African American elite monopolized the government and establishedminority ruleover the locals. As they possessedWestern culture,they felt superior to the natives, whom they dominated and oppressed.[57]Indigenous revolts against theAmerico-Liberianelite such as the Grebo Revolt in 1909–1910 and Kru Revolt in 1915 were quelled with U.S. military support.[53][58]

North America

Canada

Main article:Settler colonialism in Canada
Further information:Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples
TheNumbered Treatiessigned between 1871–1921 transferred large tracts of land from theFirst Nationsto Canada in return for different promises laid out in each treaty.

Attempts to assimilate the Indigenous peoples of what it is now Canada were rooted inimperial colonialismcentred around Europeanworldviewsand cultural practices, and a concept of land ownership based on thediscovery doctrine.[59]Original assimilation efforts were religiously-oriented beginning in the 17th century with the arrival of FrenchmissionariesinNew France.[60]Although not without conflict,European Canadians' early interactions withFirst NationsandInuitpopulations were relatively peaceful.[61]First Nations andMétispeoples (of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry) played a critical part in the development ofEuropean colonies in Canada,particularly for their role in assisting Europeancoureur des boisandvoyageursin their explorations of the continent during theNorth American fur trade.[62]

The early European interactions with First Nations would change fromfriendship and peace treatiestodispossession of lands through treatiesand displacement legislation such as theGradual Civilization Act,[63]theIndian Act,[64]thePotlatch ban,[65]and thepass system,[66]that focused on European ideals of Christianity, sedentary living, agriculture, and education.[67]

Indigenous groups in Canada continue to suffer fromracially motivated discrimination,despite living in one of the most progressive countries in the world.[68]Discriminatory practices such ascriminal justice inequity,police brutality,high incarnation rates,andhigh rates of violence against Indigenous womenhave been subject to legal and political review.[69]

United States

Main article:Manifest destiny
Further information:Native American genocide in the United States
U.S. westward expansionin the 19th century
"Indian Land For Sale" by the U.S. Department of the Interior (1911)

Incolonial America,European powerscreated economic dependency and imbalance of trade, incorporating Indigenous nations into spheres of influence and controlling them indirectly with the use of Christian missionaries and alcohol.[70]With the emergence of an independent United States, desire for land and the perceived threat of permanent Indigenous political and spatial structures led to violent relocation of many Indigenous tribes to the American West, in what is known as theTrail of Tears.[14]

In response to American encroachment on native land in the Great Lakes region, thePan-Indianconfederacies of theNorthwest ConfederacyandTecumseh's Confederacyemerged. Despite initial victories in both cases, such asSt. Clair's defeator thesiege of Detroit,both eventually lost, thereby paving the way for American control over the region. Settlement into conquered land was rapid. Following the 1795Treaty of Greenville,American settlers poured into southern Ohio, such that by 1810 it had a population of 230,760.[71]The defeat of the confederacies in the Great Lakes paved the way for large land loss in the region, via treaties such as theTreaty of Saginawwhich saw the loss of more than 4,000,000 acres of land.[72]

Frederick Jackson Turner, the father of the "frontier thesis" of American history, noted in 1901: "Our colonial system did not start with Spanish War; the U.S. had had a colonial history from the beginning...hidden under the phraseology of 'interstate migration' and territorial organization'".[70]While the United States government and local state governments directly aided this dispossession through theuse of military forces,ultimately this came about through agitation by settler society in order to gain access to Indigenous land. Especially in the US South, such land acquisition built plantation society and expanded the practice of slavery.[14]Settler colonialism participated in the formation of US cultures and lasted past the conquest, removal, or extermination of Indigenous people.[73][page needed]In 1928,Adolf Hitlerspoke admiringly of the impact of white settler colonialism on the Natives, stating the US had "gunned down the millions of Redskins to a few hundred thousand, and now keep the modest remnant under observation in a cage".[74]The practice of writing the Indigenous out of history perpetrated a forgetting of the full dimensions and significance of colonialism at both the national and local levels.[70]

Asia

China

Further information:Migration to Xinjiang,Sinicization of Tibet,andSouthward expansion of the Han dynasty
The expansion of theQing dynastyof China

Near the end of their rule theQing dynastyattempted to colonizeXinjiang,Tibet,and other parts of the imperial frontier. To accomplish this goal, they began a policy of settler colonialism by whichHan Chinesewere resettled on the frontier.[75]This policy was renewed by the People's Republic of China, led byChinese Communist Party.[76][77]


Israel

Scholars of settler colonialism generally see theZionist movementinPalestineas the archetype of the definition.[78]Map ofIsraeli settlements(magenta) in the occupiedWest Bankin 2020. The Australian historianPatrick Wolfe,credited with originating the field, famously definedIsraelas theforemost example of a settler colonialist statetoday.[78][14][10]However, this notion has also received significant criticism.[79]
Main article:Palestinian genocide accusation

Zionismhas been characterized by some scholars as a form of settler colonialism concerningregion of Palestineand theIsraeli–Palestinian conflict.This academic framework has also been embraced by leftist groups and individuals involved inanti-Israelactivism and campus protests.[80][81][82]However, this viewpoint faces substantial criticism from scholars and is largely rejected by many Jews due to its perceived denial of thehistorical Jewish connection to Palestine,among other reasons.[79][80][81]

Many of the founding fathers ofZionismthemselves described the project as colonization, such asVladimir Jabotinsky,who said "Zionism is a colonization adventure."[83][84]Founder of theWorld Zionist Organization,Theodor Herzl,described the Zionist project as "something colonial" in a letter toCecil Rhodesin 1902.[85]

In 1967, the French historianMaxime Rodinsonwrote an article later translated and published in English asIsrael: A Colonial Settler-State?[86]Lorenzo VeracinidescribesIsraelas a colonial state and writes that Jewish settlers could expel the British in 1948 only because they had their own colonial relationships inside and outside Israel's new borders.[87]Veracini believes the possibility of an Israeli disengagement is always latent and this relationship could be severed, through an "accommodation of a Palestinian Israeli autonomy within the institutions of the Israeli state".[88][page needed]Other commentators, such asDaiva Stasiulis,Nira Yuval-Davis,[89]andJoseph Massadin the "Post Colonial Colony: time, space and bodies in Palestine/Israel in the persistence of the Palestinian Question"[90]have included Israel in their global analysis of settler societies.Ilan PappédescribesZionismand Israel in similar terms.[91][92]Scholar Amal Jamal, fromTel Aviv University,has stated, "Israel was created by a settler-colonial movement of Jewish immigrants".[93]Damien Short has accused Israel ofcarrying out genocideagainstPalestiniansduring theIsraeli–Palestinian conflictsince its inception within asettler colonialcontext.[94]

Writing in the 1990s, the Australian historianPatrick Wolfeis credited with originating the field.[10]He theorized settler colonialism as a structure (rather than an event) premised on the elimination rather than exploitation of the native population, thus distinguishing it from classical colonialism. Wolfe argued that settler colonialism was centered on the control of land, that it continued after the closing of the frontier, and that continued to exist today, classifyingIsrael as a modern form of settler colonialism.[14]His approach was defining for the field, but has been challenged by other scholars on the basis that many situations involve a combination of elimination and exploitation.[7]

Critics of the paradigm argue that Zionism does not fit the traditional framework of colonialism.S. Ilan Troenviews Zionism as the return of an indigenous population to its historic homeland, distinct from imperial expansion.[95]Most Jews oppose the paradigm, saying it denies theirhistorical connection to the landand aspirations forself-determination.[95][80][better source needed]Moses Lissak asserted that the settler-colonial thesis denies the idea that Zionism is the modernnational movementof theJewish people,seeking to reestablish a Jewish political entity in their historical territory. Zionism, Lissak argues, was both a national movement and a settlement movement at the same time, so it was not, by definition, a colonial settlement movement.[96]

Russia and the Soviet Union

Main articles:Circassian genocide,Ethnic Russians in post-Soviet states,andPopulation transfer in the Soviet Union
Expansion of Russia 1500–1900

Some scholars describe Russia as a settler colonial state, particularly in its expansion intoSiberiaand theRussian Far East,during which it displaced and resettled Indigenous peoples, while practicing settler colonialism.[97][98][99]The annexation ofSiberiaand the Far East to Russia was resisted by theIndigenous peoples,while theCossacksoften committed atrocities against them.[100]During the Cold War, new forms of Indigenous repression were practiced.[101]

This colonization continued even during theSoviet Unionin the 20th century.[102][page needed]The Soviet policy also sometimes included the deportation of the native population, as in the case of theCrimean Tatars.[103]

Taiwan

Further information:Taiwanese indigenous peoples

According to a PhD thesis by Lin-chin Tsai, currentethnic makeup of Taiwanis largely the result ofChinese settlercolonialism beginning in the seventeenth century.[104]

Australia

Main article:Settler colonialism in Australia
See also:List of massacres of Indigenous Australians
Australians of European origin from 1947 to 1966 when racial data was collected.

Europeans explored and settled Australia, displacingAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.TheIndigenous Australianpopulation was estimated at 795,000 at the time of European settlement.[105]Thepopulation declined steeplyfor 150 years following settlement from 1788, due to casualties frominfectious disease,theAustralian frontier warsand forced re-settlement and cultural disintegration.[106][107]

Responses

Settler colonialism exists in tension withindigenous studies.Some indigenous scholars believe that settler colonialism as a methodology can lead to overlooking indigenous responses to colonialism; however, other practitioners of indigenous studies believe that settler colonialism has important insights that are applicable to their work.[10]Settler colonialism as a theory has also been criticized from the standpoint ofpostcolonial theory.[10]Antiracismhas been criticized on the basis that it does not provide a special status for indigenous claims, and in response settler colonial theory has been criticized for potentially contributing to the marginalization of racialized immigrants.[108]

Political theoristMahmoud Mamdanisuggested that settlers could never succeed in their effort to become native, and therefore the only way to end settler colonialism was to erase the political significance of the settler–native dichotomy.[7]

According toChickasawscholar Jodi Byrd, in contrast to settler, the termarrivantrefers to enslaved Africans transported against their will, and to refugees forced into the Americas due to the effects of imperialism.[109]

In his bookEmpire of the People: Settler Colonialism and the Foundations of Modern Democratic Thought,political scientist Adam Dahl states that while it has often been recognized that "American democratic thought and identity arose out of the distinct pattern by which English settlers colonized the new world", histories are missing the "constitutive role of colonial dispossession in shaping democratic values and ideals".[110]

See also

Notes

  1. ^Example reconciliation programmes include:Reconciliation in Australia,andtruth and reconciliation commissionsinCanada,NorwayandSouth Africa.

References

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Works cited

Further reading

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