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Ultranationalism

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"Ultranationalist" redirects here. For the fictional "Ultranationalists" faction from the Call of Duty video game series, seeCall of Duty § Modern Warfare series.

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Ultranationalismorextreme nationalismis anextreme formofnationalismin which a country asserts or maintains detrimentalhegemony,supremacy,or other forms of control over other nations (usually through violentcoercion) to pursue itsspecific interests.[1][2][3]Ultranationalist entities have been associated with the engagement ofpolitical violenceeven during peacetime.[4]The belief system has also been cited as the inspiration for acts oforganized mass murderin the context of international conflicts, with theCambodian genocidebeing cited as an example.[5]

Inideologicalterms, scholars such as the Britishpolitical theoristRoger Griffinhave found that ultranationalism arises from seeingmodernnation-statesas livingorganismswhich are directly akin tophysical peoplebecause they can decay, grow, and die, and additionally, they can experiencerebirth.In starkmythologicalways,politicalcampaigners have divided societies into those societies which are perceived as being degenerately inferior and those societies which are perceived as having greatculturaldestinies. Ultranationalism has been an aspect offascism,with historic governments such as the regimes ofFascist ItalyandNazi Germanybuilding on ultranationalist foundations by using specific plans for supposed widespread national renewal.[3]

Ultranationalistcharactershave served asvillainsin multiple works of fictional media with popular acclaim as well. Examples include thedramatic productionsAir Force OneandIncitement,both beingaction films.[6][7]

Background concepts and broader context

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Monarchist ultranationalists within theBlack Hundredsmovement marched inOdesa,then inside of Russia, after theOctober Manifestocame out in 1905.
Italianfar-rightfigureBenito Mussolini(left) greatly influencedOswald Mosley(right) and contributed to the evolution of his ultranationalist faction called theBritish Union of Fascists,with them appearing together on this occasion inItalyitself.

Britishpolitical theoristRoger Griffinhas stated that ultranationalism is essentially founded onxenophobiain a way that finds supposed legitimacy "through deeply mythicized narratives of past cultural or political periods of historical greatness or of old scores to settle against alleged enemies". It can also draw on "vulgarized forms" of different aspects ofthe natural sciencessuch asanthropologyandgenetics,eugenicsspecifically playing a role, in order "to rationalize ideas of national superiority and destiny, of degeneracy andsubhumanness"in Griffin's opinion. Ultranationalists view themodernnation-stateas, according to Griffin, a livingorganismdirectly akin to aphysical personsuch that it can decay, grow, die, and additionally experiencerebirth.He has highlightedNazi Germanyas a regime which was founded on ultranationalism.[3]

Ultranationalistactivismcan adopt varying attitudes towardshistorical traditionswithin the populace. For instance, theBritish Union of Fascistsinside theUnited Kingdomadopted asecularist-mindedplatform centered on perceivedtechnological progress.In contrast, theIron GuardinsideRomaniautilized a hardline form ofmysticism-driven religionto encouragedeterminationamong the nation's ultranationalists. Nonetheless, obsessive views onethnicityand other divisions as well as connectingpoliticsto motifs ofsacrificegenerally constitute thepsychologicalframework behind these movements.[3]

According toAmericanscholarJanusz Bugajski,summing up the doctrine in practical terms, "in its most extreme or developed forms, ultra-nationalism resemblesfascism,marked by a xenophobic disdain of other nations, support forauthoritarianpolitical arrangements verging ontotalitarianism,and a mythical emphasis on the 'organic unity' between a charismatic leader, an organizationally amorphous movement-type party, and the nation ". Bugajski believes thatcivic nationalismand the related concept ofpatriotismboth can contain significantly positive elements, contributing to thecommon social goodat times such as during national calamities. These doctrines stand in contrast, in his opinion, to the extreme approach of certain ideologies with moreirrational actions.[8]

Historical movements and analysis

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In1930s and 1940s era ultranationalist Japan,the state routinely distributedpolitical propaganda preaching the virtues of domination and expansion,with this photograph showing efforts inManchukuo.

AmericanhistorianWalter Skya has written inJapan's Holy War: The Ideology of Radical Shinto Ultranationalismthat ultranationalism inJapandrew upon traditionalShintospiritual beliefs andmilitaristicattitudes regarding the nation'sracial identity.By the early twentieth century,fanaticismarising from this combination ofethnic nationalismandreligious nationalismcaused opposition todemocratic governanceand support for Japanese territorial expansion. Skya particularly noted in his work the connection between ultranationalism andpolitical violenceby citing how, between 1921 and 1936, three serving and two formerPrime Ministers of Japanwereassassinated.Thetotalitarian Japanese government of the 1930s and 1940sdid not just rely on encouragement by thecountry's military.It additionally received widespread popular support.[4]

TheCambodianhistorian Sambo Manara has found that the belief system sets forth a vision ofsupremacismin terms ofinternational relationswherebyxenophobiaorhatredof foreigners to the point ofextremismleads to policies of social separation and segregation. He has argued that theCambodian genocideis a specific example of this ideology when it is applied in practice. "Obviously, it was ultranationalism, combined with the notion ofclass strugglein communism and a group of politicians, which lead to the establishment ofDemocratic Kampuchea,a ruthless regime which claimed approximately three million lives ", he has remarked, with militant leaders finally deciding to" cut all diplomatic and economic ties with almost all countries "due to a" narrow-minded doctrine without taking into account all the losses they would face ". In Manara's opinion," this effectively destroyed the nation. "[5]

The absolute dictatorship of theRomanianleaderNicolae Ceausescuhas also been described as an example ofcommunismtaking an ultranationalist approach byHaaretz.TheIsraelipublication cited theantisemitismof the dictator in terms of actions such as hishistorical denialismofthe Holocaust.Ceausescu also made efforts topurgeRomanians who hadJewishbackgrounds from positions of political authority.[9]

Haaretzhas also labeled theHungarianPrime MinisterViktor Orbanan ultranationalist, due to his views on autocratic rule and racial identity, particularly, Orban's public condemnation of "race-mixing".[9]He has also been called an ultranationalist byNPR,an American news agency, citing his opposition to democratic liberalism.[10]

In late 2015, the Israeli political journalistGideon Levywrote that theIsraeli–Palestinian conflicthas led to the decay of thecivil societywithinIsrael,with an ultranationalist movement that "bases its power on incitement to hatred" using "folkloric religion" gaining ground over decades so that:

"They were the only ones willing to fight for a collective goal. They did not rule out any means. They extorted and exploited the weaknesses of government, the guilt feelings and confusion of the secular camp, and they won. They did so systematically and smartly: First they established the foundation of their existence, the settlement enterprise. After they achieved their goal– the killing off of any diplomatic agreement and destruction of the two-state solution– they were free to turn to their next target: taking control of the public debate in Israel on the road to changing its power structure, character and substance."[11]

TheIron Guard,aRomanianultranationalist movement, centered its mass appeal on communalreligious mysticism,with its militant leaderCorneliu Zelea Codreanubeing photographed amidst his followers inBucharestduring a 1937 event.

Russian irredentism,in which a militantimperial statethat stretches across bothAsiaandEuropewithout regard for current internationalbordersis proposed, has been described as ultranationalism by the U.S. publication theLos Angeles Times,with the aggressive actions ofRussian PresidentVladimir Putinbeing credited as an evolution of political arguments which were made by multiple figures in the past. Examples includeNikolai Berdyaev,Aleksandr Dugin(the author of 1997'sThe Foundations of Geopolitics: The Geopolitical Future of Russia),Lev Gumilyov,andIvan Ilyin.The newspaper highlighted the justifications which were given in support of the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine,quoting Putin's declaration that he must militarily combat an "empire of lies" which was created by the U.S. in order to justify its desire to suffocate Russia.[12]

In a 2021 story, the business-centered publicationBloomberg Newsstated that the rise of ultranationalist viewpoints inChina,particularly in terms of those who advocate extremism onsocial media,presents a direct challenge to the current government of the nation, withGeneral SecretaryXi Jinpingfacing opposition to his attempts to set forthclimate changebasedeconomicreforms in relation togreenhouse gases.Chinese political activists have asserted, according to the publication, aconspiracy theorythat said that the reforms represent some kind of capitulation to foreign interests at the expense of individualChinese people.Environmentalist policieshave come into being in a complex fashion inside China, facing complicated opinions among many.[13]

Under the rule ofMohammed bin Salman,who formally serves as aCrown Prince,Saudi Arabiahas been described by multiple analysts as embracing ultranationalism in a shift away from the government's previous reliance onIslamist political arguments.[14][15][16]For instance, the news agencyFrance 24stated in a 2019 report that while "promoting ultra-nationalism" the Crown Prince "has introduced glitzy concerts, magic shows and sporting extravaganzas with thumping after parties."[16]A 2019 article by theFinancial Timeslikewise described the ideological shift as "a wave" that the leader had "swept across the kingdom".[15]

Ultranationalist political parties

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Currently represented in national governments or legislatures

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The followingpolitical partieshave been characterised as ultranationalist.

The following political parties have been described as having ultranationalist factions.

Represented parties with former ultranationalist tendencies or factions

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The following political parties historically had ultranationalist tendencies.

The following political parties have historically been described as having ultranationalist factions.

Formerly represented in national governments or legislatures

[edit]

Ultranationalist organizations

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Ultranationalist terrorism

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Main article:Nationalist terrorism
A group ofbicycle infantrymilitants that fought in theLiberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam(LTTE) travel just north ofKilinochchiinside ofSri Lankain June 2004.

Arising out of stridentSri Lankan Tamil nationalism,with differing ethnic and religious groups placed at odds, the militant faction known as theLiberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam(LTTE) orchestrated a decades long campaign of terrorism in the country ofSri Lanka,which is inside of theIndian Oceanand has been influenced by broader socio-political trends. Both ultranationalism as well asrevolutionary ideologiesaligned againstcapitalist policiesinfluencing Sri Lankan life motivated the organization as it undertooka series of violent actionsagainst both the national government and the supporters of the state. These attacks have collectively caused a large number of civilian deaths. For example, theAnuradhapura massacrecommitted by the LTTE on May 14, 1985 resulted in the killing of over one-hundred individuals inside of aholy cityassociated with localBuddhist worshippers.The militants deliberately targeted civilians socializing outdoors, such as by executing anelderlyfloristserving religious travelers.[251][252][253]

In the context of the LTTE's militant campaign, the academic publicationJournal of Hate Studiesfound in a 2006 analysis that "ultranationalism subordinates all other claims for loyalty and allegiance" given that "[l]oyalty to the nation transcends loyalty to the family." Thus, "this notion explains the commitment of Tamil Tiger nationalists to [even] engage in suicide missions", since the journal stated that "[u]ltranationalist loyalty demands the willingness to sacrifice the self." In conclusion, the publication reported that an "extremist nationalist claim not only is understood as supreme, but [it] also is presented as urgent" and then demands political activists "must engage in preventive measures, such as ethnic cleansing or deportation".[253]

Golden Dawnactivists rally inAthensduring a March 2015 event.

The assassination ofPavlos Fyssasin September 2013, ahip-hop musicianwith left-wing views, from stabbing wounds to the heart and ribs that occurred after his surrounding by multiple dozenGolden Dawnmilitants triggered widespread outrage at theGreek political organization.The ultranationalist attack occurred in anAthenssuburb and resulted in apolicecrackdown with several arrests. The thenMinistry of Public Order and Citizen Protection,Nikos Dendias,remarked that the "abominable murder" done "by an attacker sympathizing with Golden Dawn" publicly "illustrates, in the clearest way, the intentions of neo-Nazism".[254][255][256]

The organization held, at the time, 18 of the 300 seats in theHellenic Parliament.Characterized as an extremist political party directly adapting the beliefs ofAdolf Hitler,support for its ultranationalism increased in the context of the debate over spikingimmigration to Greece.However, theGreek legal systemultimately investigated the assassination and other acts of violence with the outcome of an October 2020 verdict by the Athens Court of Appeals wiping out the party's leadership through prison sentences. Looking back, the British publicationThe Guardianreported in 2021, "Golden Dawn hit squads sowed terror on the streets, targeting immigrants, left[-]wing trade unionists[,] and other perceived opponents before a party operative ultimately confessed to the killing of Fyssas."[254][255][256]

Portrayals of ultranationalism in fiction

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Theaction filmAir Force Onefeatures aterrorist mastermindnamed Egor Korshunov, played by actorGary Oldman,whokidnaps a set of hostagesincluding theU.S. Presidentbyhijacking the leader's plane.Korshunov seeksrevengedue to the arrest ofKazakhdictatorIvan Radek, played by actorJürgen Prochnow,and the militant became an ultranationalist radical after having formerly served as aSoviet soldier.In February 2022, the U.S. armed forces related websiteMilitary.compublished a story labeling the character as one of the best "Russian Movie Villains" inAmerican cinematic history.[6]As well, writerTodd McCarthyofVarietylauded the nature of Oldman's "fanatical" character, McCarthy stating that "in his second malevolent lead of the summer, afterThe Fifth Element,[he] registers strongly as a veteran of the Afghan campaign pushed to desperate lengths to newly ennoble his country. "[257]

TheIsraeli movieIncitementportrayals afictionalized accountof ultranationalist activist and murdererYigal Amir.The production details his personal life prior to his assassination ofIsraeli Prime MinisterYitzhak Rabin.Film criticNell Minowstated that the killer, played by actor Yehuda Nahari, projects asuperficial charmand skill atpersuasionwhile at the same time failing to generate audiencesympathydue to his true nature still coming out. Amir seeing himself in a callous, "instrumentalist" way as a living weapon up to and includingRabin's assassinationfeeds into, in Minow's opinion, the movie's "chillingly"thriller-type quality.[7]Writer Carla Hay ofCultureMixOnline.comalso found Nahari's performance to be a compellingportrayal of a sociopath in film,with much left to audience interpretations.[258]

Thevideo gameCall of Duty 4: Modern Warfarehas gained notice for its depiction of acivil warinside Russia between the country's government and an ultranationalist faction, with the entertainment production being released in 2007. Its sequels,Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2(2009) andCall of Duty: Modern Warfare 3(2011), were set in the aftermath of an ultranationalistcoup d'étatin Russia and a subsequent war involving theAmerican military.Militant leader Vladimir Makarov, a character in multiple games, notably declares at one point, "Russia will take all of Europe, even if it must stand upon a pile of ashes."[259][260]

See also

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References

[edit]
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  2. ^Ultranationalism.Collins English Dictionary. Retrieved 19 June 2022.
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  5. ^ab"Ultranationalism destroyed good ties between nations".Khmer Times.18 August 2022.Retrieved30 December2022.
  6. ^abBarber, James (28 February 2022)."8 Great Russian Movie Villains".Military.com.Retrieved21 June2023.
  7. ^abMinow, Nell(31 January 2020)."Incitement".RogerEbert.com.Retrieved21 June2023.
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  88. ^"Thai army needs to march to a new tune".Inkl.12 May 2023.
  89. ^Arman, Murat Necip (2007). "The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism".CEU Political Science Journal(2): 133–151.
  90. ^Eissenstat, Howard. (November 2002).Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism.Middle East Studies Association Conference. Washington, D.C.
  91. ^"Svoboda: The rise of Ukraine's ultra-nationalists".BBC.25 December 2012.Retrieved1 March2015.
  92. ^Black, J. L.; Johns, Michael; Theriault, Alanda (2019).The new world disorder: challenges and threats in an uncertain world.Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 14.ISBN9781498576376.
  93. ^Hahn, Gordon M. (2018).Ukraine over the edge: Russia, the West and the "new Cold War".Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. p. 191.ISBN9781476628752.
  94. ^"Vox felicita a Milei por el resultado en las elecciones de Argentina y le traslada su" apoyo "para la segunda vuelta".Europa Press.23 October 2023.El ultranacionalista Milei, candidato de La Libertad Avanza
  95. ^"Resultados elecciones en Argentina 2023: quién ha ganado el escrutinio y última hora de Sergio Massa y Javier Milei".El Confidencial.23 October 2023.Milei, representante de La Libertad Avanza y conocido por su enfoque ultranacionalista
  96. ^Cupples, Julie (2022).Development and Decolonization in Latin America.Taylor & Francis.election of right-wing ultranationalist populist, Jair Bolsonaro
  97. ^"Class struggle and extreme nationalism have become CCP's ideological weapons".ThinkChina.10 August 2022.
  98. ^"The Great Translation Movement Shines a Spotlight on China's Propaganda".The Diplomat.5 April 2022.With this "name and shame" tactic, the movement also became a tool to fight against extreme nationalism in China and the government's propaganda efforts to promote those messages.
  99. ^Robert Weatherley; Qiang Zhang (30 August 2017).History and Nationalist Legitimacy in Contemporary China: A Double-Edged Sword.Palgrave Macmillan UK.p. 2.ISBN978-1-137-47947-1.... ultranationalism of the Chinese public is exclusively attributable to the farreaching propaganda campaigns implemented by the CCP since the early 1990s which serve as constant reminders of the Century of Humiliation.
  100. ^Minkenberg, Michael (2015).Transforming the Transformation?.Taylor & Francis. p. 126.the rightward shift of Fidesz is noticeable by their growing co-optation of ultranationalist narratives
  101. ^Rosenfeld, Alvin (2021).Contending with Antisemitism in a Rapidly Changing Political Climate.Indiana University Press. p. 255.With its ultranationalist policy, Orban's Fidesz party managed to take over the positions of the far-right Jobbik party
  102. ^deSouza, Peter Ronald (2006).India's Political Parties.SAGE. p. 19.The other major national party of today, the Bharatiya Janata Party, does not quite fit the religious fundamentalist, the ethnicity-based or the fascist/ultra nationalist categories although it shares, to a large degree, elements of all three
  103. ^"Reformasi Reloaded? Implications of Indonesia's 2014 Elections".Center for Security Studies.9 September 2014.Prabowo's coalition consisted of his own ultra nationalist Gerindra
  104. ^Krieg, Andreas (2023).Subversion: The Strategic Weaponization of Narratives.Georgetown University Press.it has maintained connections with anti-EU, ultranationalist radical elements of... Lega Nord
  105. ^"Beautiful Harmony: Political Project Behind Japan's New Era Name – Analysis".eurasia review.16 July 2019.The shifting dynamics around the new era name (gengō nguyên hào ) offers an opportunity to understand how the domestic politics of the LDP's project of ultranationalism is shaping a new Japan and a new form of nationalism.
  106. ^Lunning, Frenchy, ed. (2013).Mechademia 4: War/Time.U of Minnesota Press.p. 291.ISBN9781452942650.The overturning of the cab driver's 1998 sentiment in Akamatsu's 2007 piece had its political correlative in the victory of the ultranationalist wing of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) when Abe Shinzō became Japan's prime minister in...
  107. ^"Why Steve Bannon Admires Japan".The Diplomat.22 June 2018.In Japan, populist and extreme right-wing nationalism has found a home within the political establishment.
  108. ^Maki Kimura, ed. (2016).Unfolding the 'Comfort Women' Debates: Modernity, Violence, Women's Voices.Springer.ISBN9781137392510.... a gradual drift towards more nationalistic attitudes to education and politics in general in contemporary Japanese society may party be explained by the effect of ultranationalist politicians in the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP).
  109. ^Masanori Nakamura, ed. (2016).The Japanese Monarchy: Ambassador Joseph Grew and the Making of the "Symbol Emperor System," 1931-1991.M.E. Sharpe. p. 1992.ISBN9781563241093.On July 31, a group of ultranationalist LDP Diet men, alarmed by Nakasone's diplomacy of "submission to foreign pressure" on issues like textbook revision and the Yasukuni Shrine problem, formed the "Association of Those Concerned...
  110. ^Minkenberg, Michael (2023).Depleting Democracies.Manchester University Press.PiS adopted LPR's identity politics both regarding minorities and the ultranationalist interpretation of Polish history and continued its ideological trajectory
  111. ^Baybars Hawks, Banu (2018).Non-state actors in conflicts.p. 43.In Poland, the ultranationalist Law and Justice Party (PiS) has significantly increased its vote share
  112. ^abSabri Kiçmari, ed. (2022).History Continues: Three Models of the Continuation of History.Springer Nature. p. 59.ISBN9789811984020.Putinism is not consistent as an ideology and political system. Public political attitudes have changed according to the circumstances. From a kind of cautious system to an open society, Putinism has moved significantly in the direction of the authoritarian system. His political party United Russia started as the conservative party of the former communists has moved towards ultranationalist and neo-imperialist ideology (Van Herpen 2013: 7). Van Harpen even qualifies Putinism as an unstable system of a slight variant of fascism-fascism lite. According to him, this system combines elements of proto-fascism, fascism and post-fascism, with a nucleus of ultra-nationalism, militarism and neo-imperialism (Van Herpen 2013: 8).
  113. ^Chuck Stewart, ed. (2010).The Greenwood Encyclopedia of LGBT Issues Worldwide.Greenwood Press. p. 360.ISBN9780313342356.In particular, Putin's efforts are attributed to the burgeoning growth of Russian ultranationalist sociopolitical organizations, such as United Russia (Yedinaya Rossiya) and Ours (Nashi, or Youth Movement - Ours!).
  114. ^"Bosnia Serbs Oust Leader From Her Party".The New York Times.Reuters. 21 July 1997.ISSN0362-4331.Retrieved19 June2021.
  115. ^"Holbooke to seek removal of Bosnian Serb leader".The Irish Times.Retrieved19 June2021.
  116. ^De Riencourt, Amauary (1950).Roof of the World, Tibet.Rinehart. p. 176.Chiang Kai-Shek shook off the Soviet supervision and transmuted the Kuomintang into an ultranationalist movement
  117. ^Kyriazi, Anna (April 2016)."Ultranationalist discourses of exclusion: a comparison between the Hungarian Jobbik and the Greek Golden Dawn".University of Milan.
  118. ^"Migrants finding little sympathy in Hungary for their plight".AP News. 9 September 2015.
  119. ^"Ultra-Nationalist Party Surges In Hungary".NPR.org.National Public Radio. 24 May 2014.
  120. ^Mietzner, Marcus (2008)."Comparing Indonesia's Party Systems of the 1950s and the Post-Suharto Era: From Centrifugal to Centripetal Inter-Party Competition".Journal of Southeast Asian Studies.39(3): 431–453.doi:10.1017/S0022463408000337.JSTOR27751535.S2CID143374343.
  121. ^Gleis, Joshua (2012).Hezbollah and Hamas.Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 19.It emphasized internal discipline, paramilitary organization and ultranationalist ideals
  122. ^Sakai, Robert (1966).Studies on Asia.University of Nebraska Press. p. 102.the ultranationalist faction within UMNO
  123. ^Piacentini A., Make Macedonia Great Again! The New Face of Skopje and the Macedonians’ identity dilemma edited by Evinç Doğan in Reinventing Eastern Europe: Imaginaries, Identities and Transformations; Place and space series; Transnational Press London, 2019;ISBN1910781878,p. 87.
  124. ^"North Macedonia takes a small step forward and one backwards this week".New Europe.13 February 2020. Archived fromthe originalon 2 November 2021.Retrieved2 July2023.
  125. ^"The Radical Right in Macedonia"(PDF).Friedrich Ebert Stiftung.December 2012.VMRO-DPMNE succeeded in bringing many ultranationalist views into the mainstream
  126. ^Stojarová, Věra; Emerson, Peter."Political parties in Serbia"(PDF).bochsler.eu.Bochsler, Center for Comparative and International Studies, University of Zurich.
  127. ^"Escaping Ethnocentrism: The Radical Right in the Middle East and Africa".Centre for Analysis of the Radical Right.6 April 2018. Archived fromthe originalon 12 July 2023.Retrieved10 June2023.Moreover, the rise of fascism in interwar Europe was an inspirational source for variety of ultranationalist movements and parties that emerged in the Middle East and Africa. Take the Syrian Social Nationalist Party (SSNP), founded in 1932 by Antun Sa'adih, who had a specific mission: to lead the Lebanese people to their destiny.
  128. ^"Avigdor Lieberman: Moldova's Mr. Nice Guy".Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.11 February 2009.
  129. ^"Mainland to set up special economic zone to favour closer cooperation with Taiwan".AsiaNews. 5 May 2009.Retrieved10 February2023.
  130. ^Xiaokun Song (2009).Between Civic and Ethnic: The Transformation of Taiwanese Nationalist Ideologies (1895-2000).VUBPRESS. p. 199.ISBN978-90-5487-575-8.After the defeat in the 1996's presidential election, the ideological difference between the extreme nationalist and the moderate eventually led to the split of the DPP
  131. ^Matthew D. McCubbins; Stephan Haggard (15 January 2001).Presidents, Parliaments, and Policy.Cambridge University Press.p. 202.ISBN978-0-521-77485-7.The extreme nationalist stance of the radical wing of the DPP, which called for Taiwan's independence, also tended to alienate middle-class and business voters.
  132. ^"'Our bodies are Turkish, our souls Islamic!' The rise of Turkey's ultra-nationalists ".Middle East Eye.21 July 2018.
  133. ^"Turkish nationalists form new party challenging Erdogan".Deutsche Welle.25 October 2017.
  134. ^Arblaster, Paul (2018).A History of the Low Countries.p. 229.The ultranationalist Vlaams Blok
  135. ^Katsikas, Stefanos (2011).Negotiating Diplomacy in the New Europe: Foreign Policy in Post-Communist Bulgaria.I.B. Tauris. p. 64.
  136. ^ab"Ultra-nationalists, populists form 'Bulgarian Patriots' alliance for July elections".The Sofia Globe.20 May 2021.Retrieved17 June2021.Ultra-nationalist parties VMRO and the National Front for the Salvation of Bulgaria, along with populists Volya, have agreed to stand together in Bulgaria's July 11, 2021 parliamentary elections under the name "Bulgarian Patriots", the parties announced on May 20.
  137. ^"Vacuum at the top threatens to hinder Bulgaria's progress".Financial Times (FT).Retrieved17 June2021.
  138. ^"Khmer Rouge leaders convicted of genocide in landmark court ruling".South China Morning Post.16 November 2018.Retrieved18 January2023.
  139. ^Ruzicic-Kessler, Karlo (2011).From the Industrial Revolution to World War II in East Central Europe.Lit. p. 194.the ultra-nationalist Ustase of Ante Pavelic
  140. ^abDavies, Peter; Lynch, Derek (2002).The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right.Routledge.ISBN978-1-13460-952-9.
  141. ^Cengiz, Firat (2013).Turkey and the European Union.Taylor & Francis. p. 105.the ultranationalist Coalition for Republic-Republican Party of Czechoslovakia
  142. ^Political Parties of Europe: Albania-Norway.Greenwood Press. 1983. p. 149.
  143. ^Nissen, Henrik (1983).Scandinavia during the Second World War.Universitetsforlaget. p. 25.The fascist-inspired, ultranationalist IKL (the Patriotic People's Movement)
  144. ^Zander, Patrick (2020).Fascism Through History: Culture, Ideology, and Daily Life.ABC-CLIO. p. 314.In Germany, the pressures of the depression helped the ultranationalist Nazi Party come to power by 1933
  145. ^Payne, Stanley (1996).A History of Fascism, 1914–1945.University of Wisconsin Press. p. 163.The chief political party of the ultranationalist right was the DNVP
  146. ^Germany's New Nazis.Philosophical Library. 1952. p. 17.The German Reich Party (conservative ultra-nationalist), which sent five members to the Federal Parliament in 1949
  147. ^Nunez, Xose (2021).Sites of the Dictators.Taylor & Francis.
  148. ^Tsatsanis, Emmanouil (2011), "Hellenism under siege: the national-populist logic of antiglobalization rhetoric in Greece",Journal of Political Ideologies,16(1): 11–31,doi:10.1080/13569317.2011.540939,S2CID143633586,...and far right-wing newspapers such as Alpha Ena, Eleytheros Kosmos, Eleytheri Ora and Stohos (the mouthpiece of ultra-nationalist groupChrysi Avgi).
  149. ^Ivarsflaten, Elisabeth (2006),Reputational Shields: Why Most Anti-Immigrant Parties Failed in Western Europe, 1980–2005(PDF),Nuffield College, University of Oxford, p. 15
  150. ^On the Road with Golden Dawn, Greece's Ultra-Nationalist Party.Time.Published 31 October 2012. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
  151. ^"LAOS chief accuses PASOK, ND of betraying the country".Ekathimerini.9 April 2012.
  152. ^Ramet, Sabrina (1992).Protestantism and Politics in Eastern Europe and Russia.Duke University Press. p. 113.the ultranationalist Arrow Cross Party
  153. ^Nair, MB (2019).Journey through the Ages.Notion Press.
  154. ^Esbenshade, Richard (2005).Hungary.Benchmark Books. p. 37.A new ultranationalist, extremist party, the Hungarian Justice and Life Party
  155. ^Moses, A. Dirk (2021).The Problems of Genocide.Cambridge University Press. p. 367.the ultranationalist Hindu Mahasabha revivalist movement
  156. ^Boroujerdi, Mehrzad; Rahimkhani, Kourosh (2018).Postrevolutionary Iran: A Political Handbook.Syracuse University Press. p. 344.
  157. ^Faath, Sigrid (2006).Anti-Americanism in the Islamic World.Hurst. p. 156.Considering the ultra-nationalist, anti-American rhetoric of the ruling Baath Party
  158. ^Weinblum, Sharon (2015).Security and Defensive Democracy in Israel: A Critical Approach to Political Discourse.Routledge. p. 10.ISBN978-1-317-58450-6.
  159. ^Religious Zionism, Otzma Yehudit parties to run together,Arutz7
  160. ^Reich, Bernard (2008).Historical Dictionary of Israel.Scarecrow Press. p. 447.the ultranationalist Tehiya Party
  161. ^Aronoff, Myron (2015).Power and Ritual in the Israel Labor Party.Taylor & Francis.Rehavim Zeevi, leader of the Ultranationalist Moledet (Homeland) Party
  162. ^Vossen, Koen (2016).The Power of Populism.Taylor & Francis. p. 81.the ultranationalist Aryeh Eldad's Hatikva party
  163. ^abKhalfa, David (2009).Civil Organizations and Protest Movements in Israel.Palgrave Macmillan. p. 50.The ultranationalist Right is represented by little political parties that compose the "orange camp," dedicated to retaining all parts of the "remained Land of Israel" at any cost: Benny Elon's HaIchud Haleumi, Baruch Marzel's Jewish National Front, and Mikael Kleiner's Herut party.
  164. ^Todd, Allan (2015).European States in the Interwar Years (1918-1939).Cambridge University Press. p. 19.Mussolini later formed the far-right ultra-nationalist Fascist Party
  165. ^Moss, Bernhard (2004).Monetary Union in Crisis.Palgrave Macmillan UK.the ultranationalist traditions of the old MSI
  166. ^Brandon, James R., ed. (2009).Kabuki's Forgotten War: 1931-1945.University of Hawaii Press.p. 113.ISBN9780824832001..2 All existing political parties "voluntarily" dissolved themselves, replaced by a single authorized political body, the ultranationalist Imperial Rule Assistance Association.
  167. ^Davies, Peter (2005).The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right.Taylor & Francis. p. 23.
  168. ^Djassi Amado, Abel."The União Nacional in Cabo Verde, 1937-1945: Local Politics in an Imperial Political Party".Portuguese Literary & Cultural Studies:132.The União Nacional was initially founded as a "patriotic league," tasked with buttressing support for the military regime. Upon assuming power in 1932, Salazar reengineered the party to his ideological and political image to stand on the twin pillars of ultranationalism and corporativism
  169. ^Villegas, Bernardo M.(1 February 1958)."The Philippines in 1986: Democratic Reconstruction in the Post-Marcos Era".Asian Survey.27(2): 194–205.doi:10.2307/2644614.ISSN0004-4687.JSTOR2644614.Finally, at the extreme right is the reorganized Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (KBL) under Nicanor Yniguez, which remains loyal to Marcos.
  170. ^Zelinska, Elisabeta (2013).Racism Postcolonialism Europe.Liverpool University Press. p. 42.The Iron Guard was the ultra-nationalist, anti-Semitic, fascist movement and political party in Romania
  171. ^Cercel, Cosmin (2015).Fascism and Criminal Law.Bloomsbury. p. 112.King Carol II appointed a government from one of the wings of the ultranationalist movement, namely the National Christian Party led by Octavian Goga
  172. ^Clark, Roland (2019)."From Elite Pamphleteers to Social Movement Protagonists: Antisemitic Activism in 1920s Romania".Studies on National Movements.4(4).doi:10.21825/snm.85386.S2CID197814926.
  173. ^Party Development and Democratic Change in Post-Communist Europe.2001. p. 169.Romania also witnessed cooperation between the ex-Communist PDSR and the ultra-nationalist National Unity Party
  174. ^Coleman, Edmond (2014).Sexuality and Gender in Postcommunist Eastern Europe and Russia.Taylor & Francis. p. 63.the ultranationalist Greater Romania Party
  175. ^"Rwanda".CovertAction Quarterly(51–54): 12. 1994.The CDR is an ultranationalist Hutu party
  176. ^Ford, Peter (2018)."Serbian Radical Party surge may complicate reform".Christian Science Monitor.Retrieved17 December2018.
  177. ^"Warlord's party hopeful of winning seats".edition.cnn.com.CNN. 24 December 2020.
  178. ^"Željko Ražnatović".britannica.com.Britannica. 12 January 2024.
  179. ^Wiesinger, Barbara (December 2008)."The Continuing Presence of the Extreme Right in Post-Milošević Serbia".Balkanologie.11(1–2).doi:10.4000/balkanologie.1363.
  180. ^"The Far-Right Parties Keeping The Serbian President In Check Over Ukraine".Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.5 June 2022.
  181. ^"Mladic on his way to UN war crimes tribunal".France 24.31 May 2011.Retrieved19 June2021.
  182. ^"Serbia's pro-EU populists win vote, initial projections show".AP NEWS.24 April 2016.Retrieved19 June2021.
  183. ^Armakolas, Ioannis; Maksimović, Maja (May 2013)."The Beginning of the End for the Kosovo Problem? The Agreement on Normalisation of Relations between Belgrade and Pristina and its Aftermath"(PDF).ETH Zürich.Retrieved19 June2021.
  184. ^"Digitalni šovinizam na Fejsbuku: Dani srpskih nacionalističkih mrmota".voice.org.rs(in Serbian). VOICE. 15 March 2020.
  185. ^Genocide and Fascism.Taylor & Francis. 2008. p. 244.The SLS was an ultranationalist, socially conservative, strongly anticommunist and anti-Semitic (albeit in the rather conventional 'anti-Jewish/Bolshevik' form) Catholic political movement
  186. ^"Not Even a Prosperous Slovakia Is Immune to Doubts About the E.U."New York Times.17 December 2016.
  187. ^"Slovakia risks becoming another Hungary-style EU spoiler. How should the West respond?".Atlantic Council.23 December 2022.
  188. ^Krabill, Ron (2010).Starring Mandela and Cosby: Media and the End(s) of Apartheid.University of Chicago Press. p.51.
  189. ^"이범석"[Lee Bum Suk].Naver Knowledge Encyclopedia(in Korean).Retrieved17 May2019.
  190. ^"The Extreme Right in Spain - Surviving in the Shadow of Franco"(PDF).core.ac.uk.Hedda Samdahl Weltz. 2014.
  191. ^Dafydd Fell (22 January 2018).Government and Politics in Taiwan.Taylor & Francis.ISBN978-1-317-28506-9.The NP's shift to extreme nationalist positions after the late 1990s was also a reaction to the widespread departure of party moderates and subsequent domination by extremists. In the case of the NP, it appears that defeats no longer have any effect; instead, it operates consistently.
  192. ^Gunter Schubert (20 May 2016).Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Taiwan.Taylor & Francis.ISBN978-1-317-66969-2.... the rise of Chinese nationalist radicals in the NP after 1997 meant the party continued its move towards more extreme positions even after electoral setbacks (Fell 2006b: 47-67)
  193. ^American Journal of Chinese Studies.American Association for Chinese Studies. 2005. p. 12.... Taiwan Solidarity Union (an ultranationalist pro-independence party created by former president Lee Teng-hui) won...
  194. ^Burris, Gregory (2007).Taming the Gray Wolf.Indiana University. p. 10.Türkeş reorganized the CKMP with an ultranationalist agenda
  195. ^"Four candidates officially running in Turkey's 2023 presidential elections".Balkan Insights(in Turkish). 28 March 2023.Retrieved16 May2023.
  196. ^"Four candidates officially running in Turkey's 2023 presidential elections".Duvar English(in Turkish). 28 March 2023.Retrieved16 May2023.
  197. ^Göçek, Fatma Müge(2015).Denial of Violence: Ottoman Past, Turkish Present and Collective Violence Against the Armenians, 1789-2009.Oxford University Press. p. 402.ISBN978-0-19-933420-9.
  198. ^"Profile: Ukraine's ultra-nationalist Right Sector".BBC.28 April 2014.Retrieved1 March2015.
  199. ^Nordsieck, Wolfram (2014)."Ukraine".Parties and Elections in Europe.Archived fromthe originalon 12 June 2018.Retrieved6 September2018.
  200. ^"Far-Right Leader To Advise Ukraine Army".Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.6 April 2015.Retrieved22 May2022.
  201. ^Kuromiya, Hiroaki (2022).Stalin, Japan, and the Struggle for Supremacy Over China, 1894–1945.Taylor & Francis.Blue-Shirt society, an ultranationalist secret society
  202. ^Campani, Giovanna (2016).Understanding the Populist Shift.Taylor & Francis. p. 10.
  203. ^Neiberg, Michael (2004).Warfare & Society in Europe.Routledge. p. 96.Several ultra - nationalist groups such as Action française and the veterans' group Croix de Feu
  204. ^Nilsson, Per-Erik (2017).Unveiling the French Republic: National Identity, Secularism, and Islam in Contemporary France.Brill. p. 70.Ultra-nationalist groups and parties like the Bloc identitaire
  205. ^Kumar, M. (2020).Historical And Political Economy Of Education In India.Sankalp Publication. p. 323.RSS was itself an ultra-nationalist organization
  206. ^Haleem, Irm (2011).The Essence of Islamist Extremism.Taylor & Francis. p. 213.
  207. ^Fionna, Ulla, ed. (2015).Watching the Indonesian Elections 2014.ISEAS Publishing. p. 106.ISBN9789814620833.Prabowo has accepted support from and declared his willingness to work with such organizations as the (notorious) radical Islamic group Front Pembela Islam (Defenders of Islam Front) andthe ultra-nationalist Pemuda Pancasila
  208. ^The German Side of the War in the Middle East 1939-1942.Stanford University. 1962. p. 41.the notorious "Golden Square", four young ultra-nationalist colonels
  209. ^"Israeli human rights groups alarmed by Zionist video attack".Sydney Morning Herald.1 January 2016.An ultra-nationalist Israeli group has published a video accusing the heads of four of Israel's leading human rights organisations of being foreign agents funded by Europe and supporting Palestinians "involved in terrorism". The widely-viewed 68-second video, made by radical Zionist group Im Tirtzu
  210. ^"Jerusalem Jewish group on anti-Arab patrol".BBC.9 February 2016.an ultra-nationalist Jewish group called Lehava has been organising patrols aimed at stopping Jewish Israelis from even talking to Arabs.
  211. ^Pedahzur, Ami (2013).The Israeli Response to Jewish Extremism and Violence.Manchester University Press.Of the movements associated with ultranationalist right-wing notions, the Etzel and the Lehi were the most noteworthy in their use of violence and terrorism
  212. ^Sprinzak, Ehud (1991).The Ascendance of Israel's Radical Right.OUP. p. 23.It was the ultranationalist wing of Revisionism, and was articulated by organizations such as Brit Habirionim and Lehi
  213. ^O'Connor, Eimear (2009).Sean Keating in Context: Responses to Culture and Politics in Post-civil War Ireland.Carysfort Press. p. 36.ISBN978-1904505419.
  214. ^"The dark side of Italian politics — Italy's swing to the right could see a more extremist agenda".CNBC.1 March 2018.
  215. ^Nippon Kaigi: The ultra-nationalistic group trying to restore the might of the Japanese Empire.ABC News Online.Author -Matthew Carney.Published 2 December 2015. Retrieved 10 October 2018.
  216. ^"Abe's cabinet reshuffle".East Asia Forum.14 September 2019.Abe also rewarded right-wing politicians who are close to him — so-called 'ideological friends' who are being increasingly pushed to the forefront of his administration — such as LDP Executive Acting Secretary-General Koichi Hagiuda who was appointed Education Minister. As a member of the ultranationalist Nippon Kaigi (Japan Conference), which seeks to promote patriotic education, he can be considered 'reliable' as the government's policy leader on national education.
  217. ^"Japanese minister becomes first in two years to visit Tokyo's controversial Yasukuni Shrine".South China Morning Post.17 October 2019.Retrieved5 June2020.Eto is serving in his first cabinet position and is a member of the ultranationalist Nippon Kaigi organisation, whose aims are to revise the "national consciousness" surrounding the prosecution of Japan's war criminals and to change the nation's pacifist constitution implemented after the war. The group also promotes "patriotic education".
  218. ^Kolmas, Michal, ed. (2019).National Identity and Japanese Revisionism.Routledge.ISBN9781351334396.... and foreign policy are rightwing revisionists organized in groups such as the ultranationalist Nippon Kaigi...
  219. ^Dessì, Ugo, ed. (2013).Japanese Religions and Globalization.Routledge.p. 146.ISBN9780415811705.
  220. ^"Japan combats rise in hate speech".Al Jazeera.30 November 2015.Retrieved5 June2020.... and many don't speak Korean or have ties to Korea. Even so, ultranationalist groups like Zaitokukai have singled them out and used Japan's very liberal protection of speech to harass, intimidate and silence Zainichi with noisy street protests and attacks online, often anonymously.
  221. ^"Head of anti-foreigner group Zaitokukai to step down".Japan Times.30 November 2015.Retrieved5 June2020.The longtime chairman of the ultranationalist group Zaitokukai has announced he will step down and even give up his membership in the group, saying the move will eventually bolster the organization's influence.
  222. ^Zaman, Dina (23 June 2012)."Is there a need for more interfaith dialogue in Malaysia? Part 1".newmandala.org.Retrieved26 April2021.Perkasa (an all Malay ultranationalist group) ready to crusade against ungrateful Christians,
  223. ^"La nueva ultraderecha latinoamericana (1992-2018)"[The New Latin American Far-right (1992-2018)].Marxismo Critico(in Spanish). 26 June 2018.
  224. ^Flores, González; Gustavo, José (June 2015)."The reasons for the sinarquista: The organization and ideology of the National Union Synarchists".Culturales.3(1): 49–76.ISSN1870-1191.
  225. ^Backal, Alicia G. de (2000).Camisas, escudos y desfiles militares, los Dorados y el antisemitismo en México, 1934-1940.
  226. ^Nilsen, Marte (12 March 2015)."Buddhist nationalism threatens Myanmar's democratic transition".East Asia Forum.Retrieved28 May2021.
  227. ^"Buddhist Authorities Ban Myanmar's Ultranationalist Ma Ba Tha Group".Radio Free Asia.23 May 2017.Retrieved28 May2021.
  228. ^"Brawling Myanmar Monks Show Buddhist Nationalists Backing Coup".Bloomberg News.10 March 2021.Retrieved28 May2021.
  229. ^"The Palestinian Islamic Jihad's US Cell"(PDF).Foreign Policy Research Institute.December 2009.a central feature of the PIJ platform combines Islamic fanaticism and extreme nationalism
  230. ^"מילון ארגוני טרור".Shabak.בהשפעת הענף המצרי הוקם בעזה, בשנת 1981, "הג'האד האסלאמי בפלסטין", המשלב אידיאולוגיה לאומית קיצונית עם התפיסות האסלאמיות: השמדת מדינת ישראל והחלפתה במדינה פלסטינית אסלאמית, שתוקם על כל שטחי פלסטין.
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  232. ^The Place of Artists' Cinema: Space, Site, and Screen.Maeve Connolly. Intellect Books. 2009. Page 122.ISBN9781841503295
  233. ^"Igor Girkin, the Russian military commander found guilty of downing MH17, was arrested in Moscow. Here's what we know".ABC.21 July 2023.they created the Club of Angry Patriots, an ultranationalist group that live-streamed their criticism of Russia's political and military leadership
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  237. ^Kang, Jun-man (13 November 2006),한국 현대사 산책 1940년대편 1: 8·15 해방에서 6·25 전야까지(개정판)[A Walk Through Modern Korean History, 1940s Vol. 1: From the 15 August Liberation until the Eve of the Korean War (Revised Edition)] (in Korean), 인물과사상사, p. 326,ISBN978-89-5906-044-3,archivedfrom the original on 15 December 2023,retrieved15 May2023
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  239. ^SCF (9 October 2018)."Germany seeks to ban ultranationalist Turkish Grey Wolves' symbols".Stockholm Center for Freedom.Retrieved3 May2021.
  240. ^van Wilgenburg, Wladimir (14 February 2019)."Austria bans symbols of PKK, Turkish Grey Wolves, and Muslim Brotherhood".www.kurdistan24.net.Retrieved3 May2021.
  241. ^Selcen, Aydın (5 September 2020)."Far-right group attempts to attack Grup Yorum member Gökçeks grave to burn his body".Duvar English.Retrieved3 May2021.
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