Al-Andalus

This article is about the historical region. For the modern-day region, seeAndalusia.For the musical group, seeAl-Andalus Ensemble.

UmayyadHispania at its greatest extent in 719 AD

Caliphate of Córdobac.1000 AD, at the apogee ofAlmanzor

Al-Andalus(Arabic:الأَنْدَلُس) was theMuslim-ruled area of theIberian Peninsula.The name describes the different Muslimstates that controlled these territories at various times between 711 and 1492. At its greatest geographical extent, it occupied most of the peninsulaas well asSeptimaniaunderUmayyadrule. These boundaries changed constantly through a series of conquests Westernhistoriographyhas traditionally characterized as theReconquista,eventually shrinking to the south and finally to theEmirate of Granada.

As a political domain, it successively constituted a province of theUmayyad Caliphate,initiated by the Caliphal-Walid I(711–750); theEmirate of Córdoba(c. 750–929); theCaliphate of Córdoba(929–1031); the firsttaifakingdoms (1009–1110); theAlmoravid Empire(1085–1145); the secondtaifaperiod (1140–1203); theAlmohad Caliphate(1147–1238); the third taifa period (1232–1287); and ultimately theNasrid Emirate of Granada(1238–1492). Under the Caliphate of Córdoba, the city ofCórdobabecame one of the leading cultural and economic centres throughout theMediterranean Basin,Europe, and the Islamic world. Achievements that advanced Islamic and Western science came from al-Andalus, including major advances in trigonometry (Jabir ibn Aflah), astronomy (Al-Zarqali), surgery (Al-Zahrawi), pharmacology (Ibn Zuhr),andagronomy(Ibn BassalandAbū l-Khayr al-Ishbīlī). Al-Andalus became a conduit for cultural and scientific exchange between the Islamic and Christian worlds.

For much of its history, al-Andalus existed in conflict with Christian kingdoms to the north. After the fall of the Umayyad caliphate, al-Andalus was fragmented intotaifastates and principalities, some of which (such as theTaifa of Toledo,theTaifa of Zaragoza,theTaifa of Sevilleand theTaifa of Badajoz) reached considerable territorial extent. After the Christian capture ofToledoin 1085, the Almoravid empire intervened and repelled attacks on the region, then brought al-Andalus under direct Almoravid rule. For the next century and a half, al-Andalus became a province of the Muslim empires of the Almoravids and their successors, theAlmohads,both based inMarrakesh.

Ultimately, the northern Christian kingdoms overpowered the Muslim states to the south. In the 13th century, most of the south quickly fell under Christian rule, withGharb al-Andalus,theGuadalquivir ValleyandEastern al-Andalusfalling to Portuguese, Castilian, and Aragonese conquests. This left the Emirate of Granada, that was to become a tributary state of the Crown of Castile, as the remaining Muslim state on the Iberian Peninsula, and was surrendered in 1492 to theCatholic Monarchs.

Etymology

Main article:Name of Andalusia

The toponymal-Andalusis first attested by inscriptions on coins minted in 716 by the new Muslim government of Iberia.These coins, calleddinars,were inscribed in bothLatinandArabic.The etymology of the nameal-Andalushas traditionally been derived from the name of theVandals(vándalosin Spanish,vândalosin Portuguese).

Since the 1980s, several alternative etymologies have challenged this tradition.In 1986, Joaquín Vallvé proposed thatal-Andaluswas a corruption of the nameAtlantis.Heinz Halm in 1989 derived the name from a Gothic term,*landahlauts,and in 2002, Georg Bossong suggested its derivation from a pre-Roman substrate.

History

See also:Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula

Province of the Umayyad Caliphate

Main article:Muslim conquest of Spain

Expansion of the Caliphate

Muhammad,622–632

Rashidun Caliphate,632–661

Umayyad Caliphate,661–750

During the caliphate of the Umayyad CaliphAl-Walid I,the commanderTariq ibn-Ziyadled an army of 7,000 that landed atGibraltaron April 30, 711, ostensibly to intervene in aVisigothiccivil war. After a decisive victory over KingRodericat theBattle of Guadaleteon July 19, 711, Tariq, accompanied by hismawla,governorMusa ibn NusayrofIfriqiya,brought most of theVisigothic Kingdomunder Muslim rule in a seven-year campaign. They crossed thePyreneesand occupied VisigothicSeptimaniain southern France.

Most of the Iberian peninsula became part of the expandingUmayyad Empire,under the name ofal-Andalus.It was organized as a province subordinate toIfriqiya,so, for the first few decades, thegovernors of al-Andaluswere appointed by the emir ofKairouan,rather than the Caliph inDamascus.The regional capital was set atCórdoba,and the first influx of Muslim settlers was widely distributed.

Following the Muslim conquest of Spain, al-Andalus, then at its greatest extent, was divided into five administrative units, corresponding roughly to: modernAndalusia;CastileandLeón;Navarre,Aragon,andCatalonia;PortugalandGalicia;and theLanguedoc-Roussillonarea ofOccitania.

The small army Tariq led in the initial conquest consisted mostly of Berbers, while Musa's largely Arab force of over 12,000 soldiers was accompanied by a group ofmawālī(Arabic, موالي), that is, non-Arab Muslims, who were clients of the Arabs. The Berber soldiers accompanying Tariq were garrisoned in the centre and the north of the peninsula, as well as in the Pyrenees,while theBerbercolonists who followed settled in all parts of the country – north, east, south and west.Visigothic lords who agreed to recognize Muslim suzerainty were allowed to retain their fiefs (notably, in Murcia, Galicia, and the Ebro valley). Resistant Visigoths took refuge in theCantabrianhighlands, where they carved out a rump state, theKingdom of Asturias.

The province of al-Andalus in 750

In the 720s, the al-Andalus governors launched severalsa'ifaraids intoAquitainebut were decisively defeated by DukeOdo the Greatof Aquitaine at theBattle of Toulouse (721).However, after crushing Odo's Berber allyUthman ibn Naissaon the eastern Pyrenees,Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqiled an expedition north across the western Pyrenees and defeated the Aquitanian duke, who in turn appealed to theFrankishleaderCharles Martelfor assistance, offering to place himself under Carolingian sovereignty. At theBattle of Poitiersin 732, the al-Andalus raiding army was defeated by Charles Martel and Al Ghafiqi was killed.In 734, the Andalusi launched raids to the east, capturingAvignonandArlesand overran much ofProvence.In 737, they traveled up theRhônevalley, reaching as far north asBurgundy.Charles Martel of the Franks, with the assistance ofLiutprandof theLombards,invaded Burgundy and Provence and expelled the raiders by 739.

In 740, aBerber Revolterupted in theMaghreb(North Africa). To put down the rebellion, the Umayyad CaliphHishamdispatched a large Arab army, composed of regiments (Junds) ofBilad Ash-Sham,to North Africa. But the great Umayyad army was crushed by the Berber rebels at theBattle of Bagdoura(in Morocco). Heartened by the victories of their North African brethren, the Berbers of al-Andalus quickly raised their own revolt. Berber garrisons in the north of the Iberian Peninsula mutinied, deposed their Arab commanders, and organized a large rebel army to march against the strongholds of Toledo, Córdoba, and Algeciras.

In 741, Balj b. Bishr led a detachment of some 10,000 Arab troops across thestraits.The Arab governor of al-Andalus, joined by this force, crushed the Berber rebels in a series of ferocious battles in 742. However, a quarrel immediately erupted between the Syrian commanders and the Andalusi, the so-called "original Arabs" of the earlier contingents. The Syrians defeated them at the hard-fought Battle of Aqua Portora in August 742 but were too few to impose themselves on the province.

The quarrel was settled in 743 whenAbū l-Khaṭṭār al-Ḥusām,the new governor of al-Andalus, assigned the Syrians to regimental fiefs across al-Andalus– the Damascus jund was established in Elvira (Granada), the Jordan jund in Rayyu (MálagaandArchidona), the Jund Filastin inMedina-SidoniaandJerez,the Emesa (Hims) jund inSevilleandNiebla,and the Qinnasrin jund inJaén.The Egypt jund was divided betweenBeja(Alentejo) in the west and Tudmir (Murcia) in the east.The arrival of the Syrians substantially increased the Arab element in the Iberian peninsula and helped strengthen the Muslim hold on the south. However, at the same time, unwilling to be governed, the Syrianjundscarried on an existence of autonomous feudal anarchy, severely destabilizing the authority of the governor of al-Andalus.

A second significant consequence of the revolt was the expansion of theKingdom of the Asturias,hitherto confined to enclaves in the Cantabrian highlands. After the rebellious Berber garrisons evacuated the northern frontier fortresses, the Christian kingAlfonso I of Asturiasset about immediately seizing the empty forts for himself, quickly adding the northwestern provinces ofGaliciaandLeónto his fledgling kingdom. The Asturians evacuated the Christian populations from the towns and villages of the Galician-Leonese lowlands, creating an empty buffer zone in theDouro Rivervalley (the "Desert of the Duero"). This newly emptied frontier remained roughly in place for the next few centuries as the boundary between the Christian north and the Islamic south. Between this frontier and its heartland in the south, the al-Andalus state had three largemarch territories(thughur): theLower March(capital initially atMérida,laterBadajoz), theMiddle March(centred at Toledo), and theUpper March(centred atZaragoza).

These disturbances and disorder also allowed the Franks, now under the leadership ofPepin the Short,to invade the strategic strip ofSeptimaniain 752, hoping to deprive al-Andalus of an easy launching pad for raids intoFrancia.After a lengthy siege, the last Arab stronghold, the citadel ofNarbonne,finallyfell to the Franks in 759.Al-Andalus was sealed off at the Pyrenees.

The third consequence of the Berber revolt was the collapse of the authority of theDamascusCaliphate over the western provinces. With the Umayyad Caliphs distracted by the challenge of theAbbasidsin the east, the western provinces of the Maghreb and al-Andalus spun out of their control. From around 745, theFihrids,an illustrious local Arab clan descended fromOqba ibn Nafi al-Fihri,seized power in the western provinces and ruled them almost as a private family empire of their own –Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihriin Ifriqiya andYūsuf al-Fihriin al-Andalus. The Fihrids welcomed the fall of the Umayyads in the east, in 750, and sought to reach an understanding with theAbbasids,hoping they might be allowed to continue their autonomous existence. But when the Abbasids rejected the offer and demanded submission, the Fihrids declared independence and, probably out of spite, invited the deposed remnants of the Umayyad clan to take refuge in their dominions. It was a fateful decision that they soon regretted, for the Umayyads, the sons and grandsons of caliphs, had a more legitimate claim to rule than the Fihrids themselves. Rebellious-minded local lords, disenchanted with the autocratic rule of the Fihrids, conspired with the arriving Umayyad exiles.

Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba

Main article:Emirate of Córdoba

Establishment

19th-century portrait ofAbd al-Rahman I,fromEstoria de España.

In 755, the exiled Umayyad princeAbd al-Rahman I(also calledal-Dākhil,the 'Immigrant') arrived on the coast of Spain.He had fled the Abbasids, who had overthrown the Umayyads in Damascus and were slaughtering members of that family, and then he spent four years in exile in North Africa, assessing the political situation in al-Andalus across the Straits of Gibraltar, before he landed atAlmuñécar.

News of his arrival spread across al-Andalus, and when word reached its governor,Yūsuf al-Fihri,he was not pleased. During this time, Abd al-Rahman and his supporters quickly conqueredMálagaand thenSeville,finally besieging the capital of al-Andalus,Córdoba.Abd al-Rahman's army was exhausted after their conquest, meanwhile Governor Yūsuf al-Fihri had returned from quashing another rebellion with his army. The siege of Córdoba began, and noticing the starving state of Abd al-Rahman's army, al-Fihri began throwing lavish feasts every day as the siege went on, to tempt Abd al Rahman's supporters to defect to his side. However, Abd al-Rahman persisted, even rejecting a truce that would have allowed Abd al-Rahman to marry al-Fihri's daughter. After decisively defeating Yūsuf al-Fihri's army, Abd al-Rahman was able to conquer Córdoba, where he proclaimed himself emir in 756.The rest of Iberia was easily conquered, and Abd al-Rahman soon had control of all of Iberia.

Rule

Abd al Rahman's rule was stable in the years after his conquest – he built major public works, most famously theMosque of Córdoba,and helped urbanize the emirate while defending it from invaders, including the quashing of numerous rebellions, and decisively repelling the invasion byCharlemagne(which would later inspire the epic,Chanson de Roland). By far the most important of these invasions was the attempted reconquest by theAbbasid Caliphate.In 763 CaliphAl-Mansurof the Abbasids installedal-Ala ibn-Mugithas governor of Africa (whose title gave him dominion over the province of al-Andalus). He planned to invade and destroy the Emirate of Córdoba, so in response Abd al Rahman fortified himself within the fortress ofCarmonawith a tenth as many soldiers as al-Ala ibn-Mugith. After a long siege, it appeared that Abd al Rahman would be defeated, but in a last stand Abd al Rahman with his outnumbered forces opened the gates of the fortress and charged at the resting Abbasid army, and decisively defeated them. After being sent the embalmed head of al-Ala ibn-Mugith, it is said Al Mansur exclaimed "Praise be to God who has put the sea between me and this devil!".

Interior of theMosque–Cathedral of Córdoba,the former Great Mosque built by Abd ar-Rahman I in 785, later expanded by his successors

Abd al Rahman I died in 788 after a lengthy and prosperous reign. He was succeeded by his son,Hisham I,who secured power by exiling his brother who had tried to rebel against him. Hisham enjoyed a stable reign of eight years and was succeeded by his sonAl-Hakam I.The next few decades were relatively uneventful, with only occasional minor rebellions, and saw the rise of the emirate. In 822 Al Hakam died and was succeeded byAbd al-Rahman II,the first great emir of Córdoba. He rose to power with no opposition and sought to reform the emirate. He quickly reorganized the bureaucracy to be more efficient and built many mosques across the emirate. During his reign science and art flourished, as many scholars fled the Abbasid caliphate due to the disastrousFourth Fitna.The scholarAbbas ibn Firnasmade an attempt to fly, though accounts vary on his success. In 852 Abd al Rahman II died, leaving behind him a powerful and well-established state that had become one of the most powerful in the Mediterranean.

Abd al Rahman was succeeded byMuhammad I of Córdoba,who according to legend had to wear women's clothing to sneak into the imperial palace and be crowned, since he was not the heir apparent. His reign marked a decline in the emirate, which was ended byAbd al-Rahman III.His reign was marked by multiple rebellions, which were dealt with poorly and weakened the emirate, most disastrously following the rebellion ofUmar ibn Hafsun.When Muhammad died, he was succeeded by emirAbdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawiwhose power barely reached outside of the city of Córdoba. As Ibn Hafsun ravaged the south, Abdullah did almost nothing, and slowly became more and more isolated, barely speaking to anyone. Abdullah purged his administration of his brothers, which lessened the bureaucracy's loyalty towards him. Around this time several local Arab lords began to revolt, including one Kurayb ibn Khaldun, who was able to conquer Seville. Some loyalists tried to quell the rebellion, but without proper material support, their efforts were in vain.

He declared that the next emir would be his grandsonAbd al-Rahman III,ignoring the claims of his four living children. Abdullah died in 912, and the throne passed to Abd al Rahman III. Through force of arms and diplomacy, he put down the rebellions that had disrupted his grandfather's reign, obliterating Ibn Hafsun and hunting down his sons. After this he led several sieges against the Christians, sacking the city ofPamplona,and restoring some prestige to the emirate. Meanwhile, across the sea theFatimidshad risen up in force, ousted the Abbasid government in North Africa, and declared themselves a caliphate. Inspired by this action, Abd al Rahman joined the rebellion and declared himself caliph in 929.

For nearly 100 years under the Córdoban Umayyad period, from the 9th century to the 10th, al-Andalus also extended its presence fromFraxinetuminto the Alps with a series of organized raids.

Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba

Main article:Caliphate of Córdoba

Abd al-Rahman IIIreceiving ambassadorJohn of GorzeofOtto I the Greatat theMedina Azahara,byDionisio Baixeras Verdaguer,1885.

The period of theCaliphateis seen as thegolden ageof al-Andalus. Córdoba under the Caliphate, with a population of more than half a million, eventually overtookConstantinopleas the largest and most prosperous city in Europe.Al-Andalus became a centre for the arts, medicine, science, music, literature and philosophy. The work of its most important philosophers and scientists, such asAbulcasisandAverroes,had a major influence on the intellectual life of medieval Europe. Muslims and non-Muslims often came from abroad to study at the libraries and universities of al-Andalus, and after the reconquest of Toledo, several translation institutions such as theToledo School of Translatorswere established for translating books and texts from Arabic into Latin. The most noted figures in this beingGerard of CremonaandMichael Scot,who took these works to Italy. The transmission of ideas significantly affected the formation of the EuropeanRenaissance.

The Caliphate of Córdoba also had extensive trade with other parts of the Mediterranean, including Christian parts. Trade goods included luxury items (silk, ceramics, gold), essential foodstuffs (grain, olive oil, wine), and containers (such as ceramics for storing perishables). In the tenth century,Amalfitanswere already tradingFatimidandByzantinesilks in Córdoba.Later references to Amalfitan merchants were sometimes used to emphasize the previous golden age of Córdoba.Fatimid Egypt was a supplier of many luxury goods, including elephant tusks, and raw or carved crystals. The Fatimids were traditionally thought to be the only supplier of such goods, and control over these trade routes would be a cause for conflict between the Umayyads and Fatimids.

Taifasperiod

Main article:Taifa

The taifas (green) in 1031 AD

TheCaliphate of Córdobaeffectively collapsed during aruinous civil warbetween 1009 and 1013, although it was not finally abolished until 1031 whenal-Andalusbroke up into a number of mostly independent mini-states and principalities calledtaifas.In 1013,invading Berbers sacked Córdoba,massacring its inhabitants, pillaging the city, and burning the palace complex to the ground.The largest of the taifas to emerge wereBadajoz(Batalyaws),Toledo(Ṭulayṭulah),Zaragoza(Saraqusta), andGranada(Ġarnāṭah). After 1031, thetaifaswere generally too weak to defend themselves against repeated raids and demands for tribute from the Christian states to the north and west, which were known to the Muslims as "the Galician nations",and which had spread from their initial strongholds inGalicia,Asturias,Cantabria,the Basque country, and theCarolingianMarca Hispanicato become the Kingdoms ofNavarre,León,Portugal,CastileandAragon,and theCounty of Barcelona.During the eleventh century several centres of power existed among the taifas, and the political situation shifted rapidly. Before the rise of theAlmoravidsfrom Africa or the Christians from the north, theAbbadid-ruledTaifa of Sevillesucceeded in conquering a dozen lesser kingdoms, becoming the most powerful and renowned of the taifas, such that it could have laid claim to be the true heir to the Caliphate of Córdoba. The taifas were vulnerable and divided but had immense wealth.During its prominence the Taifa of Seville produced technically complexlusterwareand exerted significant influence on ceramic production across al-Andalus.

In the 1080s, thetaifakingdoms began to face an existential threat from the Christian kingdoms to the north, asAlfonso VIof Castile escalated attacks against them.In 1083, he led a punitive expedition against Seville that reached all the way toTarifaat the southern tip of al-Andalus.In 1085, heannexed Toledo,a turning point which galvanized the remainingtaifaleaders into seeking outside help.

Almoravids and Almohads

Further information:Almoravid dynastyandAlmohad Caliphate

Map showing the extent of theAlmoravid empire

After the fall of Toledo, most of the majortaifarulers agreed to request the intervention of the Almoravids, a Berber empire based inMarrakeshthat had conquered much of northwest Africa. The Almoravid leader,Yusuf Ibn Tashfin,led several campaigns into al-Andalus, initially in defense of thetaifakingdoms. At theBattle of Sagrajas(or Battle of Zallaqa in Arabic), a Muslim army led by the Almoravids soundly defeated Alfonso VI.By 1090, however, Yusuf ibn Tashfin was disillusioned with the disunity of thetaifaleaders and he returned on a campaign to conquer al-Andalus instead. Most of thetaifas,except for Zaragoza, were annexed by 1094.Valencia, which had come under the control ofEl Cidat the end ofits taifa period,was eventually occupied in 1102, after El Cid's death.Zaragoza was annexed in 1110.

Modern scholarship has sometimes admitted originality in North African architecture, but according to Yasser Tabbaa, historian of Islamic art and architecture, the Iberocentric viewpoint is anachronistic when considering the political and cultural environment during the rule of the Almoravid dynasty.The rise and fall of the Almoravids is sometimes seen as an expression ofIbn Khaldun'sasabiyyahparadigm.

Expansion of the Almohad state in the 12th century

By 1147, the Almoravids were overthrown in North Africa by theAlmohads,another Berber dynasty, under the leadership ofAbd al-Mu'min.As Almoravid rule collapsed, another brief period oftaifakingdoms followed in al-Andalus, during which the Christian kingdoms expanded southward again.From 1146 onward, the Almohads intervened and took control of al-Andalus.One of Abd al-Mu'min's successors,Ya'qub al-Mansur,won a major victory over the CastilianAlfonso VIIIat theBattle of Alarcosin 1195.

In 1212, a coalition of Christian kings under the leadership of Alfonso VIII defeated the Almohads at theBattle of Las Navas de Tolosa.Almohad rule was diminished in prestige and in 1228 the Almohad caliphal-Ma'munwithdrew from al-Andalus altogether.In this political vacuum, a new wave oftaifakingdoms emerged, which were progressively conquered by Portugal, Castile, and Aragon. Córdoba wasconquered in 1236and Seville wasconquered in 1248.Some Muslim city-states, such asMurciaandNiebla,survived as vassal kingdoms of Castile until the 1260s.Only the region of Granada remained unconquered.

Emirate of Granada, its fall, and aftermath

Main article:Emirate of Granada

A silk textile fragment from the last Muslim dynasty of Al-Andalus, theNasrid Dynasty(1232–1492), with the epigraphic inscription "glory to our lord the Sultan".

From the mid 13th to the late 15th century, the only remaining domain of al-Andalus was theEmirate of Granada,the last Muslim stronghold in the Iberian Peninsula. The emirate was established byMuhammad ibn al-Ahmarin 1230 and was ruled by theNasrid dynasty,the longest reigning dynasty in the history of al-Andalus. Although surrounded by Castilian lands, the emirate was wealthy through being tightly integrated in Mediterranean trade networks and enjoyed a period of considerable cultural and economic prosperity.

TheCourt of the Lionsin theAlhambra,the palace ofNasridGranada

Despite internal conflicts, the Nasrids of Granada were able to survive in part by playing the Christian kingdoms of the north against each other, while at other times soliciting aid from theMarinids,a new Berber dynasty ruling in North Africa from their capital inFez.For much of its existence, Granada paid tribute to the Castilian kings. Along with this political status, its favorable geographic location, with theSierra Nevadaas a natural barrier, helped to prolong Nasrid rule.

Granada also accommodated a large number of Muslim refugees fleeing theReconquistaor expelled from Christian-controlled territories, which grew the city and the emirate's population.The city even became one of the largest in Europe throughout the 15th century in terms of population.The most visible legacy of the Nasrids is theAlhambra,their fortified palace complex, partly preserved today.The independent Nasrid kingdom was also a trade hub between the Atlantic and Mediterranean, and was frequented especially byGenoesemerchants.

The Marinids intervened in the south of the Iberian Peninsula multiple times up until their defeat at theBattle of Río Saladoin 1340. After this, they ceased to play a major role.The subsequent internal turmoil within Castile, however, helped Nasrid Granada to enjoy a period of relative external peace and internal prosperity until the end of the 14th century, under the reigns ofYusuf I(r. 1333–1354) andMuhammad V(r. 1354–1359, 1362–1391).Important cultural figures, such asIbn al-Khatib,Ibn Zamrak,andIbn Khaldunall served in the Nasrid court during this period.

In 1468,Isabella,the only child ofHenry IV of Castile,marriedFerdinand,the son ofJohn II of Aragon,and by 1479 they were rulers of a united Castile and Aragon.This development meant that Granada could no longer exploit divisions between the two kingdoms and the new royal couple, also known as theCatholic Monarchs,were united in their intention to conquer it.The finalwar to conquer Granadabegan in earnest in 1482.Year by year, the Christian advance captured new cities and fortressesuntil the last Nasrid ruler,Muhammad XII(known as Boabdil to the Christians), formallysurrendered Granadato the Catholic Monarchs on 2 January 1492.

Manuel Gómez-Moreno González's19th-century depiction ofMuhammad XII'sfamily in the Alhambra moments after thefall of Granada.

By this time Muslims in Castile numbered half a million. After the fall, "100,000 had died or been enslaved, 200,000 emigrated, and 200,000 remained as the residual population. Many of the Muslim elite, including Muhammad XII, who had been given the area of theAlpujarrasmountains as a principality, found life under Christian rule intolerable and passed over into North Africa. "Under the conditions of the Capitulations of 1492, the Muslims in Granada were to be allowed to continue to practice their religion.

Massforced conversionsof Muslims in 1499 led to arevoltthat spread to Alpujarras and the mountains ofRonda;after this uprising the capitulations were revoked.In 1502 the Catholic Monarchs decreed the forced conversion of all Muslims living under the rule of the Crown of Castile,although in the kingdoms ofAragonandValencia(both now part of Spain) the open practice of Islam was allowed until 1526.Descendants of the Muslims were subject to expulsions from Spain between 1609 and 1614 (seeExpulsion of the Moriscos).The last mass prosecution againstMoriscosforcrypto-Islamicpractices occurred in Granada in 1727, with most of those convicted receiving relatively light sentences. The Morisco community including these final convicts kept their identity alive at least through the late eighteenth century.

Science

There was much scientific activity in Al-Andalus, especially in the fields ofmedicine,astronomy,mathematics,andagronomy.At the same time, Andalusi scholars were also highly active inphilosophy(see below), especially in the field oflogic.The earliest evidence of such activities in al-Andalus dates to the reign ofAbd ar-Rahman II(r. 822–852), when developments were spurred by exposure to older works translated from, Greek, Persian and other languages.Scientific studies continued to be pursued in the following centuries, though certain fields and subjects thrived more depending on the period.Scholars often worked in many different and overlapping subjects, so it is difficult to place those discussed here into a single scientific field each.

Medicine

The Andalusian physicianAbu'l Qasim Al-Zahrawi,who performed the first modern surgery, determined how to remove kidney stones, was known as the father of surgery, and developed many inventions and instruments.

There were many notable surgeons, physicians, and medical scholars from al-Andalus includingIbn al-Baytar(d. 1248),Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi(Albucasis; d. 1013), Muhammad al-Shafrah (d. 1360), Abu Marwan 'Abd al-Malik ibn Habib (d. 853), andAbu Marwan ibn Zuhr(Avenzoar; d. 1162).And of particular note is al-Zahrawi, who is considered by many to be "probably the greatest physician in the entire history of Western Islam."Around the year 1000 C.E, he wrote a book with a title that roughly translates toThe Arrangement of Medical Knowledge for One Who is Not Able to Compile a Book for Himself(Kitab al-tasrif li-man 'ajiza 'an al-ta'alif)—a comprehensive medical encyclopedia with the goal of summarizing all existing medical knowledge and eliminating the need for students and practitioners to rely on multiple medical texts.The book is renowned for its chapter on surgery which included important illustrations of surgical instruments, as well as sections "oncauterization,on incisions,venesectionand wounds, and on bone-setting. "For hundreds of years after its publication it was one of the most widely used medical texts for students and medical practitioners and was translated into Hebrew, Latin, and Castilian.This encyclopedia is also significant for its inclusion of al-Zahrawi's personal experiences as a surgeon, which provided important case studies for aspiring surgeons. This distinguishes it from other strictly factual medical works of the time, most notably Ibn Sina'sCanon of Medicine.

Other important medical texts include al-Baytar'sComprehensive Book on Simple Drugs and Foodstuffs—an encyclopedia with descriptions of the medical uses of over 1400 plants and other types of medicine—and ibn Habib'sBook of the Medicine of the Arabs(Kitab tibb al-'arab)—a historical summary of Arabic medicine until the 9th century.Ibn Habib's work is significant because it is one of the oldest known writings in the field ofprophetic medicine,which useshadithsto create Islamic-based medicinal guidelines. His book is also significant because it uses principles ofGalenic medicine,such ashumorismand the theory offour temperaments,as the basis of its medical recommendations.

The ibn Zuhr family played a very important role in the production of Andalusi medical knowledge, as they produced five generations of medical experts, particularly in the fields of dietary sciences andmedicaments.Abu Marwan ibn Zuhr (d. 1162) is particularly notable, as he wrote theBook of Moderation(Kitab al-Iqtisad)—a treatise on general therapy; theBook of Foods(Kitab al-Aghdhiya)—a manual on foods and regimen which contains guidelines for a healthy life; and theKitab al-Taysir—a book written to act as a compendium toIbn Rushd'sColliget.InKitab al-Taysirhe provides one of the earliest clinical descriptions of thescabiesmite.

Astronomy

Three of the most notable Andalusi astronomers wereIbn Tufail(d. 1185),Ibn Rushd(Averroes; d. 1198), andNur ad-Din al-Bitruji(Alpetragius; d. 1204). All lived around the same time and focused their astronomical works on critiquing and revisingPtolemaic astronomyand the problem of theequantin his astronomical model.Instead, they acceptedAristotle's model and promoted the theory of homocentric spheres.

Al-Bitruji is believed to have studied under Ibn Tufail and Bitruji'sBook on Cosmology(Kitab fi al-hay'a) built on Ibn Tufail's work, as well as that of Ibn Rushd, Ibn Bajja, and Maimonides. The book's goal was "to overcome the physical difficulties inherent in the geometrical models ofPtolemy'sAlmagestand to describe the cosmos in agreement with Aristotelian or Neoplatonic physics, "which it succeeded in doing to an extent.Bitruji's book set a precedent of criticizing theAlmagestin future works in the field of astronomy.

Although Ibn Rushd originally trained and practiced as a jurist, he was exposed to astronomy—possibly through Ibn Tufail—and became a renowned scientist in the field.His most popular work was hisSummary of the Almagest,but he also published shorter works discussing Aristotle's planetary theories.Ibn Rushd published writings on philosophy, theology, and medicine throughout his life too, including commentaries on the works of Ibn Sina.

In addition to writing the importantBook of the Medicine of the Arabs,Ibn Habib also wrote theBook on Stars(Kirab fi l-nujim). This book included important "teachings on the lunar mansions, the signs of the zodiac, [and] the division of the seasons."In these teachings, Ibn-Habib calculated the phases of the moon and dates of the annual solstices and equinoxes with relative accuracy.

Another important astronomer from al-Andalus wasMaslama al-Majriti(d. 1007), who played a role in translating and writing about Ptolemy'sPlanisphaeriumandAlmagest.He built on the work of older astronomers, likeMuhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi,whose astronomical tables he wrote a discussion on and subsequently improved.

Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al-Zarqali(d. 1087) had many influential astronomical successes, as shown byCopernicus's recognition of him in hisOn the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheresfive centuries later. Along with other astronomers, he undertook extensive work to edit theToledan Zijastronomical tables. He also accurately calculated the motion of the solar apogee to be 12.04 seconds per year, which is relatively close to today's calculation of 11.8 seconds per year.

Agronomy

Other important scientific advances in al-Andalus occurred in the field ofagronomy.These advances were in part facilitated by technological innovations in irrigation systems. State organized, large-scale irrigation projects provided water to city baths, mosques, gardens, residential homes, and governing palaces, such as theal-Hambraand its gardens in Granada. Collective, peasant-built irrigation infrastructure also played an important role, especially in agriculture. Many of these irrigation techniques, especially those utilized by peasants, were brought to al-Andalus by migratingBerberand Arab tribes. Although some irrigation projects built on existingRomaninfrastructure, most of al-Andalus's irrigation systems were new projects built separate from old Roman aqueducts. However, there is some debate about this among scholars.

One notableagriculturalistwasIbn al-'Awwam,who wrote theBook of Agriculture.This book contains 34 chapters about various aspects of agriculture and animal husbandry, including discussions of over 580 different types of plants and how to treat plant diseases.

Other agronomic innovations in al-Andalus include the cultivation of the pomegranate from Syria, which has since become the namesake and ubiquitous symbol of the city of Granada, as well as the first attempt to create a botanical garden near Córdoba by 'Abd al-Rahman I.

Culture

Society

Clothing of al-Andalus in the 15th century, during theEmirate of Granada.

See also:Social and cultural exchange in al-Andalus,La Convivencia,Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula,andMozarabs

Religion in Al-Andalus in the 11th century

Islam(80%)

Christianity(15%)

Judaism(5%)

The society of al-Andalus was made up of three main religious groups: Muslims, Christians, and Jews. The Muslims, although united on the religious level, had several ethnic divisions, the main being the distinction between the Arabs and theBerbers.The Arab elite regarded non-Arab Muslims as second-class citizens; and they were particularly scornful of the Berbers.

The ethnic structure of al-Andalus consisted of Arabs at the top of the social scale followed by, in descending order, Berbers,Muladies,Mozarabes,and Jews.Each of these communities inhabited distinct neighborhoods in the cities. In the 10th century a massive conversion of Christians took place, andmuladies(Muslims of nativeIberianorigin), formed the majority of Muslims.The Muwalladun had spoken in the localRomancedialects of Latin collectively calledAndalusi RomanceorMozarabicwhile increasingly adopting the Arabic language, which eventually evolved into theAndalusi Arabicin which Muslims, Jews, and Christians became monolingual in the last surviving Muslim state in the Iberian Peninsula, the Emirate of Granada (1230–1492). Eventually, the Muladies, and later the Berber tribes, adopted an Arabic identity like the majority of subject people inEgypt,theLevant,Mesopotamia,andNorth Africa.Muladies, together with other Muslims, comprised eighty per cent of the population of al-Andalus by 1100.Mozarabswere Christians who had long lived under Muslim and Arab rule, adopting many Arab customs,art and architecture,and words, while still maintaining their Christian andLatin ritualsand their ownRomance languages.

The Jewish population worked mainly as tax collectors, intrade,or as doctors or ambassadors. At the end of the 15th century there were about 50,000Jewsin Granada and roughly 100,000 in the whole of Islamic Iberia.

A Christian and a Muslim play chess in 13th-century al-Andalus.

Non-Muslims were given the status ofahl al-dhimma(people under protection), with adult men paying a "Jizya"tax equal to one dinar per year with exemptions for the elderly and the disabled. Those who were neither Christians nor Jews, such as pagans, were given the status ofMajus.The treatment of non-Muslims in the Caliphate has been a subject of considerable debate among scholars and commentators, especially those interested in drawing parallels to the co-existence of Muslims and non-Muslims in the modern world.

Image of a Jewishcantorreading thePassoverstory in al-Andalus, from a 14th-century SpanishHaggadah

Jewsconstituted more than five per cent of the population.Al-Andalus was a key centre of Jewish life during the earlyMiddle Ages,produced important scholars and was one of the most stable and wealthy Jewish communities.

The longest period of relative tolerance began after 912, with the reign ofAbd-ar-Rahman IIIand his son,Al-Hakam II,and the Jews of al-Andalus prospered by devoting themselves to the service of theCaliphate of Córdoba,the study of the sciences, and to commerce and industry, especially by trading insilkandslaves,which thus promoted the prosperity of the country. Southern Iberia became an asylum for the oppressed Jews of other countries.

Under theAlmoravidsand theAlmohads,there may have been intermittent persecution of Jews,but sources are extremely scarce and do not give a clear picture though the situation appears to have deteriorated after 1160.Muslimpogromsagainst Jews in al-Andalus occurred in Córdoba (1011) andin Granada(1066).However, massacres ofdhimmisare believed to be rare inIslamic history.

The Almohads, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusi territories by 1147,far surpassed theAlmoravidesin fundamentalist outlook, and treated the non-Muslims harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated.Some, such as the family ofMaimonides,fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands.

Many ethnicities and religions co-existed in al-Andalus, each of which contributed to its intellectual prosperity. Literacy in Islamic Iberia was far more widespread than in many other nations in the West of the time.

In the 11th century, theHindu-Arabic numeral system(base 10) had reached Europe via Al-Andalus through Spanish Muslims, together with knowledge of astronomy and instruments like theastrolabe,which was first imported byGerbert of Aurillac.For that reason, the numerals came to be known in Europe asArabic numeralsdespite their origins in India.

From the earliest days, the Umayyads wanted to be seen as intellectual rivals to the Abbasids and for Córdoba to have libraries and educational institutions to that of their rival,Baghdad.Although there was a clear rivalry between the two powers, there was freedom to travel between the two caliphates,which helped spread new ideas and innovations over time.

Language

Initially, most of the population spokeRomance dialects.That led to the formation ofIberian Romance dialectsthat were collectively known asMozarabicor Andalusi Romance. The few writings in those dialects that have been found use an Arabic script and seem to retain many archaic features ofVulgar Latin.They are usually assumed to have been increasingly subject toArabicinfluence. However, as the use of Arabic by Muwalladûn, urban Christians andSephardi Jewsspread in the south, and Mozarab Christians were linguistically assimilated by the Christian Kingdoms in the north, the Mozarabic dialects eventually disappeared. Because of that assimilation, however, Mozarabic became the main source and vehicle of transmission of Arabic loanwords to Spanish and Portuguese.

Classical Arabicbecame the language of administration and of literature, while in everyday life a vernacularAndalusi Arabicdeveloped.The latter consisted of many local dialects, but a standardkoinéprobably emerged by the 9th or 10th century.Arabic spread progressively across the whole population through a process ofArabization,which became an important component of Andalusi identity.By the end of the 9th century, Arabic was widely adopted even among Andalusi Christians.Romance vernaculars (Mozarabic) ceased to be spoken in the 13th century, on the one hand following a gradual decline initiated in the 10th century in Al-Andalus,and on the other hand because of the shrinking of the Muslim-ruled lands and the expansion of Romance varieties from further north.

Literature and poetry

Main article:Literature of al-Andalus

Lute song in a garden for a noble lady. 13th century manuscript from AndalusiHadith Bayad wa Riyad.

According to Isaak Moiseevich Filʹshtinskiĭ, "in the 10th century, a favourable influence on the development of Andalusi literature was exerted by the literary circles organised by rich and noble Cordovan patrons."According toJaakko Hämeen-Anttila:"Andalusian literature was still very much dominated by the Eastern tradition around the year 1000, and the Arabs of Spain probably felt somewhat isolated."

Arabic-Andalusi poetry was marked by the rise ofmuwashshah.As worded byJames T. Monroe,Ibn Quzmanalso "raised the native, popular, and colloquialzajalform to a higher literary level than it had previously enjoyed in his homeland, "although" his work found greater acceptance in Baghdad than it did in the far West of the Islamic world. "Rithā' al-Andalusis considered the most significant of a series of poems that were written in the classical tradition ofrithā'(which denotes both lamentation and a literary genre in itself) by Andalusi poets who had taken inspiration from the fall of Andalusi cities and territories.Jewish poetry from Al-Andalusalso developed, mostly but not exclusively inHebrew,with significant consonance with Arabic poetry in both theme and form.

One specialist of Al-Andalus' intellectual history, Maria Luisa Avila, says that"biographical dictionaries have recorded information about thousands of distinguished people in every period from al-Andalus, who werecultivators of knowledge,particularly in the legal-religious sciences as well as authors ",and that"the exact number of scholars which appears in the biographical sources has not been established yet, but it surely exceeds six thousand."It has been estimated that in the 10th century between 70,000 and 80,000 manuscripts were copied on a yearly basis in Córdoba alone.

Music

Main article:Andalusi music

Themusic of al-Andalusis part of an influential musical tradition.Ziryab,a poet and musician, who came from theAbbasidCaliphate and arrived in Córdoba in 822, played a rule in Andalusi music as well as other aspects of Andalusi culture.Poetic forms such as themuwashshah,thekharja,thenawba,and thezajalare prominent in Andalusi music.

Philosophy

Al-Andalus philosophy

See also:Early Islamic philosophyandSufism in al-Andalus

The historianSaid al-Andaluswrote that CaliphAbd-ar-Rahman IIIhad collected libraries of books and granted patronage to scholars ofmedicineand "ancient sciences". Later,al-Mustansir(Al-Hakam II) went yet further, building a university and libraries in Córdoba.Córdoba became one of the world's leading centres of medicine and philosophical debate.

Averroes,founder of theAverroismschool of philosophy, was influential in the rise ofsecular thoughtinWestern Europe.Detail fromTriunfo de Santo TomásbyAndrea Bonaiuto,14th century

When Al-Hakam's sonHisham IItook over, real power was ceded to thehajib,al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir.Al-Mansur was a distinctly religious man and disapproved of the sciences of astronomy,logic,and especially ofastrology,so much so that many books on these subjects, which had been preserved and collected at great expense byAl-Hakam II,wereburned publicly.With Al-Mansur's death in 1002, interest in philosophy revived. Numerous scholars emerged, including Abu Uthman Ibn Fathun, whose masterwork was the philosophical treatise "Tree of Wisdom".Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti(died 1008) was an outstanding scholar in astronomy and astrology; he was an intrepid traveller who journeyed all over the Islamic world and beyond and kept in touch with theBrethren of Purity.He is said to have brought the 51 "Epistles of the Brethren of Purity"toal-Andalusand added the compendium to this work, although it is quite possible that it was added later by another scholar with the name al-Majriti. Another book attributed to al-Majriti is theGhayat al-Hakim,"The Aim of the Sage", which explored a synthesis ofPlatonismwithHermetic philosophy.Its use of incantations led the book to be widely dismissed in later years, although theSuficommunities continued to study it.

A prominent follower of al-Majriti was the philosopher and geometerAbu al-Hakam al-Kirmaniwho was followed, in turn, by Abu Bakr Ibn al-Sayigh, usually known in the Arab world asIbn Bajjah,"Avempace".

The al-Andalus philosopherAverroes(1126–1198) was the founder of theAverroismschool of philosophy, and his works and commentaries influenced medieval thought in Western Europe.Another influential al-Andalus philosopher wasIbn Tufail.

Jewish philosophy and culture

Main article:Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain

Memorial toMaimonidesin Córdoba

AsJewish thought in Babyloniadeclined, the tolerance ofal-Andalusmade it the new centre of Jewish intellectual endeavours. Poets and commentators likeJudah Halevi(1086–1145) andDunash ben Labrat(920–990) contributed to the cultural life ofal-Andalus,but the area was even more important to the development of Jewish philosophy. A stream of Jewish philosophers, cross-fertilizing with Muslim philosophers (seejoint Jewish and Islamic philosophies), culminated with the widely celebrated Jewish thinker of the Middle Ages,Maimonides(1135–1205), though he did not actually do any of his work inal-Andalus,his family having fled persecution by theAlmohadsaround 1159.

Art and architecture

Main articles:Moorish architectureandMudéjar art

A section of the hypostyle hall in theMosque–Cathedral of Córdoba,begun in 785

In Córdoba,Abd ar-Rahman Ibuilt theGreat Mosque of Córdobain 785. It was expanded multiple times up until the 10th century, and after the Reconquista it was converted into a Catholic cathedral. Its key features include ahypostylehall with marble columns supportingtwo-tiered arches,ahorseshoe-archmihrab,ribbed domes, a courtyard (sahn) with gardens, and aminaret(later converted into abell tower).Abd ar-Rahman III, at the height of his power, began construction ofMadinat al-Zahra,a luxurious palace-city to serve as a new capital.The Umayyads also reconstructed theRoman-era bridgeover the Guadalquivir River in Córdoba, while the Almohads later added theCalahorra Towerto the bridge.TheBab al-Mardum Mosque(later converted to a church) in Toledo is a well-preserved example of a small neighbourhood mosque built at the end of the Caliphate period.

ThePyxis of al-Mughira,a carved ivory casket made atMadinat al-Zahra,dated to 968

The official workshops of the Caliphate, such as those atMadinat al-Zahra,produced luxury goods for use at court or as gifts for guests, allies, and diplomats, which stimulated artistic production. Many objects produced in the caliph's workshops later made their way into the collections of museums and Christian cathedrals in Europe.Among the most famous objects of this period are ivory boxes which are carved with vegetal,figurative,and epigraphic motifs. Notable surviving examples include thePyxis of al-Mughira,thePyxis of Zamora,and theLeyre Casket.

During the Taifas period, art and culture continued to flourish despite the political fragmentation of Al-Andalus. TheAljaferia Palaceof Zaragoza is the most significant palace preserved from this period, featuring complex ornamentalarcadesandstuccodecoration. In other cities, a number of important palaces or fortresses were begun or expanded by local dynasties such as theAlcazaba of Málagaand theAlcazaba of Almería.Other examples of architecture from around this period include theBañueloof Granada, anIslamic bathhouse.

TheGiraldaof Seville, originally built by the Almohads, is a prime example of Andalusi architecture.

In Seville, Almohad rulers built the Great Mosque of Seville (later transformed into theCathedral of Seville), which consisted of a hypostyle prayer hall, a courtyard (now known as thePatio de los Naranjosor Court of Oranges), and a massive minaret tower now known as theGiralda.The minaret was later expanded after being converted into a bell tower for the current cathedral.Almohad architecture promoted new forms and decorative designs such as themultifoil archand thesebkamotif, probably influenced by the Caliphate-period architecture of Córdoba.

TheAlhambra,begun by the first Nasrid emirIbn al-Ahmarin the 13th century

Artists and intellectuals took refuge at Granada after the Christian kingdoms expanded significantly in the 13th century. The palaces of theAlhambraand theGeneralifein Granada reflect the culture and art of the last centuries of Muslim rule of Al-Andalus.The complex was begun by Ibn al-Ahmar, the first Nasrid emir, and the last major additions were made during the reigns ofYusuf I(1333–1353) andMuhammad V(1353–1391).It integrates buildings and gardens with the natural qualities of the site and is a testament to Andalusi culture and to the skills of the Muslim artisans, craftsmen, and builders of their era. Nasrid architecture continued the earlier traditions of Andalusi architecture while also synthesizing them into its own distinctive style, which had many similarities with contemporary Marinid architecture in North Africa.It is characterized by the use of thecourtyardas a central space and basic unit around which other halls and rooms were organized. Courtyards typically had water features at their centre, such as areflective poolor a fountain. Decoration was focused on the inside of buildings and was executed primarily withtile mosaicson lower walls and carved stucco on the upper walls.Geometric patterns,vegetal motifs,andcalligraphywere the main types of decorative motifs. Additionally, "stalactite" -like sculpting, known asmuqarnas,was used for three-dimensional features likevaultedceilings, particularly during the reign of Muhammad V and after.

Even after Muslim territories were conquered by the Christian kingdoms, Andalusi art and architecture continued to appear for many years as a prestigious style under new Christian patrons employing Muslim craftsmen, becoming what is known as theMudéjar style(named after theMudéjarsor Muslims under Christian rule). Numerous examples are found in the early churches of Toledo (e.g. theChurch of San Román,13th century) and in the cities of Aragon such as Zaragoza andTeruel.Among the most famous examples is theAlcázar of Seville,the former Abbadid and Almohad palace redeveloped by Christian rulers such as Peter of Castile, who in 1364 started adding new Moorish-style sections with the help of Muslim craftsmen from Granada and Toledo.Some surviving 13th and 14th-centuryJewishsynagogueswere also built (or rebuilt) in Mudéjar style under Christian rule, such as theSynagogue of Santa Maria la Blancain Toledo (rebuilt in its current form circa 1250),theSynagogue of Córdoba(1315),and theSynagogue of El Tránsito(1355–1357).

Food and agriculture

The cultivation of sugarcane had reached the south of the Iberian Peninsula by the 16th century CE due to Arab conquest and administration of the region.

Main articles:Arab Agricultural Revolution,Mediterranean cuisine,andQanat

Diffusion of bananas from India to the Iberian peninsula during Islamic rule.

Crops produced using irrigation, along with food imported from the Middle East, provided areas aroundAndalusīcities with an agricultural economic sector that was the most advanced in Europe by far, sparking theArab Agricultural Revolution.A variety of foodstuffs, spices and crops were introduced to Spain andSicilyduring Arab rule, via the commercial networks of the Islamic world. These include sugarcane,rice,cotton, alfalfa, oranges,lemons,apricots,spinach,eggplants,carrots,saffronand bananas.The Arabs also continued extensive cultivation and production of olive oil (the Spanish words for 'oil' and 'olive'—aceiteandaceituna,respectively—are derived from the Arabical-zait,meaning 'olive juice'),and pomegranates (the heraldic symbol of Granada) from classicalGreco-Romantimes.

Arabic influence still lingers on in Spanish cuisine through these fruits, vegetables, spices and cooking and agricultural techniques.One of the largest palm groves in the world, called thePalmeral of Elche,was established by the Arabs between the 7th–10th centuries to facilitate fruit (including pomegranate and date crops) and vegetable growth underneath the cool shade of palm trees and irrigation channels, and is cited byUNESCOas an example of the transfer of agricultural practices from one continent (North Africa) to another (Iberian Peninsula of Europe).

The period of Arab rule also involved the extension of Roman irrigation channels as well as the introduction of novel irrigation techniques from thePersianateworld, such as theacequia(deriving from the classical Arabicas-sāqiya) – subterranean channels used to transport water from highland aquifers to lowland fields in arid environments –first originating in either the Arabian Peninsula or thePersian Empire(referred to asqanatorkarezin the Middle East). These structures are still found in Andalusia province, particularly in Granada.

The confectionalfajor(supposedly fromالفاخر) has its origins in al-Andalus.

Homosexuality and pederasty

TheEncyclopedia of Homosexualitystates that "Al-Andalus had many links to Hellenistic culture, and except for the Almoravid and Almohadic periods (1086–1212), it was hedonistic and tolerant of homosexuality, indeed one of the times in world history in which sensuality of all sorts has been most openly enjoyed. Important rulers such as Abd al-Rahman III, al-Hakam II, Hisham II, and al-Mu-tamid openly chose boys as sexual partners, and keptcatamites.Homosexual prostitution was widespread, and its customers came from higher levels of society than those of heterosexual prostitutes. "The verses ofIbn Quzmandescribe an openly bisexual lifestyle.Andalusi anthologies of poetry such as theRāyāt al-mubarrizīn wa-ghāyāt al-mumayyazīnare known in part for their homoerotic and "abundant pederastic poetry". Such themes were also found in the Sephardic Jewish poetry of the time.

In the bookMedieval Iberia: An Encyclopedia,Daniel Eisenberg describeshomosexualityas "a key symbolic issue throughout the Middle Ages in Iberia", stating that "in al-Andalus homosexual pleasures were much indulged in by the intellectual and political elite. Evidence includes the behaviour of rulers, such as Abd al-Rahmn III, Al-Hakam II, Hisham II, and Al Mu'tamid, who openly kept male harems; the memoirs ofAbdallah ibn Buluggin,last Zirid king of Granada, makes references to male prostitutes, who charged higher fees and had a higher class of clientele than did their female counterparts: the repeated criticisms of Christians; and especially the abundant poetry. Bothpederastyand love between adult males are found. Although homosexual practices were never officially condoned, prohibitions against them were rarely enforced, and usually there was not even a pretense of doing so. "Male homosexual relations allowed nonprocreative sexual practices and were not seen as a form of identity. Very little is known about the homosexual behaviour of women.

Slavery

Main article:Slavery in Al-Andalus

Slavery existed in Muslim al-Andalus as well as in the Christian kingdoms, and both sides of the religious border followed the custom of not enslaving people of their own religion. Consequently, Muslims were enslaved in Christian lands, while Christians and other non-Muslims were enslaved in al-Andalus.

The Moors imported white Christian slaves from the 8th century until the end of theReconquistain the late 15th century. The slaves were exported from the Christian section of Spain, as well as Eastern Europe (Saqaliba). Saqaliba slavery in al-Andalus was especially prominent in theCaliphate of Córdobawhere white slaves constituted most of the administrative personnel in the courts and palaces.

The slaves of the Caliph were often Europeansaqalibaslaves trafficked from Northern or Eastern Europe. While male saqaliba could be given work in a number of tasks, such as offices in the kitchen, falconry, mint, textile workshops, the administration or the royal guard (in the case ofharemguards, they were castrated), female saqaliba were placed in the harem.

The harem could contain thousands of slave concubines; the harem ofAbd al-Rahman Iconsisted of 6,300 women.They were appreciated for their light skin.The concubines (jawaris) were educated in accomplishments to please their master, and many became known and respected for their knowledge in a variety of subjects from music to medicine.Jawaris concubines who gave birth to a child attained the status of anumm walad,which meant that they could no longer be sold and were to be set free after the death of her master.

Legacy

See also:Islamic Golden Age,Moorish architecture,andIslamic world contributions to Medieval Europe

As Andalusi cities were conquered by Leon, Castile, and other Christian Spanish kingdoms, Christian monarchs such asAlfonso X of Castilestarted translating the mountainous libraries of al-Andalus into Latin. These libraries contained translations of Ancient Greek texts, as well as new ones made by Muslims in theIslamic Golden Age.That, combined with the interaction with Muslims during theCrusades,and theFall of Constantinopleintroducing Greek scholars to the west, helped launch theRenaissance.Scientists and philosophers such asAverroesandAl-Zahrawi(fathers of rationalism and surgery, respectively) heavily inspired the Renaissance, and their ideas are still world renowned to this day.Al Andalus has also left art and architecture and has some of the best preservedIslamic Golden Agearchitecture in the world, with examples including theCathedral of Córdoba,theAlhambra,theGiraldaand many more.

As a result of the Reconquista and fall of many important Andalusi cities, substantial numbers of Andalusi migrated to the Maghreb where they found place at the courts of Maghrebi rulers. Many of the elite Andalusi immigrants were Arabs. For a variety of reasons, "Andalusi" came to be almost synonymous with "Arab" in the Maghreb.

See also

• Gharb Al-Andalus
• Arab diaspora
• La Convivencia
• History of Islam
• History of the Jews under Muslim rule
• Hispanic and Latino Muslims
• Islam and anti-Semitism in Iberia
• Islam in Spain
• Islam in Portugal
• List of Andalusi and Moroccan writers
• Moorish Gibraltar
• Muslim conquests
• Kemal Reis
• Social and cultural exchange in Al-Andalus
• Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula

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• Hamilton, Michelle M., Sarah J. Portnoy, and David A. Wacks, eds. 2004.Wine, Women, and Song: Hebrew and Arabic Literature in Medieval Iberia.Newark, Del.: Juan de la Cuesta Hispanic Monographs.
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• Harzig, Christiane, Dirk Hoerder, and Adrian Shubert. 2003.The Historical Practice in Diversity.Berghahn Books.ISBN1-57181-377-2
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Further reading

• Glick, Thomas(2005)."Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages: Comparative Perspectives on Social and Cultural Formation".
• Glick, Thomas(1999)."Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages".RetrievedOctober 23,2011.

External links

• Photocopy of the Ajbar Machmu'a, translated by Lafuente 1867
• The routes of al-Andalus(from theUNESCOweb site)
• The Library of Iberian Resources Online
• Al-Andalus Chronology and Photos
• Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spainby Kenneth Baxter Wolf
• The Musical Legacy of Al-Andalus– historical maps, photos, and music showing the Great Mosque of Córdoba and related movements of people and culture over time
• "Cities of Light: The Rise and Fall of Islamic Spain"(documentary film)
• Al-Andalus: the art of Islamic Spain,Scholarly essays and exhibition catalog from the Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF or on Google Books)
• Patricia, Countess Jellicoe, 1992,The Art of Islamic Spain,Saudi Aramco World
• History of the Spanish Muslims,byReinhart Dozy,in French