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Albertus Magnus

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"Albertus" redirects here. For other uses, seeAlbertus (disambiguation).
"Albert the Great" redirects here. For the American Thoroughbred racehorse, seeAlbert the Great (horse).
For the asteroid, see20006 Albertus Magnus.

Saint

Albertus Magnus

OP
TheApparition of the Virgin to Saint Albert the GreatbyVicente Salvador Gomez
Bishop of Regensburg
Doctor of the Church
Bornc. 1200[1]
Lauingen,Duchy of Bavaria
Died15 November 1280
Cologne,Holy Roman Empire
Venerated inCatholic Church
Beatified1622,Rome,Papal StatesbyPope Gregory XV
Canonized16 December 1931,Vatican CitybyPope Pius XI
MajorshrineSt. Andrew's Church, Cologne
Feast15 November
AttributesDominican habit,mitre,book,andquill
PatronageThose who cultivate thenatural sciences,medical technicians,philosophers,andscientists
Other namesAlbertus Teutonicus, Albertus Coloniensis, Albert the Great, Albert of Cologne
Known forSystematic study ofminerals
Discovery of the elementarsenic
Scientific career
Fields
Philosophy career
Alma materUniversity of Padua
EraMedieval philosophy
RegionWestern philosophy
School
InstitutionsUniversity of Paris
Doctoral advisorJordan of Saxony
Notable studentsThomas Aquinas,Petrus Ferrandi Hispanus
Main interests
Notable ideas
Ecclesiastical career
ReligionChristianity
ChurchCatholic Church
Offices held
Bishop of Regensburg
Part ofa serieson
Catholic philosophy
Aquinas,Scotus,andOckham
Ethics
Metaphysics
Schools
Philosophers
Ancient
Medieval
Modern
Contemporary

Albertus Magnus[a]OP(c. 1200– 15 November 1280), also known asSaint Albert the Great,Albert of Swabia[4] orAlbert of Cologne,was a GermanDominicanfriar,philosopher, scientist, andbishop,considered one of the greatestmedieval philosophersand thinkers.[5]

Canonizedin 1931, he was known during his lifetime asDoctor universalisandDoctor expertus;late in his life thesobriquetMagnuswas appended to his name.[6]Scholars such as James A. Weisheipl and Joachim R. Söder have referred to him as the greatest German philosopher and theologian of theMiddle Ages.[7]TheCatholic Churchdistinguishes him as one of theDoctors of the Church.

Biography[edit]

It seems likely that Albertus Magnus was born sometime before 1200, given well-attested evidence that he was aged over 80 on his death in 1280.[8]Two later sources say that Albert was about 87 on his death, which has led 1193 to be commonly given as the date of Albert's birth, but this information does not have enough evidence to be confirmed.[8]Albert was probably born in Lauingen (now inBavaria), since he called himself 'Albert of Lauingen', but this might simply be a family name. Most probably his family was ofministerialclass; his familiar connection with (being son of the count) the Bollstädt noble family is almost certainly mere conjecture by 15th centuryhagiographers.[8]

Albert was probably educated principally at theUniversity of Padua,where he received instruction inAristotle's writings. A late account by Rudolph de Novamagia refers to Albertus' encounter with theBlessed Virgin Mary,who convinced him to enter theHoly Orders.In 1223 (or 1229),[9]he became a member of theDominican Order,and studiedtheologyatBolognaand elsewhere. Selected to fill the position of lecturer at Cologne, Germany, where the Dominicans had a house, he taught for several years there, as well as inRegensburg,Freiburg,Strasbourg,andHildesheim.During his first tenure as lecturer at Cologne, Albert wrote hisSumma de bonoafter having a discussion withPhilip the Chancellorconcerning the transcendental properties of being.[10]In 1245, Albert becamemaster of theologyunderGuerric of Saint-Quentin,the first German Dominican to achieve this distinction. Following this turn of events, Albert was able to teach theology at theUniversity of Parisas a full-time professor, holding the seat of the Chair of Theology at the College of St. James.[10]During this timeThomas Aquinasbegan to study under Albertus.[11]

Bust of Albertus Magnus byVincenzo Onofri,c. 1493

Albert was the first to comment on virtually all of the writings ofAristotle,thus making them accessible to wider academic debate. The study of Aristotle brought him to study and comment on the teachings of Muslim academics, notablyAvicennaandAverroes,and this would bring him into the heart of academic debate.

In 1254, Albert was madeprovincialof the Dominican Order[11]and fulfilled the duties of the office with great care and efficiency. During his tenure, he publicly defended the Dominicans against attacks by the secular faculty of the University of Paris, commented onJohn the Evangelist,and answered what he perceived as errors of theIslamic philosopherAverroes.

In 1259, Albert took part in the General Chapter of the Dominicans atValenciennestogether with Thomas Aquinas, masters Bonushomo Britto,[12]Florentius,[13]and Peter (laterPope Innocent V), establishing aratio studiorumor program of studies for the Dominicans[14]that featured the study of philosophy as an innovation for those not sufficiently trained to study theology. This innovation initiated the tradition of Dominican scholastic philosophy put into practice, for example, in 1265 at the Order'sstudium provincialeat the convent ofSanta Sabinain Rome, out of which would develop thePontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas,the "Angelicum".[15]

Romansarcophaguscontaining the relics of Albertus Magnus in the crypt ofSt. Andrew's Church, Cologne,Germany

In 1260,Pope Alexander IVmade himbishop of Regensburg,an office from which he resigned after three years. During the exercise of his duties he enhanced his reputation for humility by refusing to ride a horse, in accord with the dictates of the Order, instead traversing his huge diocese on foot. In 1263,Pope Urban IVrelieved him of the duties of bishop and asked him to preach theeighth Crusadein German-speaking countries.[16]After this, he was especially known for acting as a mediator between conflicting parties. In Cologne, he is known not only for being the founder of Germany's oldest university there, but also for "the big verdict" (der Große Schied) of 1258, which brought an end to the conflict between the citizens of Cologne and the archbishop. Among the last of his labors was the defense of the orthodoxy of his former pupil, Thomas Aquinas, whose death in 1274 grieved Albert (the story that he travelled to Paris in person to defend the teachings of Aquinas can not be confirmed).

Albert was a scientist, philosopher, astrologer, theologian, spiritual writer, ecumenist, and diplomat. Under the auspices of Humbert of Romans, Albert molded the curriculum of studies for all Dominican students, introduced Aristotle to the classroom and probed the work ofNeoplatonists,such asPlotinus.Indeed, it was the thirty years of work done by Aquinas and himself that allowed for the inclusion of Aristotelian study in the curriculum of Dominican schools.

After suffering declining health in 1278, he died on 15 November 1280 in the Dominican convent in Cologne, Germany. His relics are located in a Roman sarcophagus in thecryptof the DominicanSt. Andrew's Churchin Cologne.[17]His body was claimed to beincorruptduring an exhumation three years after his death. However, a later exhumation in 1483 found that only askeletonremained.[18]

Albert wasbeatifiedin 1622. He wascanonizedand proclaimed a Doctor of the Church on 16 December 1931 byPope Pius XI[16][19]and the patron saint of natural scientists in 1941. St. Albert'sfeast dayis November 15.

Writings[edit]

Albertus Magnus monument at theUniversity of Cologne
Saint Albertus Magnus,a fresco byTommaso da Modena(1352), Chapter hall of convent of St. Nicholas,Treviso,Italy

Albert's writings collected in 1899 went to thirty-eight volumes. These displayed his prolific habits and encyclopedic knowledge of topics such aslogic,theology,botany,geography,astronomy,astrology,mineralogy,alchemy,zoology,physiology,phrenology,justice,law,friendship,andlove.He digested, interpreted, and systematized the whole of Aristotle's works, gleaned from the Latin translations and notes of the Arabian commentators, in accordance with Church doctrine. Most modern knowledge of Aristotle was preserved and presented by Albert.[11]

His principal theological works are a commentary in three volumes on the Books of the Sentences ofPeter Lombard(Magister Sententiarum), and theSumma Theologiaein two volumes. The latter is in substance a more didactic repetition of the former.

Albert's activity, however, was more philosophical than theological (seeScholasticism). The philosophical works, occupying the first six and the last of the 21 volumes, are generally divided according to theAristotelianscheme of the sciences, and consist of interpretations and condensations of Aristotle's relative works, with supplementary discussions upon contemporary topics, and occasional divergences from the opinions of the master. Albert believed that Aristotle's approach to natural philosophy did not pose any obstacle to the development of a Christian philosophical view of the natural order.[16]

De animalibus(c. 1450–1500, cod. fiesolano 67,Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana)

Albert's knowledge of natural science was considerable and for the age remarkably accurate. His industry in every department was great: not only did he produce commentaries and paraphrases of the entire Aristotelian corpus, including his scientific works, but Albert also added to and improved upon them. His books on topics like botany, zoology, and minerals included information from ancient sources, but also results of his own empirical investigations. These investigations pushed several of the special sciences forward, beyond the reliance on classical texts. In the case of embryology, for example, it has been claimed that little of value was written between Aristotle and Albert, who managed to identify organs within eggs.[20]Furthermore, Albert also effectively invented entire special sciences, where Aristotle has not covered a topic. For example, prior to Albert, there was no systematic study of minerals.[21]For the breadth of these achievements, he was bestowed the nameDoctor Universalis.

Much of Albert's empirical contributions to the natural sciences have been superseded, but his general approach to science may be surprisingly modern. For example, inDe Mineralibus(Book II, Tractate ii, Ch. 1) Albert claims, "For it is [the task] of natural science not simply to accept what we are told but to inquire into the causes of natural things."[21]

Alchemy[edit]

Albertus Magnus, Chimistes Celebres,Liebig's Extract of Meat CompanyTrading Card, 1929

In the centuries since his death, many stories arose about Albert as analchemistand magician. "Much of the modern confusion results from the fact that later works, particularly the alchemical work known as theSecreta Albertior theExperimenta Alberti,were falsely attributed to Albertus by their authors to increase the prestige of the text through association. "[22]On the subject of alchemy and chemistry, many treatises relating to alchemy have been attributed to him, though in his authentic writings he had little to say on the subject, and then mostly through commentary on Aristotle. For example, in his commentary,De mineralibus,he refers to the power of stones, but does not elaborate on what these powers might be.[23]A wide range of Pseudo-Albertine works dealing with alchemy exist, though, showing the belief developed in the generations following Albert's death that he had mastered alchemy, one of the fundamental sciences of the Middle Ages. These includeMetals and Materials;theSecrets of Chemistry;theOrigin of Metals;theOrigins of Compounds,and aConcordancewhich is a collection ofObservations on thephilosopher's stone;and other alchemy-chemistry topics, collected under the name ofTheatrum Chemicum.[24]He is credited with the discovery of the elementarsenic[25]and experimented with photosensitive chemicals, includingsilver nitrate.[26][27]He did believe that stones had occult properties, as he related in his workDe mineralibus.However, there is scant evidence that he personally performed alchemical experiments.

According to legend, Albert is said to have discovered the philosopher's stone and passed it on to his pupil Thomas Aquinas, shortly before his death. Albert does not confirm he discovered the stone in his writings, but he did record that he witnessed the creation of gold by "transmutation."[28]Given that Thomas Aquinas died six years before Albert's death, this legend as stated is unlikely.

Astrology[edit]

Albert was deeply interested inastrology,as has been articulated by scholars such as Paola Zambelli[29]and Scott Hendrix.[30]Throughout the Middle Ages –and well into the early modern period– astrology was widely accepted by scientists and intellectuals who held the view that life on earth is effectively a microcosm within the macrocosm (the latter being the cosmos itself). It was believed that correspondence therefore exists between the two and thus the celestial bodies follow patterns and cycles analogous to those on earth. With this worldview, it seemed reasonable to assert that astrology could be used to predict the probable future of a human being. Albert argued that an understanding of the celestial influences affecting us could help us to live our lives more in accord with Christian precepts.[30]The most comprehensive statement of his astrological beliefs is to be found in two separates works that he authored around 1260, known as theSpeculum astronomiaeand theDe Fato.[31]However, details of these beliefs can be found in almost everything he wrote, from his earlyDe natura bonito his last work, theSumma theologiae.[32]Hisspeculumwas critiqued byGerard of Silteo.[33]

  • De meteoris, 1488
    De meteoris,1488

Matter and form[edit]

Albert believed that all natural things were compositions of matter and form, he referred to it asquod estandquo est.Albert also believed that God alone is the absolute ruling entity. Albert's version ofhylomorphismis very similar to theAristoteliandoctrine.

Music[edit]

Albert is known for his commentary on the musical practice of his times. Most of his written musical observations are found in his commentary on Aristotle'sPoetics.He rejected the idea of "music of the spheres"as ridiculous: movement of astronomical bodies, he supposed, is incapable of generating sound. He wrote extensively on proportions in music, and on the three different subjective levels on whichplainchantcould work on the human soul: purging of the impure; illumination leading to contemplation; and nourishing perfection through contemplation. Of particular interest to 20th-century music theorists is the attention he paid to silence as an integral part of music.

Metaphysics of morals[edit]

Both of his early treatises,De natura boniandDe bono,start with a metaphysical investigation into the concepts of the good in general and the physical good. Albert refers to the physical good asbonum naturae.Albert does this before directly dealing with the moral concepts of metaphysics. In Albert's later works, he says in order to understand human or moral goodness, the individual must first recognize what it means to be good and do good deeds. This procedure reflects Albert's preoccupations with neo-Platonic theories of good as well as the doctrines ofPseudo-Dionysius.[34]Albert's view was highly valued by the Catholic Church and his peers.

Natural law[edit]

Albert devoted the last tractatus ofDe Bonoto a theory of justice andnatural law.Albert places God as the pinnacle of justice and natural law. God legislates and divine authority is supreme. Up until his time, it was the only work specifically devoted to natural law written by a theologian or philosopher.[35]

Friendship[edit]

Albert mentions friendship in his work,De bono,as well as presenting his ideals and morals of friendship in the very beginning ofTractatus II.Later in his life he publishedSuper Ethica.[36]With his development of friendship throughout his work it is evident that friendship ideals and morals took relevance as his life went on. Albert comments on Aristotle's view of friendship with a quote fromCicero,who writes, "friendship is nothing other than the harmony between things divine and human, with goodwill and love". Albert agrees with this commentary but he also adds in harmony or agreement.[37]Albert calls this harmony,consensio,itself a certain kind of movement within the human spirit. Albert fully agrees with Aristotle in the sense that friendship is a virtue. Albert relates the inherent metaphysical contentedness between friendship and moral goodness. Albert describes several levels of goodness; the useful (utile), the pleasurable (delectabile) and the authentic or unqualified good (honestum). Then in turn there are three levels of friendship based on each of those levels, namely friendship based on usefulness (amicitia utilis), friendship based on pleasure (amicitia delectabilis), and friendship rooted in unqualified goodness (amicitia honesti;amicitia quae fundatur super honestum).[38]

Cultural references[edit]

ThetympanumandarchivoltsofStrasbourg Cathedral,with iconography inspired by Albertus Magnus

Theiconographyof thetympanumandarchivoltsof the late 13th-centuryportalofStrasbourg Cathedralwas inspired by Albert's writings.[39]Albert is frequently mentioned byDante,who made his doctrine offree willthe basis of his ethical system. In hisDivine Comedy,Dante places Albertus with his pupil Thomas Aquinas among the great lovers of wisdom (Spiriti Sapienti) in the Heaven of the Sun.

InThe Concept of Anxiety,Søren Kierkegaardwrote that Albert, "arrogantly boasted of his speculation before the deity and suddenly became stupid." Kierkegaard cites Gotthard Oswald Marbach whom he quotes as saying "Albertus repente ex asino factus philosophus et ex philosopho asinus"[Albert was suddenly transformed from an ass into a philosopher and from a philosopher into an ass].[40]

InMary Shelley'sFrankenstein,the titular Frankenstein studies the works of Albertus Magnus.[41]

Johann Eduard Erdmannconsiders Albert greater and more original than his pupilAquinas.[42]

InOpen All Hours,Arkwrightinvents St Albert's day soGrandvillecan check customers pockets.[43]

Influence and tribute[edit]

Painting byJoos (Justus) van Gent,Urbino,c. 1475

A number of schools have been named after Albert, includingAlbertus Magnus High SchoolinBardonia, New York;[44]Albertus Magnus Lyceum inRiver Forest, Illinois;andAlbertus Magnus CollegeinNew Haven, Connecticut.[45]

Albertus Magnus Science Hall atThomas Aquinas College,in Santa Paula, California, is named in honor of Albert. The main science buildings atProvidence CollegeandAquinas Collegein Grand Rapids, Michigan, are also named after him.

The central square at the campus of theUniversity of Colognefeatures a statue of Albert and is named after him. Made byGerhard Marcksaround 1950s, this statue is one of four replicas found in different places around the world (along withUniversity of Jena,[46]University of the Andes,[47][48]andUniversity of Houston[49]).

TheAcademy for Science and DesigninNew Hampshirehonored Albert by naming one of its four houses Magnus House.

As a tribute to the scholar's contributions to the law, theUniversity of Houston Law Centerdisplays a statue of Albert. It is located on the campus of theUniversity of Houston.

The Albertus-Magnus-Gymnasium is found in Rottweil, Germany.

InManagua,Nicaragua, the Albertus Magnus International Institute, a business and economic development research center, was founded in 2004.

University of Santo Tomas in the Philippines

In the Philippines, the Albertus Magnus Building at theUniversity of Santo Tomasthat houses the Conservatory of Music, College of Tourism and Hospitality Management, College of Education, and UST Education High School is named in his honor.The Saint Albert the Great Science AcademyinSan Carlos City,Pangasinan,which offers preschool, elementary and high school education, takes pride in having St. Albert as their patron saint. Its main building was named Albertus Magnus Hall in 2008. San Alberto Magno Academy inTubao,La Unionis also dedicated in his honor. This century-old Catholic high school continues to live on its vision-mission up to this day, offering Senior High school courses.

Due to his contributions to natural philosophy, the bacteriumAgrobacterium albertimagni,[50]the plant speciesAlberta magna,the crustaceanBodigiella albertimagni,[51]the fossil brachiopodAlbasphe albertimagni,[52]and the asteroid20006 Albertus Magnuswere named after him.

Numerous Catholic elementary and secondary schools are named for him, including schools in Toronto; Calgary; Cologne; and Dayton, Ohio.

TheAlbertus typefaceis named after him.[53] At theUniversity of Notre Damedu Lac inNotre Dame, Indiana,theZahm HallChapel is dedicated to St. Albert the Great.Fr. John Zahm, C.S.C.,after whom the men's residence hall is named, looked to St. Albert's example of using religion to illumine scientific discovery. Fr. Zahm's work with the Bible and evolution is sometimes seen as a continuation of St. Albert's legacy.

The second largest student's fraternity of the Netherlands, located in the city ofGroningen,is namedAlbertus Magnus,in honor of the saint.

The Colegio Cientifico y Artistico de San Alberto, Hopelawn, New Jersey, USA with a sister school in Nueva Ecija, Philippines was founded in 1986 in honor of him who thought and taught that religion, the sciences and the arts may be advocated as subjects which should not contradict each other but should support one another to achieve wisdom and reason.

The Vosloorus catholic parish (located in Vosloorus Extension One, Ekurhuleni, Gauteng, South Africa) is named after the saint.

Thecatholic parishin Leopoldshafen, nearKarlsruhein Germany is also named after him also considering the huge research center of theKarlsruhe Institute of Technologynearby, as he is the patron saint of scientists.

Since the death ofKing Albert I,theKing's Feastis celebrated in Belgium on Albert's feast day.

Edinburgh's Catholic Chaplaincyserving the city's universities, is named after St Albert.

Sant'Alberto Magnois atitular churchinRome.

Bibliography[edit]

Translations[edit]

  • The Paradise of the Soul: Forty-Two Virtues to Reach Heaven,translated by Fr. Robert Nixon, OSB (Gastonia, NC: TAN Books: 2023) [translation ofParadisus Animae]
  • On Fate,translated by D.P. Curtin (Philadelphia, PA: Dalcassian Publishing Company: 2023) [translation ofDe fato]
  • On Resurrection,translated by Irven M. Resnick and Franklin T. Harkins (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press: 2020) [translation ofDe resurrectione]
  • On the Body of the Lord,translated by Sr. Albert Marie Surmanski, OP (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press: 2017) [translation ofDe corpore Domini]
  • On the Causes of the Properties of the Elements,translated by Irven M. Resnick (Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 2010) [translation ofLiber de causis proprietatum elementorum]
  • Questions concerning Aristotle's on Animals,translated by Irven M. Resnick and Kenneth F. Kitchell Jr. (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 2008) [translation ofQuaestiones super De animalibus]
  • The Cardinal Virtues: Aquinas, Albert, and Philip the Chancellor,translated by R. E. Houser (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediæval Studies, 2004) [contains the translations ofParisian Summa, part six: On the goodandCommentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard,book 3, dist. 33 & 36]
  • The Commentary of Albertus Magnus on Book 1 of Euclid's Elements of Geometry,edited by Anthony Lo Bello (Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, 2003) [translation ofPriumus Euclidis cum commento Alberti]
  • On Animals: A Medieval Summa Zoologica,translated by Kenneth F. Kitchell Jr. and Irven Michael Resnick (Baltimore; London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999) [translation ofDe animalibus]
  • Paola Zambelli,The Speculum Astronomiae and Its Enigma: Astrology, Theology, and Science in Albertus Magnus and His Contemporaries(Dordrecht; Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992) [includes Latin text and English translation ofSpeculum astronomiae]
  • Albert & Thomas: Selected Writings,translated bySimon Tugwell[Wikidata],Classics of Western Spirituality (New York: Paulist Press, 1988) [contains translation ofSuper Dionysii Mysticam theologiam]
  • On Union with God,translated by a Benedictine of Princethorpe Priory (London: Burns Oates & Washbourne, 1911) [reprinted as (Felinfach: Llanerch Enterprises, 1991) and (London: Continuum, 2000)] [translation ofDe adherendo Deo]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^Latin:Albertus Teutonicus, Albertus Coloniensis

References[edit]

Citations[edit]

  1. ^"St. Albertus Magnus".Britannica.RetrievedJuly 19,2020.
  2. ^Hilde de Ridder-Symoens (ed.).A History of the University in Europe: Volume 1, Universities in the Middle Ages,Cambridge University Press, 1991, p. 439.
  3. ^Albertus Magnus,De IV coaequaevis,tract. 2, qu. 3.
  4. ^ Duchet-Suchaux, Gaston;Pastoureau, Michel(1994).The Bible and the Saints.Flammarion iconographic guides, ISSN 1258-2220. Flammarion. p. 325.ISBN9782080135643.RetrievedNovember 5,2023.Albert of Swabia, known as Albert the Great (Albertus Magnus) [...]
  5. ^"Alberti Magni e-corpus".
  6. ^Weisheipl, James A. (1980), "The Life and Works of St. Albert the Great", in Weisheipl, James A. (ed.),Albertus Magnus and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays,Studies and texts, vol. 49, Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, p. 46,ISBN978-0-88844-049-5
  7. ^Joachim R. Söder, "Albert der Grosse – ein staunen- erregendes Wunder,"Wort und Antwort41 (2000): 145; J.A. Weisheipl, "Albertus Magnus," Joseph Strayer ed., Dictionary of the Middle Ages 1 (New York: Scribner, 1982) 129.
  8. ^abcTugwell, Simon (1988).Albert and Thomas.New York: Paulist Press. pp. 3, 96, 97.ISBN978-08091-3022-1.
  9. ^Tugwell 1988,pp. 4–5.
  10. ^abKovach, Francs, and Rober Shahan. Albert the Great: Commemorative Essays. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980, p. x.
  11. ^abcKennedy, Daniel. "St. Albertus Magnus." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 10 Sept. 2014
  12. ^Grange, Antoine Rivet de la; Clément, François; (Dom), Charles Clémencet; Daunou, Pierre Claude François; Clerc, Joseph Victor Le; Hauréau, Barthélemy; Meyer, Paul (1838).Histoire littéraire de la France: XIIIe siècle.Vol. 19. p. 103.RetrievedOctober 27,2012.
  13. ^Probably Florentius de Hidinio, a.k.a. Florentius Gallicus,Histoire littéraire de la France: XIIIe siècle,Volume 19, p. 104, Accessed October 27, 2012
  14. ^Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics,Volume 10, p. 701. Accessed 9 June 2011
  15. ^Weisheipl O.P., J. A., "The Place of Study In the Ideal of St. Dominic"Archived2010-12-29 at theWayback Machine,1960. Accessed 19 March 2013
  16. ^abcFührer, Markus, "Albert the Great", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
  17. ^"Zeittafel".Gemeinden.erzbistum-koeln.de. Archived fromthe originalon May 21, 2013.RetrievedAugust 9,2013.
  18. ^Carroll Cruz, Joan (1977).The Incorruptibles: A Study of the Incorruption of the Bodies of Various Catholic Saints and Beati.Charlotte, NC:TAN Books.ISBN978-0-89555-066-8.
  19. ^Füllenbach, Elias H.: The Canonization of Albert the Great in 1931, in: Fra trionfi e sconfitte. "Politica della santità" dell'Ordine dei predicatori, ed. by Viliam S. Doci and Gianni Festa, Rome 2021 (Dissertationes Historicae, vol. 39), p. 131-147.Article
  20. ^Wolpert, Lewis (September 1, 2004)."Much more from the chicken's egg than breakfast – a wonderful model system".Mechanisms of Development.121(9): 1015–1017.doi:10.1016/j.mod.2004.04.021.ISSN0925-4773.PMID15296967.S2CID7065525.
  21. ^abWyckoff, Dorothy (1967).Book of Minerals.Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. Preface.
  22. ^Katz, David A., "An Illustrated History of Alchemy and Early Chemistry", 1978
  23. ^Georg Wieland, "Albert der Grosse. Der Entwurf einer eigenständigen Philosophie," Philosophen des Mittelalters (Darmstadt: Primus, 2000) 124-39.
  24. ^Walsh, John,The Thirteenth, Greatest of Centuries.1907:46 (available online).
  25. ^Emsley, John (2001).Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements.Oxford:Oxford University Press.pp. 43, 513, 529.ISBN978-0-19-850341-5.
  26. ^Davidson, Michael W.; National High Magnetic Field Laboratory at The Florida State University (August 1, 2003)."Molecular Expressions: Science, Optics and You — Timeline — Albertus Magnus".The Florida State University. Archived fromthe originalon March 30, 2010.RetrievedNovember 28,2009.
  27. ^Szabadváry, Ferenc (1992).History of analytical chemistry.Taylor & Francis. p. 17.ISBN978-2-88124-569-5.
  28. ^Julian Franklyn and Frederick E. Budd.A Survey of the Occult.Electric Book Company. 2001. p. 28-30.ISBN1-84327-087-0.
  29. ^Paola Zambelli, "The Speculum Astronomiae and its Enigma" Dordrecht.
  30. ^abScott E. Hendrix, How Albert the Great's Speculum Astronomiae Was Interpreted and Used by Four Centuries of Readers (Lewiston: 2010), 44-46.
  31. ^Curtin, D. P. (February 1, 2023).On Fate (De Fato).Dalcassian Publishing Company.ISBN9781960069030.
  32. ^Hendrix, 195.
  33. ^Zambelli, Paola (1992).The Speculum Astronomiae and its Enigma. Astrology, Theology and Science in Albertus Magnus and his Contemporaries.Springer. pp. 51–59.ISBN9789048140985.
  34. ^Cunningham, Stanley. Reclaiming Moral Agency: The Moral Philosophy of Albert the Great. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University Of America Press, 2008 p. 93
  35. ^Cunningham, Stanley. Reclaiming Moral Agency: The Moral Philosophy of Albert the Great. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University Of America Press, 2008 p.207
  36. ^Cunningham, Stanley. Reclaiming Moral Agency: The Moral Philosophy of Albert the Great. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University Of America Press, 2008 p.242
  37. ^Cunningham, Stanley. Reclaiming Moral Agency: The Moral Philosophy of Albert the Great. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University Of America Press, 2008 p.243
  38. ^Cunningham, Stanley. Reclaiming Moral Agency: The Moral Philosophy of Albert the Great. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University Of America Press, 2008 p.244
  39. ^France: A Phaidon Cultural Guide,Phaidon Press, 1985,ISBN0-7148-2353-8,p. 705
  40. ^The Concept of Anxiety,Princeton University Press,1980,ISBN0-691-02011-6,pp. 150–151
  41. ^"A Cultural History of Mary Shelley's Frankenstein".mtholyoke.edu.Archived fromthe originalon July 30, 2021.RetrievedNovember 6,2021.
  42. ^Erdmann - History of Philosophy vol 1 trans Hough - London 1910. p. 422
  43. ^"Open All Hours Season 2".Archived fromthe originalon April 16, 2021.RetrievedApril 16,2021.
  44. ^"Albertus Magnus High School".Albertusmagnus.net.RetrievedAugust 9,2013.
  45. ^"Albertus Magnus College".Albertus.edu.RetrievedAugust 9,2013.
  46. ^"Frommann Garden - A gem and wonderful resting place".visit-jena.de.RetrievedFebruary 27,2024.
  47. ^"San Alberto Magno".Universidad de los Andes - Repositorio BADAC.RetrievedFebruary 27,2024.
  48. ^"Nuestros símbolos".Universidad de los Andes. November 25, 2016.RetrievedFebruary 27,2024.
  49. ^"Albertus Magnus, Original casting 1955, 3 of 3 casting 1970".University of Houston. March 8, 2019.RetrievedFebruary 27,2024.
  50. ^Salmassi, Tina M.; Venkateswaren, Kasthuri; Satomi, Masataka; Newman, Dianne K.; Hering, Janet G. (2002). "Oxidation of Arsenite by Agrobacterium albertimagni, AOL15, sp. nov., isolated from Hot Creek, California".Geomicrobiology Journal.19(1): 53–66.Bibcode:2002GmbJ...19...53S.doi:10.1080/014904502317246165.S2CID85216609.
  51. ^Hertzog, L. (1933). "Bogidiella albertimagni sp.nov., ein neuer Grundwasseramphipode aus der Rheinebene bei Strassburg".Zoologischer Anzeiger.102(9/10): 225–227.
  52. ^Halamski, Adam T.; Bitner, Maria Aleksandra; Kaim, Andrzej; Kolar-Jurkovšek, Tea; Jurkovšek, Bogdan (2015). "Unusual brachiopod fauna from the Middle Triassic algal meadows of Mt. Svilaja (Outer Dinarides, Croatia)".Journal of Paleontology.89(4): 553–575.Bibcode:2015JPal...89..553H.doi:10.1017/jpa.2015.34.S2CID131380210.
  53. ^Ambrose, Gavin; Harris, Paul (October 4, 2010).The Visual Dictionary of Typography.AVA.ISBN9782940411184.

Sources[edit]

Further reading[edit]

  • Collins, David J. "Albertus, Magnus or Magus? Magic, Natural Philosophy, and Religious Reform in the Late Middle Ages."Renaissance Quarterly63, no. 1 (2010): 1–44.
  • Honnefelder, Ludger (ed.)Albertus Magnus and the Beginnings of the Medieval Reception of Aristotle in the Latin West. From Richardus Rufus to Franciscus de Mayronis,(collection of essays in German and English), Münster Aschendorff, 2005.
  • Jong, Jonathan."Albert the Great: Patron Saint of Scientists",in:St Mary Magdalen School of Theology,Thinking Faithfully.
  • Kovach, Francis J. & Shahan, Robert W.Albert the Great. Commemorative Essays,Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980.
  • Lemay, Helen Rodnite.Women's Secrets: A Translation of Pseudo-Albertus Magnus'sDe secretis mulierumwith Commentaries.SUNY Series in Medieval Studies. Albany: SUNY Press, 1992.
  • Miteva, Evelina."The Soul between Body and Immortality: The 13th Century Debate on the Definition of the Human Rational Soul as Form and Substance",in:Philosophia: E-Journal of Philosophy and Culture,1/2012.ISSN1314-5606.
  • Resnick, Irven (ed.),A Companion to Albert the Great: Theology, Philosophy, and the Sciences,Leiden, Brill, 2013.
  • Resnick, Irven e Kitchell Jr, Kenneth (eds.),Albert the Great: A Selective Annotated Bibliography,(1900–2000), Tempe, Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2004.
  • Wallace, William A. (1970)."Albertus Magnus, Saint"(PDF).In Gillispie, Charles (ed.).Dictionary of Scientific Biography.Vol. 1. New York: Scribner & American Council of Learned Societies. pp. 99–103.ISBN978-0-684-10114-9.

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