Great Britain in the Seven Years' War

James Wolfe's victory at theBattle of Quebecin 1759

Great Britainwas one of the major participants in theSeven Years' War,which in fact lasted nine years, between 1754 and 1763. British involvement in the conflict began in 1754 in what became known as theFrench and Indian War.However the warfare in the European theatre involving countries other than Britain andFrancecommenced in 1756 (hence the name "Seven Years' War" ). Britain emerged from the war as the world's leadingcolonial power,having gained all ofNew Francein North America, ending France's role as a colonial power there. FollowingSpain's entry in the war in alliance with France in thethird Family Compact,Britain captured the major Spanish ports ofHavana,CubaandManila,in thePhilippinesin 1762, and agreed to return them in exchange forSpanish Florida.TheTreaty of Parisin 1763 formally ended the conflict and Britain established itself as the world's pre-eminentnaval power.

The war started poorly for Britain, at the hands of France in North America during 1754–1755, and in thefall of Menorcain 1756. The same year Britain's major allyAustriaswitched sides and aligned itself with France, and Britain was hastily forced to concludea new alliancewithFrederick the Great'sPrussia.For the next seven years these two nations were ranged against a growing number of enemy powers led by France. After a period of political instability, the rise ofa governmentheaded by theDuke of NewcastleandWilliam Pitt the Elderprovided Britain with firmer leadership, enabling it to consolidate and achieve its war aims.

In 1759, Britain enjoyed anAnnus Mirabilis,with success over the French on the continent (Germany), in North America (capturing the capital ofNew France), and in India. In 1761 Britain also came into conflict with Spain. The following year British forces captured Havana and Manila, the western and eastern capitals of theSpanish Empire,and repulseda Spanish invasion of Portugal.By this time the Pitt-Newcastle ministry had collapsed, Britain was short ofcreditand the generous peace terms offered by France and its allies were accepted.

Through the crown, Britain was allied to theKingdom of Irelandand theElectorate of Hanover,both of which effectively fell under British military command throughout the war. It also directed the military strategy of its various colonies around the world includingBritish America.In India,British possessionswere administered by theEast India Company.

Background

TheThomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastlesucceeded hisyounger brotherasPrime Ministerin 1754 and managed domestic affairs for much of the Seven Years' War.

The last major conflict in Europe, theWar of the Austrian Succession,had ended in 1748 with theTreaty of Aix-la-Chapelleafter a bloody war had left large parts ofCentral Europedevastated. The peace terms were unpopular with many, however, as they largely retained thestatus quo,which led the people of states such as France, Britain and Austria to believe that they had not made sufficient gains for their efforts in the war. By the early 1750s, many saw another major war as imminent, and Austria was preparing its forces for an attempt to retakeSilesiafromPrussia.

The British Prime Minister,Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle,had acceded to the premiership in 1754 after the sudden death of his brotherHenry Pelhamand led a government made up largely ofWhigs.Newcastle had thirty years of experience as aSecretary of Stateand was a leading figure on the diplomatic scene.

Despite enjoying a comfortable majority in theHouse of Commons,Newcastle was extremely cautious and vulnerable to attacks led by men such asWilliam Pitt,the leader of thePatriot Whigs.Newcastle fervently believed that peace in Europe was possible so long as the "Old System", a structure of alliances with European powers in which Britain had formed grand coalitions againstBourbonambitions in Europe, as well as thealliance with Austria,prevailed, and he devoted much of his efforts to the continuance of his policy.^[1]

One of the major concerns for the British government of the era was colonial expansion. During the 18th century, the Britishcolonies in North Americahad become more populous and powerful and were agitating to expand westwards into the American interior. The territory that was most prized by the new settlers was theOhio Country,which was also claimed by France. It had economic potential and was considered a strategically-key territory since French control would block British expansion westwards, and French territory would eventually surround the British colonies and pin them against the coast. A number of colonial delegations to London urged the government to take more decisive action in the Ohio dispute.

In the wars of the time, the British tended to avoid large-scale commitments of troops on Continental Europe.^[2]They sought to offset the disadvantage of this in Europe by allying themselves with one or more continental powers whose interests were antithetical to those of their enemies, particularly France.^[3]^: 15–16By subsidising the armies of continental allies, Britain couldturn London's enormous financial power to military advantage.

During the Seven Years' War, the British chose as their principal partner the most brilliant general of the day,Frederick the Greatof Prussia, which was the rising power in Central Europe, and paid Frederick substantial subsidies for his campaigns.^[3]^: 106That was accomplished in theDiplomatic Revolutionof 1756 in which Britain ended its long-standing alliance with Austria in favour of Prussia, which left Austria to side with France. In marked contrast to France's strategy, Britain strove to prosecute the war actively in the colonies and took full advantage of itsnaval power.^[4]^[5]^: 64–66The British pursued a dual strategy ofnaval blockadeand bombardment of enemy ports, combined with rapid movement of troops by sea.^[6]They harassed enemy shipping and attacked enemy colonies and frequently used colonists from nearby British colonies in the effort.

War in North America

Initial skirmishes (1754–1755)

TheOhio Countrylocated between Britain'sThirteen Coloniesand France'sNew Francesaw France and Britain clash. In 1753 the French sent an expedition south fromMontrealthat began constructing forts in the upper reaches of theOhio River.In 1754 theProvince of Virginiasent theVirginia Regimentled byGeorge Washingtonto the area to assist in the construction of a British fort at present-dayPittsburgh,but the larger French force had driven away a smaller British advance party and builtFort Duquesne.Washington and some native allies ambushed a company of French scouts at theBattle of Jumonville Glenin late May 1754. In the skirmish the French envoyJoseph Coulon de Jumonvillewas left dead leading to adiplomatic incident.^[7]The French responded in force from Fort Duquesne, and in July Washington was forced to surrender at theBattle of Fort Necessity.^[8]Despite the conflict between them, the two nations were not yet formally at war.

Braddock Expedition (1755)

The government in Britain, realising that the existing forces of America were insufficient, drew up a plan to dispatch two battalions ofIrishregular troops under GeneralEdward Braddockand intended to massively increase the number of Provincial American forces.^[9]A number of expeditions were planned to give the British the upper hand in North America including a plan forNew Englandtroops to captureFort BeauséjourandFortress LouisbourginAcadia,and others to act againstFort NiagaraandFort Saint-FrédéricfromAlbany, New York.The largest operation was a plan for Braddock to dislodge the French from theOhio Country.

In May 1755 Braddock's column blundered into an enemy force composed of French and Native Americans at theBattle of the Monongahelanear Fort Duquesne. After several hours' fighting the British were defeated and forced to retreat, Braddock died a few days later of his wounds. The remainder of his force returned to Philadelphia and took up quarters, intending no further action that year.^[10]The French remained in control of the Ohio Country.

In the maritime theatre, the British were successful in theBattle of Fort Beauséjourand in their campaign to remove the French military threat from Acadia.^[11]After the battle the British began theGreat Expulsioncalled theBay of Fundy Campaign (1755)by the British, with the intent of preventing Acadian support of the French supply lines to Louisbourg. The British forcibly relocated 12,000 French-speakers. Two additional expeditions from Albany each failed to reach their objectives, although one, William Johnson's expedition, did establishFort William Henryand held off a French attempt onFort Edwardin theBattle of Lake George.

When news of the Braddock disaster reached Britain it caused a massive public outcry over the government's poor military preparation. The government appointedWilliam Shirleyas the new commander-in-chief in North America, and planned an equally ambitious series of operations for the following year.^[12]

Further struggles in North America (1756–1758)

Britain and France continued to clash, each with increasingly large forces. Even though the inhabitants of the British colonies hugely outnumbered those ofNew France,they were unable to exercise this advantage, partly due to a successful campaign by the French to recruitNative Americanallies who raided the unprotected frontier of theThirteen Colonies.The British raised regiments of localmilitiaand shipped in more regular forces from Britain and Ireland.

Despite these increased forces Britain continued to fare badly in the battle for control of the Ohio Country and the nearbyGreat Lakes,and none of their campaigns was successful in 1756. After losing theBattle of Fort Oswego,not only that fort, but others in theMohawk Rivervalley were abandoned. This was followed in 1757 by thefall of Fort William Henryand the Indian atrocities that followed. News of this disaster sent a fresh wave of panic around the British colonies, and the entire militia of New England was mobilised overnight.

In the maritime theatre, a raid was organized onLunenburg, Nova Scotiaand several on theChignecto.A Britishattempt to take Louisbourg in 1757failed due to bad weather and poor planning.^[13]The following year, in part because of having expelled many Acadians, theSiege of Louisbourg (1758)succeeded, clearing the way for an advance onQuebec.Immediately after the fall of Louisbourg theexpulsion of the Acadianscontinued with the removal of Acadians in theSt. John River Campaign,thePetitcodiac River Campaign,theIle Saint-Jean Campaign,and theGulf of St. Lawrence Campaign (1758).

By this point the war in North America had reached a stalemate, with France broadly holding the territorial advantage. It held possession of the disputed Ohio territory but lacked the strength to launch an attack on the more populous British coastal colonies.

One of the most significant geopolitical actions of the time was the slow movement towards Imperial unity in North America started by theAlbany Congress,although aPlan of Unionproposed byBenjamin Franklinwas rejected by delegates.

War in Europe (1756–1759)

Stately Quadrille

Britain had been allied to Austria since 1731, and the co-operation between the two states had peaked during theWar of the Austrian SuccessionwhenMaria Theresahad been able to retain her throne with British assistance. Since then the relationship had weakened—as Austria was dissatisfied with the terms negotiated by Britain for them at theTreaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.^[14]Prussia had capturedSilesiafrom Austria during the war and Austria wanted British help to recover it. Sensing that it would not be forthcoming, the Austrians approached their historical enemy France and made a defensive treaty with her—thereby dissolving the twenty-five-yearAnglo-Austrian Alliance.

Alarmed by the sudden switch in theEuropean balance of powerthe British made a similar agreement with Prussia at theWestminster Convention.^[15]By doing this Newcastle hoped to rebalance the two sides in central Europe—and thereby make a war potentially mutually destructive to all. This he hoped would stop either Austria or Prussia making an attack on the other and would prevent an all-out war in Europe. This would allow Britain and France to continue their colonial skirmishes without formal war being declared in Europe.^[16]Frederick the Great had a number of supporters in London, including William Pitt, who welcomed the rapprochement between Britain and Prussia. TheDutch Republic,a long-standing ally of Britain, declared its neutrality in the wake of the Westminster Convention and had no active participation in the coming conflict.^[17]

Fall of Menorca

As war in Europe appeared increasingly inevitable, the Newcastle government sought to take the initiative—and make sure that the strategic island ofMenorca(historically called "Minorca" by the British) was secured before it fell into French hands. A relief expedition was dispatched under AdmiralJohn Byngto save it.^[18]However, once he arrived in the Mediterranean Byng found a sizable French fleet and a 15,000-strong armybesieging the fortress.After fighting anindecisive battlehe withdrew toGibraltar,and Menorca subsequently fell.^[19]Formal war was finally declared in May 1756, almost exactly two years after the two countries had first clashed in Ohio.

Byng was recalled to Britain andcourt-martialled.There was violent public outrage about the loss of Menorca, mostly directed against Newcastle.^[20]He tried to deflect the blame by emphasising the alleged cowardice of Byng. After being tried by his peers, the admiral was eventually executed by firing squad for "not doing his utmost".^[21]By that time Newcastle and his government had fallen. It was replaced by aweaker administrationheaded by theDuke of Devonshireand dominated byWilliam Pitt the Elder.

Prussian alliance

The major war in continental Europe that the British had hoped to avoid exploded in August 1756 whenFrederick the Greatattacked and overran the Austrian allySaxony.Having occupied it he then launched a similarly bold invasion ofBohemia.In both cases the Prussians caught their Austrian enemies by surprise, and had used this advantage to full effect, capturing major objectives before Austrian troops had been fullymobilised.Havingbesieged Prague,an Austrian counter-attack and a defeat at theBattle of Kolínforced the Prussians back.^[22]

Britain found itself bound by the Westminster Convention and entered the war on the Prussian side. Newcastle was deeply reluctant to do this, but he saw that a Prussian collapse would be disastrous to British and Hanoverian interests. TheAnglo-Prussian Alliancewas established, which saw large amounts of subsidy given to Prussia. Some supporters ofGeorge IIwere strong advocates of support for Prussia, as they saw it would be impossible to defend his realm ofHanoverif they were to be defeated. Despite his initial dislike of Frederick,^[23]the King later moved towards this viewpoint.

British intervention on the continent

Within a short time Prussia was being attacked on four fronts, by Austria from the south, France from the west,Russiafrom the east, andSwedenfrom the north. Frederick fought defensive actions trying to blunt the invaders, losing thousands of men and precious resources in the process. He began to send more urgent appeals to London for material help on the continent.

When the war with France had commenced, Britain had initially brought Hessian and Hanoverian troops to defend Britain from a fearedinvasion scare.When the threat of this receded, the German soldiers were sent to defend Hanover along with a small contingent of British troops underDuke of Cumberland,the King's second son. The arrival of British troops on the continent was considered a rarity, as the country preferred to make war by using itsnaval forces.^[24]As with the Prussians, Cumberland's army was initially overwhelmed by the sheer scale of the French attacks. Following the disastrousBattle of HastenbeckCumberland was forced to sign theConvention of Klosterzevenby which Hanover would withdraw from the war—and large chunks of its territory would be occupied by the French for the duration of the conflict.^[25]

Prussia was extremely alarmed by this development and lobbied hard for it to be reversed. In London too, there was shock at such a capitulation and Pitt recalled Cumberland to London where he was publicly rebuked by his father, the King, and forced to relinquish his commission.^[26]The terms of Klosterzeven were revoked, Hanover re-entered the war—and a new commander was selected to command the Allied Anglo-German forces.Ferdinand of Brunswickwas a brother-in-law of Frederick the Great, and had developed a reputation as a competent officer. He set about trying to rally the German troops under his command, by emphasising the extent of the atrocities committed by the French troops who had occupied Hanover,^[27]and launched a counter-offensive in late 1757 driving the French back across theRhine.

Despite several British attempts to persuade them, theDutch Republicrefused to join their former allies in the war and remained neutral. Pitt at one point even feared that the Dutch would enter the war against Britain, in response to repeated violations of Dutch neutrality by theRoyal Navy.^[28]Similarly the British were wary ofDenmarkjoining the war against them, but Copenhagen followed a policy of strict neutrality.

Change of government

In London the Pitt-dominated administration had fallen after just six months because of a lack of support in parliament. A period of political stalemate followed, with no real direction to the British war effort. It became apparent that the only way a serious war administration could be put together was by an alliance of leading figures. In 1757 a partnership was formed between the Duke of Newcastle and William Pitt—despite their years of enmity. Newcastle became the head of the administration as Prime Minister, with control of public finances, while Pitt became Secretary of State andde factowar minister with control of much of British military strategy. Other leading figures such asHenry Fox(Paymaster of the Forces) and theDuke of Bedfordwere also given positions in the administration.

The new government's strategic thinking was sharply divided. Pitt had been a long-term advocate of Britain playing as small a role on the European continent while concentrating their resources and naval power to strike against vulnerable French colonies. Newcastle remained an old-school continentalist, who believed that the war would be decided in Europe, and was convinced that a strong British presence there was essential. He was supported in this view by George II.

A compromise was eventually established in which Britain would keep troops on the European continent under the command of the Duke of Brunswick, while Pitt was given authority to launch several colonial expeditions. He sent forces to attack French settlements in West Africa and theWest Indies,operations which were tactically successful and brought financial benefits. In Britain a popular surge ofpatriotismand support for the government resulted. Pitt formed atriumvirateto direct operations withGeorge Ansonin command of the navy andJohn Ligonierin charge of the army. AMilitiaAct was passed in 1757 to create a sizable force to defend Britain, which would free up regular troops for operations overseas.

Naval "descents"

The British had received several requests from their German allies to try to relieve the pressure on them by launching diversionary operations against the French. Pitt had long been an advocate of amphibious strikes or "descents" against the French coastline in which a small British force would land, capture a settlement, destroy itsfortificationsandmunitionssupplies and then withdraw. This would compel the French to withdraw troops from the Northern front to guard the coast.

After an urgent request from Brunswick, Pitt was able to put his plan into action, and in September 1757a British raidwas launched againstRochefortin western France. For various reasons it was not a success, but Pitt was determined to press ahead with similar raids.^[29]Another British expedition was organised underLord Sackville.A landinginSaint-Malowas partially successful, but was cut short by the sudden appearance of French troops—and the force withdrew to Britain. Pitt organised a third major descent, under the command ofThomas Bligh.Hisraid on Cherbourgin August 1758 proved to be the most successful of the descents, as he burnt ships and munitions and destroyed the fortifications of the town. However, an attempt in September to do the same at St Malo ended with theBattle of Saint Castand the British withdrawing with heavy casualties. This proved to be the last of the major landings attempted on the French coast—though the British later took control of theBelle Îleoff the coast ofBrittanywhich was used as a base for marshalling troops and supplies. The raids were not financially successful and were described byHenry Foxas being "like breaking windows withguineas".^[30]From then on the British concentrated their efforts in Europe on Germany.

Indian campaign (1756–1758)

Britain and France both had significant colonial possessions in India and had been battling for supremacy for a number of years. The British were represented by theBritish East India Company(EIC) who were permitted to raise troops. The collapse of the long-standingMughal Empirebrought the clash between the two states to a head, as each tried to gain sufficient power and territory to dominate the other. The 1754Treaty of Pondicherrywhich ended theSecond Carnatic Warhad brought a temporary truce to India, but it was soon under threat.^[31]A number of smaller IndianPrincely statesaligned with either Britain or France. One of the most assertive of these Princes was the pro-FrenchNawab of Bengal,Siraj ud-Daulah,who resented the British presence inCalcutta.In 1756 he had succeeded his grandfatherAlivardi Khanwho had been a staunch British ally. By contrast he regarded the British East India Company as an encroaching threat.^[7]

Calcutta

On 20 June 1756 the Nawab's troops stormedFort Williamcapturing the city. A number of the British civilians andprisoners of warwere locked in the small guard room in what became known as theBlack Hole of Calcutta.^[32]After the death of many of them, the atrocity became a popular rallying call for revenge. A force fromMadrasunder the command of Lieutenant ColonelRobert Clivearrived and liberated the city, driving out the Nawab's troops. TheThird Carnatic Warthat followed saw Britain ranged against the Nawab and France. Clive consolidated his position in Calcutta, and made contact with one of the Nawab's chief advisorsMir Jafarattempting to persuade him and other leading Bengalis to overthrow the Nawab. After the British ambushed a column of the Nawab's troops which was approaching Calcutta on 2 February 1757, the two sides agreed theTreaty of Alinagarwhich brought a temporary truce to Bengal.

Plassey

Despite the agreement at Alinagar, neither side was content with the status quo. The British felt that if they did not assert their position, the French would become the dominant power in Bengal. Siraj ud-Daulah was fearful of being forced to accept British suzerainty. His position was weakened by his unpopularity with his own subjects, and the threat of other military enemies to the west. He began to take steps to drive the British out of Bengal entirely.

On 23 June 1757 the Nawab led a force of 50,000 into the field. Ranged against them was a much smaller Anglo-Indian force under the command of Robert Clive. The Nawab was weakened by the betrayal of Mir Jafar who had concluded a secret pact with the British before the battle – and refused to move his troops to support the Nawab. Faced with the superior firepower and discipline of the British troops, the Nawab's army was routed. After the battle Siraj ud-Daulah was overthrown and executed by his own officers, and Mir Jafar succeeded him as Nawab. He then concluded a peace treaty with the British.

Mir Jafar himself subsequently clashed with the British for much the same reasons as Siraj ud-Daulah had. He conspired with theDutch East India Companyto try to oust the British from Bengal and in 1759 invited them to send troops to aid him. The defeat of the Dutch at theBattle of Chinsurahresulted in Britain moving to have Jafar replaced with his son-in-law, who was considered more favourable to the EIC. One of the most important long-term effects of the battle was that the British received thediwan– the right to collect taxes in Bengal which was granted in 1765.^[33]

French East India Company

The French presence in India was led by theFrench East India Companyoperating out of its base atPondicherry.Its forces were under the command ofJoseph François DupleixandLally,a Jacobite. The veteran Dupleix had been in India a long time, and had established a key rapport with France's Indian allies. Lally was more newly arrived, and was seeking a swift victory over the British—and was less concerned about diplomatic sensibilities.

Following theBattle of Chandalorewhen Clive attacked a French trading post the French were driven completely out of Bengal. In spite of this they still had a major presence in central India, and hoped to regain the power they had lost to the British in southern India during theSecond Carnatic War.

Annus Mirabilis(1759)

TheAnnus Mirabilisof 1759(Latin'wonderful year') was a string of notable British victories over their French-led opponents during that year. Apart from a few isolated victories, the war had not gone well for Britain since 1754. In all theatres except India and North America (where Pitt's strategy had led to important gains in 1758) they were on the retreat. British agents received information about a planned French invasion which would knock Britain out of the war completely. While France starved their colonial forces of troops and supplies to concentrate them on the goal of total strategic supremacy in Europe, the British government continued its policy of shipping their own troops to fight for total victory in the colonies—leaving Britain to be guarded by the largemilitiathat had existed since 1757. The British had entered 1759 anxious about aFrench invasion,but by the end of the year, they were victorious in all theatres against France.

The succession of victories ledHorace Walpoleto remark, "Our bells are worn threadbare with ringing for victories".^[34]Several of the triumphs assumed aniconicplace in the mindset of the British public, reinforced by representations in art and music, such as the popular songHeart of Oakand the later paintingThe Death of General Wolfe.Frank McLynn identified 1759 as the year which prefigured the rise of theBritish Empirein eclipsing France as the dominantglobal superpower.^[35]Much of the credit for theannus mirabiliswas given to William Pitt the Elder, the minister who directed military strategy as part of his duties asSecretary of State for the Southern Department,rather than to the Prime Minister, the Duke of Newcastle. Recent historians, however, have portrayed the British Cabinet as a morecollectiveleadership than had previously been thought.^[36]

Three years later, Great Britain saw a similarly successful year. The Anglo-German army again turned back a French advance on Hanover atWilhelmsthal,the army helpedrepulse a Franco-Spanish invasion of Portugal,captured Martiniquefrom France, andcaptured HavanaandManilafrom Spain. This led some to describe 1762 as a "SecondAnnus Mirabilis".^{[citation needed]}

Madras

Following Clive's victory at Plassey and the subjugation of Bengal, Britain had not directed large resources to the Indian theatre. The French meanwhile had despatched a large force from Europe to seize the initiative on the subcontinent. The clear goal of this force was to captureMadras,which had previouslyfallen to the Frenchin 1746.

In December 1758 a French force of 8,000 under theComte de Lallydescended on Madras, bottling up the 4,000 British defenders inFort St George.After a hard-fought three-month siege the French were finally forced to abandon their attempt to take the city by the arrival of a British naval force carrying 600 reinforcements on 16 February 1759.^[37]Lally withdrew his troops, but it was not the end of French ambitions in southern India.

West Indies

One of Pitt's favoured strategies was a British expedition to attack theFrench West Indies,where their richest sugar-producing colonies were situated. A British naval force of 9,000 sailed from Portsmouth in November 1758 under the command ofPeregrine Hopson.^[38]UsingBarbadosas a staging point,they attacked firstatMartinique.

After failing to make enough headway, and losing troops rapidly to disease, they were forced to abandon the attempt and move to the secondary target of the British expedition,Guadeloupe.^[39]Facing a race against time before the hurricane season hit in July, a landing was forced and the town ofBasse-Terrewas shelled.^[40]They looked in severe danger when a large French fleet unexpectedly arrived underBompart,but on 1 May the island's defenders finally surrendered and Bompart was unable to prevent the loss of Guadeloupe.^[41]

Orders arrived from London concerning an assault onSaint Luciabut the commanders decided that such an attempt was unwise given the circumstances. Instead they moved to protectAntiguafrom any possible attack by Bompart, before the bulk of the force sailed for home in late July.^[42]

Battle of Minden

Since early 1758, the British had contributed an increasingly large number of troops to serve in Germany. Pitt had reversed his previous hostility to British intervention on the continent, as he realised that the theatre could be used to tie down numerous French troops and resources which might otherwise be sent to fight in the colonies.^[43]Brunswick's army had enjoyed enormous success since winter 1757, crossing theRhineseveral times, winning theBattle of Krefeldand capturingBremenwithout a shot being fired. In recognition of his services Parliament voted him £2,000 a year for life.^[44]By April 1759 Brunswick had an army of around 72,000 facing two French armies with a combined strength of 100,000.^[45]The French had occupiedFrankfurtand were using it as their base for operations, which Brunswick now attempted to assault. On 13 April Brunswick lost theBattle of Bergento a superior French force and was forced to retreat.^[46]

The French pursued Brunswick slowly, capturing the strategic town ofMindenwhich could potentially be used to stage an invasion of Hanover. Brunswick was pressured into action by this threat; the French command was also eager to end the campaign with a swift victory to free up troops which would allow them to take part in the proposed invasion of Britain. On the night of 31 July, both commanders simultaneously decided to attack the other outside Minden. The French forces reacted hesitantly when faced with Germans in front of them as dawn broke, allowing the Allies to seize the initiative and counter-attack. However, one column of British troops advanced too quickly and soon found itself attacked on all sides by a mixture of cavalry, artillery and infantry which vastly outnumbered them. The British managed to hold them off, sustaining casualties of a third. When they were reinforced with other troops, the Allies broke through the French lines and forced them to retreat. The British cavalry underSackvillewere ordered to advance, but he refused—apparently in indignation at his treatment by Brunswick, though this was at the time popularly attributed to cowardice on his part. In the confusion, the French were allowed to escape the battlefield and avoid total disaster.

Despite widespread praise for the conduct of the British troops, their commander Sackville received condemnation for his alleged cowardice and was forced to return home in disgrace. He was replaced by theMarquess of Granby.The victory proved crucial, as Frederick had lost to the Russians atKunersdorf.Had Brunswick been defeated at Minden, Hanover would almost certainly have been invaded and the total defeat of Prussia would have been imminent. In the wake of the victory the Allies advanced, pushing the French backwards and relieving the pressure on the Prussians.^[47]

Failed invasion

The central plank of France's war against Britain in 1759 was a plan to invade Britain, authored by the French chief ministerDuc de Choiseul.It was subject to several changes, but the core was that more than 50,000 French troops would cross theEnglish ChannelfromLe Havrein flat-bottomed boats and land atPortsmouthon the British coast. Aided by aJacobiterebellion – they would then advance on London and force a peace agreement on the British, extracting various concessions and knocking them out of the war. The British became aware through their agents of the scheme and drew up a plan to mobilise their forces in case of the invasion. In an effort to set back the invasion, a Britishraid was launched against Le Havrewhich destroyed numerous flat-boats and supplies.^[48]In spite of this, the plans continued to progress and by autumn the French were poised to launch their invasion.

Following naval defeats at theBattle of Lagosand theBattle of Quiberon Bay,and with news of the Allied victory at Minden, the French began to have second thoughts about their plan, and in late autumn cancelled it. The French did not have the clear sea they hoped for the crossing, nor could they now spare the number of troops on the continent. A number of flaws in the plan had also become apparent, including the fact that claims of the number of Jacobite supporters were now considered wildly optimistic.^{[citation needed]}

The campaign was considered a last throw of the dice for the Jacobites to have any realistic hope of reclaiming the British throne. After the campaign the French soon abandoned the Stuarts entirely, withdrawing their support, and forcing them to take up a new home in Rome. Many of theHighlandcommunities that had strongly supported the Jacobites in 1715 and 1745 now had regiments serving in the British army, where they played a key role in Britain's success that year.

Naval supremacy

The French naval defeat atQuiberon Bayin 1759, nearSaint-NazaireinBrittany,proved a devastating setback to theplanned invasion,and was one of the major reasons behind its ultimate cancellation.

By 1759, theRoyal Navyhad expanded to 71,000 personnel and 275 ships in commission, with another 82 under ordinance.^[49]During the war the British had instituted a new system ofblockade,by which they penned in the main French fleets at anchor inBrestandToulon.The British were able to keep an almost constant force poised outside French harbours. The French inability to counter this had led to a collapse in morale among French seamen and the wider population.^[50]

The French government had devised a plan that would allow them to launch their invasion. It required a junction of the two French fleets in theEnglish Channel,where they would be able to cover a major invasion. However, in August 1759 the French Mediterranean Fleet under AdmiralLa Clueleft harbour and was destroyed at theBattle of Lagosnear Portugal. This left only the Channel Fleet at Brest underConflans.When he tried to break free of the British blockade in November, he was run down and attacked by the British underAdmiral Hawkeat theBattle of Quiberon Bay.This victory left the British in almost total command of the seas, compounded by the effective use of naval forces in the West Indies, Canada and India. A small French force under Thurot didmanage to land on the Irish coast,and menaceBelfastbefore being forced to withdraw and being destroyed by a Royal Navy squadron in the Irish Sea.^[51]

Elsewhere

The year was rounded out by the news ofWolfe's victoryatQuebec,resulting in the capture of the capital of New France (see below). However while 1759 was acclaimed as Britain's 'Annus Mirabilis', for the Prussians the year had been as disastrous as it had been successful for the British. Prussia's armies had suffered a string of defeats and suffered large numbers of casualties. At times Prussia veered close to total collapse, notably after theBattle of Kunersdorf,was now heavily dependent on continued British financial assistance and only survived due to theMiracle of the House of Brandenburg.^[52]

Conquest of Canada (1758–1760)

Louisbourg

Following the failure of the British to takeLouisbourgin 1757, a second attempt was planned in 1758 and command given to GeneralJeffery Amherst.Although Louisbourg did not control entry to theSaint Lawrence River,it could not simply be bypassed, and the British decided it must be taken before they could proceed further. After a 44-day siege, the city finally capitulated.^[53]One of the figures who benefited most from the campaign was a young British brigadier,James Wolfe,who so impressed Pitt that he was promoted and given command of future expeditions in Canada. Despite their victory at Louisbourg, the British decided to wait for the spring before heading further up the St Lawrence. In the meantime the river was extensively charted by a naval officer,James Cook,later to become famous as an explorer. Despatches carrying news of the victory sparked euphoria in Britain, and were celebrated by numerous bonfires.^[54]

Quebec

The key to British strategy in North America involved takingQuebec City—the capital and largest city ofNew France.This was to be achieved by the deployment of a massive force up theSaint Lawrence River.Simultaneously an Anglo-American force would march from New York to captureFort Carillonand possiblyFort Niagaraas well. While many, particularly Pitt and the American inhabitants, hoped that Canada could be annexed, others saw it as a bargaining chip to offset potential British losses in Europe.^[55]By the time the French realised the scale of the British intentions in Canada, it was too late to send assistance to Quebec. The French government hoped thatLouis-Joseph de Montcalm,New France's military commander, would be able to resist for the next year, after which they would send troops to his aid.^[56]

Wolfe arrived outside Quebec on 28 June.^[57]For much of the rest of the summer, he probed the defences of the city, trying to find a way through. Montcalm constantly frustrated him, shifting his own troops about in response. The cat-and-mouse game between the two generals reached a climax towards the end of the summer. If Wolfe could not capture the city he would likely be forced to withdraw in the face of the hostile Canadian winter.^[58]An attempt to land on theMontmorencywas beaten back at theBattle of Beauport,and almost proved disastrous.^[59]Wolfe now searched for another place to land and make his attack. On 12 September the British learned of a convenient landing spot, and Wolfe moved his army there at night. The following day theBattle of the Plains of Abrahamtook place. It proved to be a decisive British victory, though one in which both Wolfe and Montcalm were killed. The British then took over the city.

The British were further cheered by the news that Amherst had takenFort Carillon(after which it was renamed Fort Ticonderoga, as it is known today) and a second expedition had capturedFort Niagara.The French and their native allies were now under increasing pressure, compounded by guerrilla activities spearheaded by Britain'sMohawkallies andRogers' Rangers.Despite the celebrated victory at Quebec, the campaign was not over—the French still had significant forces at large in North America swelled by refugees from the surrounding countryside. The following spring the French regrouped and launched an attempt to retake Quebec. TheBattle of Sainte-Foytook place on 28 April 1760 and proved even bloodier than the previous battle. Though the French prevailed, the British were able to retreat into Quebec. The subsequentsiege of Quebeclasted from 29 April until 15 May when British ships arrived to relieve the city which compelled the de Lévis to break off the siege and retreat.^[60]

Montreal

The arrival of British ships and reinforcements ended the French offensive and forced them to retreat in the direction ofMontreal.The British pursued, capturing parts of the city on 1 September 1760 after encountering only light resistance.^[61]The last French army underLéviswas finally forced to surrender on 6 September 1760 when a second British army under Amherst arrived from the south following theBattle of the Thousand Islands,^[62]and an attempt at French reinforcement was stopped in the navalBattle of Restigouche.

The British had responded to the French challenge in North America by striking at the heart of New France. Though it had been a long and costly series of campaigns, it proved to be one of the most successful of Pitt's policies. While a modest French presence remained inIllinoisandLouisianathe fighting served to end any significant French military threats in North America for good.

Victory in India (1760–1761)

Following the British victory at Madras, their forces took the offensive. A force underFrancis Forde captured the port of Masulipatam.^[63]Although he still had significant forces in India, the French commander Lally had expected greater support from his own navy, but he was constantly frustrated by the cautiousAché.Fresh British reinforcements arrived, tilting the balance in their favour. The failure of the French navy to secure command of the Indian Ocean opened their own territory to capture.^[64]

Wandiwash

Pondicherry

Pondicherry's capture proved to be a decisive moment in the long-term battle for control in India. After this point,French Indiawas confined to a handful of trading posts stretched along the coast, while the East India Company moved into the interior, extending its conquests to create the wide-reaching territories ofBritish India,and bysubsidiary alliancessetting up the even widerBritish Indian Empire.By the end of 1761, the French were fearful that the British forces in India were preparing to strike at the island ofMauritius,and made no effort to reverse their losses in India.^[65]

War in Europe (1760–1762)

Lord Bute's rise to power between 1760 and 1762 dramatically influenced the emphasis of Britain's war effort. Like the new king, Bute favoured an end to British involvement on the continent.

1760 marked a major milestone in British strategy, caused by the death ofGeorge II.His grandsonGeorge IIIwas much less committed to a British role in Germany which he saw as unnecessary. He also disliked Newcastle and Pitt, describing them as "knave" and a "snake in the grass",^[66]and elevated his former tutorEarl of Buteinto a senior role in the cabinet. The dovish Bute soon clashed with Pitt over various aspects of British policy. Bute did give his assent to Pitt's plan for a British expedition tocapture the island of Belle Îlein 1761.

West German campaign

After his victory at Mindenthe Duke of Brunswickcontinued to lead the Anglo-German army which received increasing resources and reinforcements from Britain. Brunswick was now facing several large French armies under the overall command ofVictor-François, 2nd duc de Brogliewhich tried to envelop the west German frontier. The French still hoped to offset their losses to the British in other parts of the globe by capturingHanover—which could be used as a bargaining chip in any peace negotiations. The French continued to invest large numbers of troops—which were badly needed elsewhere. In 1761 Brunswick won another major victory over Broglie at theBattle of Villinghausen.

The French made a final attempt to invade Hanover in 1762 which was defeated at theBattle of Wilhelmsthal.Brunswick then went on the attack, driving the French southwards andcapturing Casselbefore the war was halted by anarmistice.^[67]

End of the Prussian Alliance

Bute began to champion the idea that Britain should disentangle itself from the German war, and suggested toFrederick the Greatthat he might make peace with Austria by giving them backSilesia.^[68]Frederick rejected the proposal, although Prussian fortunes were at a low ebb by 1761 following defeats on several fronts. Debates began in London about cancelling all British subsidies to Frederick entirely.

By early 1762—despite the success of Brunswick's army in Western Europe—Russian troops were poised to capture Berlin and a partition of Prussia was actively planned.^{[citation needed]}Frederick was sparedby the sudden death of EmpressElizabeth of Russia,who was succeeded by the pro-PrussianPeter III.He was an ardent admirer of Frederick and immediately switched Russia from an enemy of Prussia to an ally—withdrawing the threat from Berlin and sending his troops against the Austrians.^[69]This dramatically shifted thebalance of powerin Europe—suddenly handing Frederick the initiative. He recaptured southern Silesia and forced Austria to the negotiating table.^{[citation needed]}

War with Spain (1762)

Through careful diplomacy and the influence of a pro-British Spanish prime ministerRicardo Wall,Spain had remained neutral through most of the war. However, with the accession ofCharles IIIto the throne, Spanish foreign policy began to change. Charles was alarmed by the British conquest of the French Empire in North America, and feared his own empire would be Pitt's next target. He concluded theBourbon Family Compactwith France, offering them practical support.^[70]

With evidence of growing Franco-Spanish co-operation, Pitt suggested it was only a matter of time before Spain entered the war. The prospect of war with Spain shattered the cabinet unity which had existed up to that point. Pitt strongly advocated a pre-emptive strike which would allow them to capture the annualplate fleet,denying Spain of its vital resources of wealth which were shipped in. The rest of the cabinet refused, and Pitt resigned.^[71]In spite of this war with Spain swiftly became unavoidable, and on 4 January 1762 Britain duly declared war on Spain.^[72]Almost immediately, British ships under AdmiralCharles Saundersmoved to blockadeCádiz,the main port for silver fromNew Spain.

Portugal

The most pressing issue in the war with Spain was a threatened invasion ofPortugal.Portugal, although a historic British ally, had remained neutral through most of the conflict. By early 1762 they were drawn into the war with theFirst Cevallos expeditionand became a likely target of Spain. Portugal's long border with Spain was considered vulnerable and easy to overrun, rather than the more complex efforts that a siege of the British fortress ofGibraltarwould require. Spanish forces began massing on the Portuguese border, ready to strike. Britain moved swiftly to support their Portuguese allies, shipping in supplies and officers to help co-ordinate the defence.^[73]

The original Spanish plan was to takeAlmeidaand then to advance towards theAlentejoandLisbon,but they switched their target toPortoas it would strike more directly at British commerce. Under the direction of theMarquis of SarriaSpanish troops crossed fromGaliciainto northern Portugal capturing several towns. However, the thrust against Porto stalled in difficult terrain and due to the flooding of theRiver Esla.British troops began arriving that summer with 6,000 coming fromBelle ÎleunderLord Loudounand a further 2,000 from Ireland. Spain invested andcaptured the border fortress ofAlmeida. A British-Portuguese counter-attack led byJohn Burgoynecaptured the Spanish townValencia de Alcántara.^[74]French forces began to arrive to support the Spaniards, but like their allies they began to suffer high levels of attrition through disease and desertion. In November with problems with their lines of supply and communication the Bourbon allies withdrew and sued for peace.^[75]Despite the large numbers of forces involved, there had been no major battles.

Cuba

In June 1762 British forces from the West Indies landed on the island ofCubaand laid siege toHavana.Although they arrived at the height of the fever season, and previous expeditions against tropical Spanish fortresses failed due, in no small part, to tropical disease, the British government was optimistic of victory—if the troops could catch the Spanish off-guard before they had time to respond.^[76]The British commanderAlbermaleordered a tunnel to be dug by his sappers so aminecould be planted under the walls of the city's fortress. British troops began to fall from disease at an alarming rate, but they were boosted by the arrival of 4,000 reinforcements fromAmerica.On 30 July Albermale ordered the mine to be detonated, and his troops stormed the fortress.^[77]

With Havana now in their hands, the British lay poised to strike at other targets in theSpanish Mainshould the war continue for another year. However, the British had suffered heavy casualties, around 1,800 deaths and more than 4,000 casualties during the siege—almost entirely from disease, and for the moment could not further advance on the rest of Cuba and set about consolidating their hold on the countryside around Havana.^[78]During the year of British occupation, commerce in Havana boomed, as the port was opened up to trade with the British Empire rather than the restricted monopoly withCadizthat had existed before.^[78]In 1762, the British imported more than 10,000 African slaves from theBritish West Indiesto Havana, using the city as anentrepôtto supply their Caribbean andlower North American colonies.^[79]

Philippines

Almost as soon as war had been declared with Spain, orders had been despatched for a British force atMadrasto proceed to thePhilippinesand invadeManila.A combined force of 10,700 men underWilliam Draperset off from India in late July, arriving inManila Bayin September 1762. They had to move swiftly before themonsoon seasonhit.^[80]On 6 October the British stormed the city, capturing it. A large amount of plunder was taken from the city after theBattle of Manila.

Spanish forces regrouped underSimón de Anda y Salazar,who had escaped from Manila during the siege. Rebellions fomented by the British were sabotaged by Spanish agents and crushed by Spanish forces. Just like in Cuba with Havana, the British were prevented from extending their authority beyond Manila and the nearby port of Cavite, making their occupations limited and tenuous, not likely to last. All agreements made between the British commander and ArchbishopManuel Rojo del Río y Vieyrawere dismissed as illegal. Eventually the British forces started to suffer troop desertions and dissensions within the command.

Because news of the city's capture didn't reach Europe until after the Treaty of Paris, no provision was made regarding its status. During the siege, the Spanish lieutenant governor had agreed to a four million payment in silver dollars to the British known as the Manila Ransom in exchange for sparing the city but the full amount was never paid when word of what had happened in the Philippines reached Europe.^[81]The Spanish government demanded compensation for crimes committed against the residents of Manila during the occupation and the controversy over the ransom demanded by the British and the compensation demanded by the Spanish lasted many years. The twenty month occupation of Manila ended in 1764.

Other campaigns

Senegal

One of the earliest schemes Pitt had for colonial expeditions was in West Africa where France had several lucrative but strategically unimportant bases. He was fighting against a great deal of scepticism in the British government, which saw Europe as the main venue of warfare and all other theatres as costly distractions.^[82]As an initial test of his strategy Pitt gained support for a British expedition proposed by a New York merchantThomas Cummingto take the French trading station atFort Louison theSenegal Riverwhich they did with relative ease, carrying back a large amount of plunder to Britain.^[83]Subsequent expeditions also took out French posts atGoréeand on theRiver Gambia.

Martinique

Despite takingGuadeloupein 1759, the Britishattempt to occupy Martiniquethat year had ended in failure.^[84]In 1761 a fresh scheme to attack theFrench West Indieswas drawn up and Martinique wassuccessfully taken by a British forcein February 1762. This was followed up by the capture of the islands ofSaint Lucia,GrenadaandSaint Vincent.In each case many of the local planters and merchants welcomed the invasion, as it ended Britain's naval blockade and restored their access to international trade.^[85]

Newfoundland

In a final attempt to try to gain some advantage against the British, the French managed to slip an expedition through the British blockade and head towardsNewfoundland,considered valuable because of its largefishery.^[86]The small British garrison was swiftly overwhelmed and the French believed they could use Newfoundland as a bargaining counter to extract the return of several of their own territories. General Amherst responded by despatching a force of men from New York under his younger brotherWilliam Amherstto recapture the island. They managed to defeat a French force at theBattle of Signal Hillon 15 September 1762, forcing the total capitulation of the French expedition three days later.^[75]

Peace treaty

Negotiations

The participants of the Seven Years' War by 1762
Great Britain, Prussia, Portugal, with allies
France, Spain, Austria, Russia, Sweden with allies

By 1763, the British government had an extreme shortage of money, though not as severe as that facing the French government. The collapse of the alliance with the Prussians ended that costly involvement, and by late 1762 the war around the world was winding towards a close. In Britain the newBute ministryhad taken full control of government, following the departure of Newcastle in March 1762 after a power struggle. The government agreed to an armistice and began fresh negotiations with the French in Paris directed by theDuke of Bedford.

In Britain, the negotiations that proceeded to the peace agreement proved hugely controversial. Strong opposition, led principally by Newcastle and Pitt, was raised against the terms which were perceived to be exceedingly lenient towards France and Spain. A mob went so far as to attack a carriage carrying George III in protest at the alleged betrayal. Nonetheless, Bute felt the war needed to be brought to an end, and the terms on offer were reasonable.

Britain held a dominant position at the negotiations, as they had during the last seven years seizedCanada,Guadeloupe,Martinique,Dominica,Pondicherry,Senegal,andBelle Îlefrom the French andHavanaandManilafrom the Spanish. Only one British territory,Menorca,was in enemy hands. Despite suffering a year of defeats, Spain was prepared to fight on—something which their French allies were opposed to. Bute proposed a suggestion that France cede her remaining North American territory ofLouisianato Spain to compensate Madrid for its losses during the war. This formula was acceptable to the Spanish government, and allowed Britain and France to negotiate with more legroom.

Terms of the peace agreement

Having severed their connection with the Prussians the previous year, the British negotiated a separate peace to the Prussians—dealing with their two principal adversaries France and Spain. Britain received formal control of New France, while handing back Martinique and Guadeloupe. The British were handed all of mainland North America east of theMississippi River.The British also returned Havana and Manila to Spain in exchange forFlorida.

In the wake of Britain's territorial expansion SirGeorge Macartneyobserved that Britain now controlled "a vast Empire, on which the sun never sets".^[87]

Despite France's losses, Choiseul was satisfied not to have been forced to hand over more territory in the Caribbean and was delighted that he had been able to maintain a French presence in Newfoundland (Saint Pierre and Miquelon), guaranteeing continued access to the valuablefisherythere. A separate peace agreement between Austria and Prussia was concluded at theTreaty of Hubertusburgon 15 February returning Central Europe to thestatus quo ante bellum.

Legacy and aftermath

The number of casualties suffered by British forces were comparatively light, compared to the more than a million fatalities that occurred worldwide.

France and Spain both considered the treaty that ended the war as being closer to a temporary armistice rather than a genuine final settlement, and William Pitt described it as an "armed truce". Britain had customarily massively reduced the size of its armed forces during peace time, but during the 1760s a large military establishment was maintained—intended as a deterrent against France and Spain. The powers both sent agents to examine Britain's defenses believing that a successful invasion of Britain was an essential part of any war of revenge.^[88]

The British victory in the war sowed some of the seeds of Britain's later conflict in theAmerican War of Independence.American colonists had been delighted by the huge swathes of North America that had now been brought under formal British control, but many were angered by theProclamation of 1763,which was an attempt to protectNative Americanterritory—and prevent European settlement. Similarly the issue ofquarteringthe British regular troops became a thorny issue, with colonists objecting to their billeting in private homes. Events such as these contributed to a drift apart between the British government and many of its subjects in theThirteen Colonies.

The war had also brought to an end the "Old System" of alliances in Europe,^[89]In the years after the war, under the direction ofLord Sandwich,the British did try to re-establish this system but European states such as Austria and the Dutch Republic now saw Britain as a potentially greater threat than France and did not join them, while the Prussians were angered by what they considered a British betrayal in 1762. Consequently, when the American War of Independence turned into a global war between 1778 and 1783, Britain found itself opposed by a strong coalition of European powers, and lacking any substantial ally.

References

^Anderson, pp. 124–28
^Till, Geoffrey (2006).Development of British Naval Thinking: Essays in Memory of Bryan Ranft.Abingdon: Routledge. p. 77.ISBN 978-0-714-65320-4.
^^a ^bSchweizer, Karl W. (1989).England, Prussia, and the Seven Years War: Studies in Alliance Policies and Diplomacy.Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press. pp. 15–16.ISBN 978-0-88946-465-0.
^Black, Jeremy (1999).Britain As A Military Power, 1688–1815.London: UCL Press. pp. 45–78.ISBN 978-1-85728-772-1.
^For example,Simms, Brendan (2008).Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire.London: Penguin Books.ISBN 978-0-14-028984-8.OCLC 319213140.
^Vego, Milan N. (2003).Naval Strategy and Operations in Narrow Seas.London: Frank Cass. pp. 156–157.ISBN 978-0-7146-5389-1.
^^a ^bMcLynn p.
^Anderson pp. 62–65
^Anderson pp. 67–71
^Anderson pp. 98–109
^Anderson pp. 111–14
^McLynn pp. 35–36
^Anderson pp. 208–09
^Browning pp. 164–66
^Simms pp. 403–04
^Anderson pp. 125–29
^Carter p. 2
^Browning pp. 232–35
^RodgerCommand of the Oceanpp. 264–66
^Browning p. 236
^RodgerCommand of the Oceanpp. 266–67
^Anderson pp. 176–77
^Browning p. 242
^McLynn p. 256
^Anderson pp. 211–22
^McLynn p. 259
^McLynn pp. 259–60
^McLynn p. 240
^Rodger.Command of the Oceanp. 268
^Simms p. 446
^Keay pp. 282–95
^McLynn pp. 170–71
^McLynn p. 388
^Anderson p. 298
^McLynn pp. 1–5
^Middleton 1985.
^McLynn p. 183
^McLynn pp. 104–05
^McLynn pp. 105–08
^McLynn pp. 109–15
^Anderson pp. 314–15
^McLynn p. 116
^Dull pp. 122–23
^McLynn p. 264
^McLynn p. 265
^McLynn pp. 266–67
^McLynn pp. 279–81
^McLynn p. 238
^McLynn p. 233
^McLynn pp. 236–37
^Longmate pp. 180–81
^Simms pp. 463–64
^West pp. 250–54
^Anderson p. 377
^Simms pp. 475–76
^McLynn pp. 50–53
^Anderson p. 344
^McLynn p. 219
^McLynn pp. 219–22
^Anderson pp. 391–96
^Anderson pp. 398–99
^Anderson pp. 400–09
^Corbett. Volume II, p. 121
^Corbett. Volume II pp. 121–26
^Dull pp. 172–73
^Hibbert p. 27
^Anderson p. 496
^Anderson p. 495
^Anderson pp. 492–94
^Anderson & Cayton pp. 124–25
^Browning pp. 280–82
^Anderson pp. 487–90
^Anderson p. 497
^Anderson pp. 497–98
^^a ^bAnderson p. 498
^Anderson pp. 498–99
^Anderson pp. 499–501
^^a ^bAnderson pp. 501–02
^Rogozinsky, Jan.A Brief History of the Caribbean.Plume. 1999.
^RodgerCommand of the Oceanpp. 286–87
^Simms p. 555
^McLynn p. 99
^Anderson p. 306
^McLynn pp. 100–21
^Anderson p. 490
^Anderson pp. 483–84
^Simms p. 502
^Longmate pp. 183–85
^I.e., a structure of alliances with European powers, in which Britain had formed grand coalitions against the ambitions of Continetal single-powers in Europe

Bibliography

Anderson, Fred.Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766.Faber and Faber, 2001
Anderson, Fred and Cayton, Andrew.The Dominion of War: Empire and Liberty in North America 1500–2000. Penguin Books, 2005.
Anderson, Fred.The War that Made America: a Short History of the French and Indian War.Penguin Books, 2006.
Black, Jeremy.Pitt the Elder.Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Browning, Reed.The Duke of Newcastle.Yale University Press, 1975.
Brown, Peter Douglas.William Pitt, Earl of Chatham: The Great Commoner.George Allen & Unwin, 1978.
Carter, Alice Clare.The Dutch Republic in Europe in the Seven Years' War.MacMillan, 1971.
Dull, Jonathan R.The French Navy and the Seven Years' War.University of Nebraska, 2005.
Gipson, Lawrence H.The Great War for the Empire: The Years of Defeat, 1754–1757(1948);The Great War for the Empire: The Victorious Years, 1758–1760(1950) highly detailed narrative of the British war in North America and Europe.
Hibbert, Christopher.George III: A Personal History.Penguin Books, 1999
Hough, Richard.Captain James Cook: a biography.Hodder & Stoughton, 1995
Keay, John.The Honourable Company: A History of the English East India Company.Harper Collins, 1993
Kelch, Ray.Newcastle: A Duke Without Money.Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1974.
Longmate, Norman.Island Fortress: The Defence of Great Britain, 1603–1945.Harper Collins, 1993
McLynn, Frank.1759: The Year Britain Became Master of the World.Pimlico, 2005.
Middleton, Richard (1985),The Bells of Victory: The Pitt-Newcastle Ministry and the Conduct of the Seven Years' War, 1757–1762,Cambridge University Press.
O'Toole, Fintan.White Savage: William Johnson and the Invention of America.Faber and Faber, 2005.
Rodger NAM.Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815.Penguin Books, 2006.
N. A. M. Rodger,The Insatiable Earl: A Life of John Montagu, Fourth Earl of Sandwich(London: Harper Collins, 1993)
Simms, Brendan.Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire.Penguin Books (2008)

[1] Anderson, pp. 124–28

[2] Till, Geoffrey (2006).Development of British Naval Thinking: Essays in Memory of Bryan Ranft.Abingdon: Routledge. p. 77.ISBN 978-0-714-65320-4.

[Schweizer-3] Schweizer, Karl W. (1989).England, Prussia, and the Seven Years War: Studies in Alliance Policies and Diplomacy.Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press. pp. 15–16.ISBN 978-0-88946-465-0.

[black-4] Black, Jeremy (1999).Britain As A Military Power, 1688–1815.London: UCL Press. pp. 45–78.ISBN 978-1-85728-772-1.

[Simms-5] For example,Simms, Brendan (2008).Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire.London: Penguin Books.ISBN 978-0-14-028984-8.OCLC 319213140.

[6] Vego, Milan N. (2003).Naval Strategy and Operations in Narrow Seas.London: Frank Cass. pp. 156–157.ISBN 978-0-7146-5389-1.

[McLynn_p-7] McLynn p.

[8] Anderson pp. 62–65

[9] Anderson pp. 67–71

[10] Anderson pp. 98–109

[11] Anderson pp. 111–14

[12] McLynn pp. 35–36

[13] Anderson pp. 208–09

[14] Browning pp. 164–66

[15] Simms pp. 403–04

[16] Anderson pp. 125–29

[17] Carter p. 2

[18] Browning pp. 232–35

[19] RodgerCommand of the Oceanpp. 264–66

[20] Browning p. 236

[21] RodgerCommand of the Oceanpp. 266–67

[22] Anderson pp. 176–77

[23] Browning p. 242

[24] McLynn p. 256

[25] Anderson pp. 211–22

[26] McLynn p. 259

[27] McLynn pp. 259–60

[28] McLynn p. 240

[29] Rodger.Command of the Oceanp. 268

[30] Simms p. 446

[31] Keay pp. 282–95

[32] McLynn pp. 170–71

[33] McLynn p. 388

[34] Anderson p. 298

[35] McLynn pp. 1–5

[FOOTNOTEMiddleton1985-36] Middleton 1985.

[37] McLynn p. 183

[38] McLynn pp. 104–05

[39] McLynn pp. 105–08

[40] McLynn pp. 109–15

[41] Anderson pp. 314–15

[42] McLynn p. 116

[43] Dull pp. 122–23

[44] McLynn p. 264

[45] McLynn p. 265

[46] McLynn pp. 266–67

[47] McLynn pp. 279–81

[48] McLynn p. 238

[49] McLynn p. 233

[50] McLynn pp. 236–37

[51] Longmate pp. 180–81

[52] Simms pp. 463–64

[53] West pp. 250–54

[54] Anderson p. 377

[55] Simms pp. 475–76

[56] McLynn pp. 50–53

[57] Anderson p. 344

[58] McLynn p. 219

[59] McLynn pp. 219–22

[60] Anderson pp. 391–96

[61] Anderson pp. 398–99

[62] Anderson pp. 400–09

[63] Corbett. Volume II, p. 121

[64] Corbett. Volume II pp. 121–26

[65] Dull pp. 172–73

[66] Hibbert p. 27

[67] Anderson p. 496

[68] Anderson p. 495

[69] Anderson pp. 492–94

[70] Anderson & Cayton pp. 124–25

[71] Browning pp. 280–82

[72] Anderson pp. 487–90

[73] Anderson p. 497

[74] Anderson pp. 497–98

[Anderson_p.498-75] Anderson p. 498

[76] Anderson pp. 498–99

[77] Anderson pp. 499–501

[Anderson_pp._501–02-78] Anderson pp. 501–02

[79] Rogozinsky, Jan.A Brief History of the Caribbean.Plume. 1999.

[80] RodgerCommand of the Oceanpp. 286–87

[81] Simms p. 555

[82] McLynn p. 99

[83] Anderson p. 306

[84] McLynn pp. 100–21

[85] Anderson p. 490

[86] Anderson pp. 483–84

[87] Simms p. 502

[88] Longmate pp. 183–85

[os-89] I.e., a structure of alliances with European powers, in which Britain had formed grand coalitions against the ambitions of Continetal single-powers in Europe

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v t e Kingdom of Great Britain
History	Constitutional development Union of 1707 Union of 1801 External wars Seven Years' Jenkins Ear French and Indian American Revolutionary Boston Massacre Anglo-French War (1778–1783) Anglo-Dutch (1780–1784) French Revolutionary Whig plots Jacobitism Jacobite risings Panic of 1796–1797 Agricultural Revolution Scotland Financial Revolution	Floral Badge of Great Britain
Royal houses	Stuart Anne Hanover George I George II George III
Politics	Parliament House of Lords House of Commons List of parliaments Acts of Parliament: 1707 1708 1709 1710 1711 1712 1713 1714 1715–1719 1720–1724 1725–1729 1730–1734 1735–1739 1740–1744 1745–1749 1750–1754 1755–1759 1760–1764 1765 1766 1767 1768 1769 1770 1771 1772 1773 1774 1775 1776 1777 1778 1779 1780 1781 1782 1783 1784 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 1790 1791 1792 1793 1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 1800 Elections: 1708 1710 1713 1715 1722 1727 1734 1741 1747 1754 1761 1768 1774 1780 1784 1790 1796 Monarchy Peers Privy Council Prime Minister list Whigs Tories Whig Junto Patriot Whigs Kit-Cat Club
Geography	Great Britain England Scotland Wales
Architecture	Queen Anne Georgian
Literature	Periodicals Romantic literature in English Romanticism in Scotland Scottish 18th-century literature Blue Stockings Society
Other	East India Company British Empire Longitude prize Window tax Proclamation of Rebellion South Sea Company Speenhamland system Welsh Methodist revival
Symbols	Flag Royal arms