Anti-Judaism

For the scholarly criticism ofJudaism,seeCriticism of Judaism.For racial hostility to, prejudice against, or discrimination againstJews,seeAntisemitism.

Anti-Judaismis a term which is used to describe a range of historic and current ideologies which are totally or partially based on opposition toJudaism,on the denial or theabrogationof theMosaic covenant,and thereplacement of Jewish peopleby the adherents of anotherreligion,political theology,or way of life which is held to have superseded theirs as the "light to the nations" orGod's chosen people.The opposition is maintained by the adaptation of Jewish prophecy and texts. According toDavid Nirenbergthere have been Christian,Islamic, nationalistic, Enlightenment rationalist, and socio-economic variations of this theme.

There are three types of Anti-Judaism according toDouglas Hare:(1) Prophetic Anti-judaism - thecriticism of the beliefs and religious practicesof the religion; (2) Jewish-Christian anti-Judaism - Jews who believe that Jesus is the Messiah; and (3) Gentilizing anti-Judaism - emphasis on the gentile character of the new movement and claiming God's rejection of the old Israel.Mostscholarly analysesappear concerned with the phenomenon described by his third definition.

According toGavin Langmuir,it is based on "total or partial opposition toJudaismas areligion—and the total or partial opposition toJewsas adherents of it—by persons who accept a competingsystem of beliefsandpracticesand consider certain genuineJudaic beliefsandpracticesinferior. "

As the rejection of a particular way of thinking about God, anti-Judaism is distinct fromantisemitismbut historically, it has also encouraged the development ofracial antisemitism,aracistideology which was articulated in the 19th century. Some scholars have found intersections between theology and racism and as a result, they have coined the termreligious antisemitism.

Other examples of anti-Judaism include the Islamic doctrine oftahrifand other forms of enmity,

Pre-Christian Roman Empire

See also:History of the Jews in the Roman EmpireandReligion in ancient Rome

In Ancient Rome, religion was an integral part of the civil government. Beginning with the Roman Senate's declaration of the divinity of Julius Caesar on 1 January 42 BC, someEmperors were proclaimed gods on Earth,and demanded to be worshiped accordinglythroughout theRoman Empire.This created religious difficulties for those Jews, monotheistic, who adhere strictly to their customary law, and worshipers ofMithras,Sabaziusandearly Christians.At the time of Jesus' ministry, the Jews of the Roman Empire were a respected and privileged minority whose influence was enhanced by a relatively high level of literacy.The Jews were granted a number of concessions by the Romans (the right to observe theSabbathand to substitute prayers for the emperor in place of participation in the imperial cult).They had been exempted from military service on the Sabbath, for example.Julius Caesar, who never forgot the debt he owed toAntipater the Idumaeanfor playing a decisive role in theBattle of Pelusiumand thereby saving his life and career,was supportive of Jews, allowing them uniquely a right to assembly and to collect funds for Jerusalem.His enmity toward Pompey, who had conquered Jerusalem and defiled theHoly of Holies,enhanced his status among them, as he ordered the reconstruction of the walls of Jerusalem after the destruction wrought by Pompey.He may also have cultivated Jews asclientsto buttress his position in the East against the latter. At times he treated the high priestHyrcanus IIon equal terms by writing to him as Rome'spontifex maximus.Jews reacted to his assassination by mourning him publicly in Rome.

The crisis underCaligula(37–41) has been proposed as the "first open break between Rome and the Jews", even though problems were already evident during theCensus of Quiriniusin 6 and underSejanus(before 31).

After theJewish-Roman wars(66–135),Hadrianchanged the name ofIudaea provincetoSyria PalaestinaandJerusalemtoAelia Capitolinain an attempt to erase thehistorical ties of the Jewish people to the region.Although this idea has been pointed out as a mere assumption, with no basis in historical sources, according to other scholars.After 70, Jews and Jewishproselyteswere only allowed to practice their religion if they paid theJewish tax,and after 135 were barred from Jerusalem except for the day ofTisha B'Av.Frequent Jewish uprisings (two major wars in 66–73 and 133–136 CE, in addition to uprisings in Alexandria and Cyrene), xenophobia, and Jewish prerogatives and idiosyncrasies, were at the root of anti-Jewish feelings in some segments of Roman society.These confrontations did cause temporary erosions in the status of the Jews in the empire. Reversals in the relationship were temporary and did not have permanent or sustained impact.

Flavius Clemenswas put to death in 95 CE for "living a Jewish life" or "drifting into Jewish ways", an accusation also frequently made against Early Christians,and which may well have been related to the administration of the Jewish tax underDomitian.

The Roman Empireadopted Christianityas itsstate religionwith theEdict of Thessalonicaon 27 February 380.

Christian anti-Judaism

Early Christianity and the Judaizers

See also:List of events in early Christianity,Biblical law in Christianity,Paul of Tarsus and Judaism,andAnti-Judaism in early Christianity

Christianity startedas a sect withinJudaism.It was seen as such by theearly Christians,as well asJewsin general. The wider Roman administration most likely would not have understood any distinction. Historians debate whether or not the Roman government distinguished betweenChristians and Jewsbefore 96 CE, when Christians successfully petitionedNervato exempt them from theJewish tax(theFiscus Judaicus) on the basis that they were not Jews. From then on, practising Jews paid the tax while Christians did not.Christianity is based onJewish monotheism,scriptures(generally theGreek Old TestamentorTargumtranslations of theHebrew Bible),liturgy,andmorality.

The main distinction of the Early Christian community from its Jewish roots was the belief thatJesuswas the long-awaitedMessiah,as in theConfession of Peter,but that in itself would not have severed the Jewish connection. Another point of divergence was thequestioning by Christians of the continuing applicability of the Law of Moses(theTorah),though theApostolic Decreeof theApostolic Ageof Christianity appears to parallel theNoahide Lawof Judaism. The two issues came to be linked in a theological discussion within the Christian community as to whether the coming of the Messiah (FirstorSecond Coming) annulled either some (Supersessionism), or all (Abrogation of Old Covenant laws), of the Judaic laws in what came to be called aNew Covenant.

Thecircumcision controversywas probably the second issue (after the issue of Jesus as messiah) during which the theological argument was conducted in terms of anti-Judaism, with those who argued for the view that biblical law continued to be applicable being labelled "Judaizers"or"Pharisees"(e.g.Acts 15:5).The teachings ofPaul(d. ~67 CE), whose letters comprise much of theNew Testamentdemonstrate a "long battle against Judaizing."However,James the Just,who after Jesus's death was widely acknowledged as the leader of theJerusalem Christians,worshiped at theSecond TempleinJerusalemuntil his death in 62, thirty years after Jesus' death.

Thedestruction of the Second Templein 70 CE would lead Christians to "doubt the efficacy of the ancient law",thoughEbionismwould linger on until the5th century.However,Marcion of Sinope,whoadvocatedrejecting the entirety of Judaic influence on the Christian faith,would beexcommunicatedby theChurch in Romein 144 CE.

Anti-Judaic polemic

Anti-Judaic works of this period includeDe Adversus IudeaosbyTertullian,OctaviusbyMinucius Felix,De Catholicae Ecclesiae UnitatebyCyprian of Carthage,andInstructiones Adversus Gentium DeosbyLactantius.The traditional hypothesis holds that the anti-Judaism of these earlyfathers of the Church"were inherited from the Christian tradition ofBiblical exegesis"though a second hypothesis holds that early Christian anti-Judaism was inherited from the pagan world.

Taylor has observed that theological Christian anti-Judaism "emerge[d] from the church's efforts to resolve the contradictions inherent in its simultaneous appropriation and rejection of different elements of the Jewish tradition."

Modern scholars believe that Judaism may have been amissionaryreligion in the early centuries of the Christian or common era, converting so-calledproselytes,and thus competition for the religious loyalties of gentiles drove anti-Judaism.The debate and dialogue moved from polemic to bitter verbal and written attacks one against the other. However, since the last decades of the 20th century, the view that a proselytizing struggle between turn of the era Judaism and early Christianity may have been the main generator of anti-Jewish attitudes among early gentile believers in Jesus is eroding.Scholars have revisited the traditional claims about Jewish proselytizing and have largely concluded that active Jewish proselytizing was a later apologetic construct that does not reflect the reality of first century Judaism.

A statement about whether scrolls could be left to burn in a fire on the Sabbath is attributed toTarfon(died 135 CE). A disputedinterpretation identifies these books with theGospels(seeGilyonim): "TheGospelsmust be burned forpaganismis not as dangerous to the Jewish faith asJewish Christiansects. "The anonymousLetter to Diognetuswas the earliestapologeticwork in the early Church to address Judaism.Justin Martyr(died 165 CE) wrote the apologeticDialogue with Trypho,a polemical debate giving the Christian assertions for the Messiahship of Jesusby making use of theOld Testamentcontrasted with counter-arguments from a fictionalized version of Tarphon."For centuries defenders of Christ and the enemies of the Jews employed no other method" than these apologetics.Apologetics were difficult as gentile converts could not be expected to understand Hebrew; translations of theSeptuagintintoGreekprior toAquilawould serve as a basis for such cross-cultural arguments,also demonstrated wasOrigen's difficulties debating RabbiSimlai.

Though EmperorHadrianwas an "enemy of thesynagogue",the reign ofAntoninus Piusbegan a period of Roman benevolence toward the Jewish faith.Meanwhile, imperial hostility toward Christianity continued to crystallize; afterDecius,the empire was at war with it.An unequal power relationship between Jews and Christians in the context of theGreco-Romanworld generated anti-Jewish feelings among the early Christians.Feelings of mutual hatred arose, driven in part by Judaism's legality in theRoman Empire;inAntioch,where the rivalry was most bitter.

From Constantine to the 8th century

See also:Constantine I and JudaismandState church of the Roman Empire

WhenConstantineandLiciniuswere issuing theEdict of Milan,the influence of Judaism was fading in theLand of Israel(in favor ofChristianity) and seeing a rebirth outside the Roman Empire inBabylonia.

After his defeat of Licinius in 323 CE, Constantine showed Christians marked political preference. He repressed Jewish proselytism and forbade Jews fromcircumcisingtheir slaves.Jews were barred fromJerusalemexcept on the anniversary of theSecond Temple's destruction (Tisha B'Av) and then only after paying a special tax (probably theFiscus Judaicus) in silver.He also promulgated a law which condemned to the stake Jews who persecuted their apostates by stoning.Christianitybecame thestate religionof the Roman Empire (seeChristendom). "No sooner was [the Church] armed than it forgot its mostelementary principles,and directed the secular arm against its enemies. "and in 351 the Jews of Palestine revolted against Constantine's son in theJewish revolt against Constantius Gallus.

From the middle of the 5th century, apologetics ceased withCyril of Alexandria.This form of anti-Judaism had proven futile and often served to strengthen Jewish faith.With Christianity ascendant in the Empire, the "Fathers, the bishops, and the priest who had to contend against the Jews treated them very badly.Hosiusin Spain;Pope Sylvester I;Eusebiusof Caesaria call them 'a perverse, dangerous, and criminal sect.'"WhileGregory of Nyssamerely reproaches Jews asinfidels,other teachers are more vehement.Saint Augustinelabels theTalmudistsas falsifiers;Saint Ambroserecycled the earlieranti-Christiantrope and accuses Jews of despising Roman law.Saint Jeromeclaims Jews were possessed by an impure spirit.Saint CyrilofJerusalemclaimed theJewish Patriarchs,or Nasi, were a low race.

All these theological and polemical attacks combined inSaint John Chrysostom's six sermons delivered atAntioch.Chrysostom, anarchbishop of Constantinople,(died 407 CE) is very negative in his treatment of Judaism, though much morehyperbolicin expression.While Justin'sDialogueis a philosophical treatise, John'shomiliesAgainst the Jewsare a more informal and rhetorically forceful set of sermons preached in church. Delivered while Chrysostom was still apriestinAntioch,his homilies deliver a scathing critique of Jewish religious and civil life, warning Christians not to have any contact with Judaism or thesynagogueand to keep away from their festivals.

"There are legions of theologians, historians and writers who write about the Jews the same as Chrysostom:Epiphanius,Diodorus of Tarsus,Theodore of Mopsuestia,Theodoret of Cyprus,Cosmas Indicopleustes,Athanasius the Sinaiteamong the Greeks;Hilarius of Poitiers,Prudentius,Paulus Orosius,Sulpicius Severus,Gennadius,Venantius Fortunatus,Isidore of Seville,among the Latins. "

From the 4th to 7th centuries, while the bishops opposed Judaism in writing, the Empire enacted a variety of civil laws against Jews, such as forbidding them from holding public office, and an oppressive curial tax.Laws were enacted to harass their free observance of religion;Justinianwent so far as toenact a lawagainst Jewish daily prayers.

Through this period Jewish revolts continued. During theByzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628many Jews sided against theByzantine Empirein theJewish revolt against Heraclius,which successfully assisted the invading Persian Sassanids in conquering all of Roman Egypt and Syria. In reaction to this further anti-Jewish measures were enacted throughout the Byzantine realm and as far away asMerovingianFrance.Soon thereafter, 634, theMuslim conquestsbegan, during which many Jews initially rose up again against their Byzantine rulers.

The pattern wherein Jews were relatively free under pagan rulers until the Christian conversion of the leadership, as seen with Constantine, would be repeated in the lands beyond the now collapsed Roman Empire.Sigismund of Burgundyenacted laws against Jews after coming to the throne after his conversion in 514;likewise after the conversion ofReccared,king of theVisigothsin 589, which would have lasting effect when codified byReccesuinthin theVisigothic Codeof Law.This code inspired Jews to aidTariq ibn-Ziyad(a Muslim) in his overthrow ofRoderick,and under the Moors (also Muslims), Jews regained their usurped religious freedoms.

After the 8th century

Beginning with the8th century,legislation against heresies grew more severe. The Church, once confining itself to only the powers ofcanon law,increasingly appealed to secular powers. Heretics such as theVaudois,Albigenses,Beghards,Apostolic Brothers,andLuciferianswere thus "treated with cruelty"which culminated in the13th centuryestablishment of theInquisitionbyPope Innocent III.Jews were not ignored by such legislation, either, as they allegedly instigated Christians tojudaizations,either directly or unconsciously, by their existence. They sent forthmetaphysicianssuch asAmaury de BéneandDavid de Dinan;thePasagiansfollowedMosaic Law;theOrleans heresywas a Jewish heresy; theAlbigenstaught Jewish doctrine as superior to Christian; theDominicanspreached against both theHussitesand their Jewish supporters, and thus the imperial army sent to advance onJan Ziskamassacred Jews along the way.In Spain, whereCastiliancustom (fueros) had granted equal rights to Muslims, Christians, and Jews,Gregory XIinstituted theSpanish Inquisitionto spy on Jews and Moors wherever "by words or writings they urged the Catholics to embrace their faith".

Usurybecame a proximate cause of much anti-Jewish sentiment during the Middle Ages.In Italy and later Poland and Germany,John of Capistranostirred up the poor against the usury of the Jews;Bernardinus of Feltre,aided by the practical notion of establishingmont-de-piétés,called for the expulsion of Jews all over Italy andTyroland caused the massacre of the Jews atTrent.Kings, nobles, and bishops discouraged this behavior, protecting Jews from the monkRadulphein Germany and countering the preachings of Bernardinus in Italy.These reactions were from knowing the history of mobs, incited against Jews, continuing attacks against their rich co-religionists.Anti-Judaism was a dynamic in the early Spanish colonies in the Americas, where Europeans used anti-Judaicmemesand forms of thinking against Native and African peoples, in effect transferring anti-Judaism onto other peoples.

The Church kept to its theological anti-Judaism and, favoring the mighty and rich, was careful not to encourage the passions of the people.But while it sometimes interfered on behalf of the Jews when they were the objects of mob fury, it at the same time fueled the fury by combating Judaism.

During the Reformation

See also:Martin Luther and antisemitism

Martin Lutherhas been accused of antisemitism, primarily in relation to his statements aboutJewsin his bookOn the Jews and their Lies,which describes the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriating them, and providing detailed recommendation for apogromagainst them and their permanent oppression and/or expulsion. According toPaul Johnson,it "may be termed the first work of modern anti-Semitism, and a giant step forward on the road tothe Holocaust".In contrast,Roland Bainton,noted church historian and Luther biographer, wrote "One could wish that Luther had died before ever this tract was written. His position was entirely religious and in no respect racial".

Peter Martyr Vermigli,a shaper ofReformed Protestantism,took pains to maintain the contradiction, going back toPaul of Tarsus,of Jews being both enemy and friend, writing: "The Jews are not odious to God for the very reason they are Jews; for how could this have happened since they were embellished with so many great gifts...."

Scholarly analyses and contrasts

See also:Religious antisemitism

"The terms 'anti-Judaism' (the Christian aversion toward the Jewish religion) and 'antisemitism' (aversion toward the Jews as a racial or ethnic group) are omnipresent in the controversies over the churches' responsibility with regard to the extermination of the Jews" and "since 1945, most of the works on 'anti-Semitism' have contrasted this term with 'anti-Judaism''".

According toJeanne Favret-Saada,the scientific analysis of the links and difference between both terms is made difficult for two reasons. First is the definition: some scholars argue thatanti-Judaicrefers to Christian theology and to Christian theology only while others argue that the term applies also to the discriminatory policy of the churches [...]. Some authors also advance that eighteenth-century catechisms were "antisemitic" and others argue that the term cannot be used before the date of its first appearance in 1879. The second difficulty is that these two concepts place themselves in different contexts: the old and religious for theanti-Judaism' the new and political foranti-Semitism.

As examples regarding the nuances put forward by scholars:

• Leon Poliakov,inThe History of Anti-Semitism(1991) describes a transition from anti-Judaism to an atheist anti-Semitism going in parallel with the transition from religion to science, as if the former had vanished in the later and therefore differentiating both. InThe Aryan Myth(1995) he nevertheless writes that with the arrival of anti-Semitism, "the ineradicable feelings and resentments of the Christian West were to be expressed thereafter in a new vocabulary". According to Jeanne Fabret, "[if] there were fewer Christians going to church during the age of science, [...] religious representations kept shaping minds.
• ForGavin Langmuir,anti-Judaism is concerned with exaggerated accusations against Jews which nonetheless contain a particle of truth or evidence, whereas antisemitism reaches beyond unusual general inferences and is concerned with false suppositions.Thus Langmuir considers the labelling of Jews as 'Christ-killers' as anti-Judaic; accusations ofwell-poisoning,on the other hand, he regards as antisemitic.In his view, anti-Judaism and antisemitism have existed side by side from the 12th century onwards and have strengthened each other ever since.Theblood libelis another example of antisemitism, though it is based in distorted notions of Judaism.
• David Nirenberg,in his 2013 bookAnti-Judaism: The Western Traditionconsiders the allegation of Jewish impiety toward the gods and misanthropy, a core element of anti-Judaism in the version formulated byManetho,to reflect a pathology arising inancient Egypt,that came to underwriteWestern civilization,flowing thereafter fromNicene Christianity,through Islam and the Crusades to Enlightenment Universalism to the present daydefining it as a "theoretical framework for making sense of the world in terms of Jews and Judaism."
• In agreeing with Nirenberg's analysis and conclusion while recommending the book,Paula Frederiksenpresents his thesis with these quotes: “Anti-Judaism should not be understood as some archaic or irrational closet in the vast edifices of Western thought,” Nirenberg observes in his introduction. “It was rather one of the basic tools with which that edifice was constructed.” And as he ominously concludes, hundreds of pages later, “We live in an age in which millions of people are exposed daily to some variant of the argument that the challenges of the world they live in are best explained in terms of ‘Israel’.” She describes the formation ofEarly Christianityas "warring sects of mostly ex-pagan gentiles", stating that "the war was against heresy; the target was other gentile Christians. But the ammunition of choice was anti-Judaism.
• Jean-Paul Sartre's essayThe Anti-Semite and the Jewobserves that "if the Jew did not exist, the antisemite would invent him."
• Anti-Judaism has been distinguished from antisemitism based uponracialorethnicgrounds (racial antisemitism). "The dividing line [is] the possibility of effective conversion [...]. [A] Jew ceases[] to be a Jew upon baptism." However, with racial antisemitism, "the assimilated Jew [is] still a Jew, even after baptism [...]." According to William Nichols, "[f]rom theEnlightenmentonward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews [...]. Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear. "
• Similarly, in Anna Bikont's investigation of "the massacre of Jews in wartime Jedwabne, Poland" inThe Crime and the Silence,she recognizes the presence of antisemitism as a result of religious influence that is blurred with anti-Judaism characteristics.Bikont's explanation of life in Poland as a Jew post World War I reveals how it is often difficult to distinguish between anti-Judaism and antisemitism during this time of growing anti-Judaic ideology. Poles and Jews "lived separate lives and spoke different languages" which prevented Jews from fully assimilating into Poland culture.Jewish religious culture remained present and Jew's "social and cultural life ran on a separate track" compared to Poles.The ethnic differences were made more obvious through the obvious differences in culture which fuel anti-Judaic acts. Although Jews ran separate lives from Poles, they coexisted for a long time. "Jews, especially the young, got along fine in Polish, but at home they spoke Yiddish."Socially, Jews and Poles often participated in "picnics, festivities [together]… but Jews [were] often met with an unfriendly response from Poles, and in the latter half of the thirties they were simply thrown out of these organizations."Bikont believes that negative views towards Jews were reinforced through religious organizations like the Catholic Church and National Party in northern Europe. "The lives of Catholics revolved around the parish and the world of churchgoers, as well as events organized by the National Party, which was blatant in its exclusion of Jews.Bikont considers that the murderous actions towards Jews in Poland resulted from "[teachings of] contempt and hostility towards Jews, feelings that were reinforced in the course of their upbringing."These events are classified as antisemitic because of the change from increase of hostility and exclusion. The delusional perception of Jews escalated in 1933 when there was a "[revolution that] swept up the whole town... 'Shooting, windows broken, shutters closed, women shrieking, running home."Bikont believes that these violent aggressions towards Jews are considered acts of antisemitism because they are performed as revolutionary acts that were a part of the National Party's agenda. Much of the difference between defining anti-Judaism from antisemitism relies on the source of influence for beliefs and actions against Jews. Once Jews were viewed as the other from Poles, the discrimination transformed from ideology of religion to race which are shown through acts of violence.

Islamic anti-Judaism

A prominent place in theQuranicpolemic against the Jews is given to the conception of the religion ofAbraham.The Quran presents Muslims as neither Jews nor Christians but as followers of Abraham who was in a physical sense the father of both the Jews and the Arabs and lived before the revelation of theTorah.In order to show that the religion which is practiced by the Jews is not the pure religion that was practiced by Abraham, the Quran mentions the incident in which theIsraelitesworshipped theGolden calf,in order to argue that Jews do not believe in a part of the revelation that was given to them, and their practice ofusuryshows their worldliness and disobedience ofGod.Furthermore, the Quran claim they attribute to God what he has not revealed. In his polemic against Judaism,Ibn Hazmprovided a polemical list of what he considered "chronological and geographical inaccuracies and contradictions; theological impossibilities (anthropomorphic expressions, stories of fornication and whoredom, and the attributing of sins to prophets), as well as lack of reliable transmission (tawatur) of the text ".

Between the 9th and 13th centuries

Throughout theIslamic Golden Age,the relatively tolerant societies of the variouscaliphateswere still, on occasion, driven to enforce discriminatory laws against members of theJewish faith.Examples of these and more extreme persecutions occurred under the authority of multiple, radical Muslim Movements such as that of theFatimid CaliphAl-Hakim bi-Amr Allahin the 11th century, theAlmohad Caliphatein the 12th century, and in the 1160s CEShiiteAbd al-Nabi ibn Mahdi who was anImam of Yemen.

During the Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period

Differentiation laws were enforced much more regularly following the decline of secular influence within Islamic society and external threats posed by non-Muslims.

Modernist and Enlightenment Antijudaism

See also:On_the_Jewish_Question § Interpretations

Karl MarxinOn the Jewish Question,1843, argued that Judaism is not only a religion, because it is an attitude of alienation from the world resulting from the ownership of money and private property, and this feeling of alienation is not exclusive to the Jews. Rather than forcibly converting Jews to Christianity, he proposed the implementation of a program ofanti-Capitalism,in order to liberate the world from Judaism, thus defined. By framing his revolutionary economic and political project as the liberation of the world from Judaism, Marx expressed a "messianic desire" that was itself "quite Christian,"according toDavid Nirenberg.

However,David McLellanargued that "On the Jewish Question" must be understood in terms of Marx's debates with Bruno Bauer over the nature of political emancipation in Germany. According to McLellan, Marx used the word "Judentum" in its colloquial sense of "commerce" to argue that Germans suffer, and must be emancipated from, capitalism. The second half of Marx's essay, McLellan concludes, should be read as "an extended pun at Bauer's expense".

Yoav Peled (1992) sees Marx "shifting the debate over Jewish emancipation from the plane of theology... to the plane of sociology", thereby circumventing one of Bauer's main arguments. In Peled's view, "this was less than a satisfactory response to Bauer, but it enabled Marx to present a powerful case for emancipation while, at the same time, launching his critique of economic alienation". He concludes that "the philosophical advances made by Marx in 'On the Jewish Question' were necessitated by, and integrally related to, his commitment to Jewish emancipation".

See also

• Antireligionandantitheism
• Anti-Semitism
• Anti-Zionism
• Christianity and Judaism
• Christianity and other religions
• Christian–Jewish reconciliation
• Christian observances of Jewish holidays
• Christian views on the Old Covenant
• Christian Zionism
• Groups claiming affiliation with Israelites
• Judaizers
• Philosemitism
• Anti-Christian sentiment
• Criticism of Christianity
  • Anti-Catholicism
  • Anti-clericalism
  • Anti-Mormonism
  • Anti-Protestantism
  • Persecution of Christians
  • Persecution of Christians by Christians
  • Persecution of Oriental Orthodox Christians
  • Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians
  • Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses
  • Sectarian violence among Christians
• History of Christianity
  • Christianity and violence
    • History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance
    • Role of Christianity in civilization
  • Spread of Christianity
• Criticism of Islam
• Criticism of Israel
• Criticism of Judaism
• Criticism of religion
• History of Islam
  • Islam and violence
  • Spread of Islam
• Islam and other religions
  • Christianity and Islam
  • Islamic–Jewish relations
  • Muslim supporters of Israel
• Islamophobia
  • Anti-Shi'ism
  • Anti-Sunnism
  • Persecution of Muslims
    • Persecution of minority Muslim groups
    • Sectarian violence among Muslims
• History of religion
• Jewish history
• Jewish religious movements
• Jewish schisms
• Jewish views on religious pluralism
• Judaism and violence
• Persecution of early Christians by the Jews
• Persecution of Jews
• History of Zionism
• History of Israel

References

Bibliography

• Lazare, Bernard(1903).Antisemitism: Its History and Causes.New York: International Library.
• Langmuir, Gavin (1971). "Anti-Judaism as the necessary preparation for anti-Semitism".Viator,2:p. 383.
• Ben-Sasson, H. H. (1976).A History of the Jewish People.Harvard University Press.ISBN0674397312.
• Jacobson, David (2001),"When Palestine Meant Israel",Biblical Archaeology Review,27(3)
• Taylor, Miriam S. (1995).Anti-Judaism and Early Christian Identity: A Critique of the Scholarly Consensus.Leiden, New York, Köln: Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN9004021353.
• Abulafia, Anna Sapir (ed)(1998).Christians and Jews in Dispute: Disputational Literature and the Rise of Anti-Judaism in the West (c. 1000-1150)(Variorum Collected Studies Series). Aldershot, Hampshire: Ashgate.ISBN0-86078-661-7.
• Carroll, James(2002).Constantine's Sword: the Church and the Jews.Mariner Books, Houghton Mifflin.ISBN0-395-77927-8.
• Nirenberg, David(2013).Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition.New York: W. W. Norton & Company.ISBN978-0-393-34791-3.
• Fredriksen, Paula(9 December 2013)."Anti-Judaism and Early Christianity: on David Nirenbergs" Anti-Judaism, the Western Tradition "".Marginalia: LA Review of Books.Archived fromthe originalon 24 June 2021.Retrieved15 June2021.
• Nirenberg, David(Fall 2014). "'Judaism' as Political Concept: Toward a Critique ofpolitical theology".Representations.128(1). Regents of the University of California: 1–29.doi:10.1525/rep.2014.128.1.1.
• Rappaport, Ernest A.(1975).Anti-Judaism: a psychohistory.Perspective Press.ISBN9780960338207.

External links

• Was St. John Chrysostom Anti-Semitic?
• The Gospel of John and Christian Anti-Judaism
• The Spanish Inquisition – Presentation with images and videos