Automaton
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Anautomaton(/ɔːˈtɒmətən/;pl.:automataorautomatons) is a relatively self-operatingmachine,or control mechanism designed to automatically follow a sequence of operations, or respond to predetermined instructions.[1]Some automata, such asbellstrikersin mechanical clocks, are designed to give the illusion to the casual observer that they are operating under their own power or will, like a mechanicalrobot.The term has long been commonly associated with automatedpuppetsthat resemble moving humans or animals, built to impress and/or to entertain people.
Animatronicsare a modern type of automata withelectronics,often used for the portrayal of characters or creatures in films and in theme park attractions.
Etymology
[edit]The wordautomatonis the latinization of theAncient Greekautomaton(αὐτόματον), which means "acting of one's own will". It was first used byHomerto describe an automatic door opening,[2]or automatic movement of wheeled tripods.[3]It is more often used to describe non-electronic moving machines, especially those that have been made to resemble human or animal actions, such as the jacks on old public strikingclocks,or thecuckooand any other animated figures on acuckoo clock.
History
[edit]Ancient
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Inancient Egyptianlegends, statues of divinities, mostly made of stone, metal or wood, were animated and played a key role in religious ceremonies. They were believed to have a soul (akꜣ), derived from the divinity they represented. In theNew Kingdom of Egypt,from the 16th century BC until the 11th century BC, ancient Egyptians would frequently consult these statues for advice. The statues would reply with a movement of the head. According to Egyptian lore, pharaohHatshepsutdispatched her squadron to the "Land of Incense" after consulting with the statue of Amun.[4]
There are many examples of automata inGreek mythology:Hephaestuscreated automata for his workshop;[5][6]Taloswas an artificial man of bronze; KingAlkinousof thePhaiakiansemployed gold and silver watchdogs.[7][8]According toAristotle,Daedalususedquicksilverto make his wooden statue ofAphroditemove.[9][10]In other Greek legends he used quicksilver to install voice in his moving statues.
The automata in theHellenistic worldwere intended as tools, toys, religious spectacles, orprototypesfor demonstrating basic scientific principles. Numerous water-powered automata were built byKtesibios,a Greek inventor and the first head of theGreat Library of Alexandria;for example, he"used water to sound a whistle and make a model owl move. He had invented the world's first 'cuckoo clock'".[a]This tradition continued inAlexandriawith inventors such as theGreekmathematicianHero of Alexandria(sometimes known as Heron), whose writings onhydraulics,pneumatics,andmechanicsdescribedsiphons,afire engine,awater organ,theaeolipile,and a programmable cart.[11][12]Philo of Byzantiumwas famous for his inventions.
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Complex mechanical devices are known to have existed inHellenistic Greece,though the only surviving example is theAntikythera mechanism,the earliest knownanalog computer.[13]The clockwork is thought to have come originally fromRhodes,where there was apparently a tradition of mechanical engineering; the island was renowned for its automata; to quotePindar's seventhOlympic Ode:
- The animated figures stand
- Adorning every public street
- And seem to breathe in stone, or
- move their marble feet.
However, the information gleaned from recent scans of the fragments indicate that it may have come from the colonies ofCorinthinSicilyand implies a connection withArchimedes.
According toJewish legend,King Solomonused his wisdom to design athronewith mechanical animals which hailed him as king when he ascended it; upon sitting down an eagle would place a crown upon his head, and a dove would bring him aTorahscroll. It is also said that when King Solomon stepped upon the throne, a mechanism was set in motion. As soon as he stepped upon the first step, a golden ox and a golden lion each stretched out one foot to support him and help him rise to the next step. On each side, the animals helped the King up until he was comfortably seated upon the throne.[14]
Inancient China,a curious account of automata is found in theLie Zitext, believed to have originated around 400 BCE and compiled around the fourth century CE. Within it there is a description of a much earlier encounter betweenKing Mu of Zhou(1023–957 BCE) and a mechanical engineer known as Yan Shi, an 'artificer'. The latter proudly presented the king with a very realistic and detailed life-size, human-shaped figure of his mechanical handiwork:
The king stared at the figure in astonishment. It walked with rapid strides, moving its head up and down, so that anyone would have taken it for a live human being. The artificer touched its chin, and it began singing, perfectly in tune. He touched its hand, and it began posturing, keeping perfect time...As the performance was drawing to an end, the robot winked its eye and made advances to the ladies in attendance, whereupon the king became incensed and would have had Yen Shih [Yan Shi] executed on the spot had not the latter, in mortal fear, instantly taken the robot to pieces to let him see what it really was. And, indeed, it turned out to be only a construction of leather, wood, glue and lacquer, variously coloured white, black, red and blue. Examining it closely, the king found all the internal organs complete—liver, gall, heart, lungs, spleen, kidneys, stomach and intestines; and over these again, muscles, bones and limbs with their joints, skin, teeth and hair, all of them artificial...The king tried the effect of taking away the heart, and found that the mouth could no longer speak; he took away the liver and the eyes could no longer see; he took away the kidneys and the legs lost their power of locomotion. The king was delighted.[15]
Other notable examples of automata includeArchytas' dove, mentioned byAulus Gellius.[16]Similar Chinese accounts of flying automata are written of the 5th century BCMohistphilosopherMoziand his contemporaryLu Ban,who made artificial wooden birds (ma yuan) that could successfully fly according to theHan Fei Ziand other texts.[17]
Medieval
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The manufacturing tradition of automata continued in the Greek world well into the Middle Ages. On his visit toConstantinoplein 949 ambassadorLiutprand of Cremonadescribed automata in the emperorTheophilos' palace, including
"lions, made either of bronze or wood covered with gold, which struck the ground with their tails and roared with open mouth and quivering tongue," "a tree of gilded bronze, its branches filled with birds, likewise made of bronze gilded over, and these emitted cries appropriate to their species" and "the emperor's throne" itself, which "was made in such a cunning manner that at one moment it was down on the ground, while at another it rose higher and was to be seen up in the air."[18]
Similar automata in the throne room (singing birds, roaring and moving lions) were described by Luitprand's contemporary the Byzantine emperorConstantine Porphyrogenitus,in his bookDe Ceremoniis(Perì tês Basileíou Tákseōs).
In the mid-8th century, the firstwind poweredautomata were built: "statues that turned with the wind over the domes of the four gates and thepalace complexof theRound City of Baghdad".The" public spectacle of wind-powered statues had its private counterpart in the 'Abbasidpalaces where automata of various types were predominantly displayed. "[19]Also in the 8th century, theMuslim alchemist,Jābir ibn Hayyān(Geber), included recipes for constructing artificialsnakes,scorpions,andhumansthat would be subject to their creator's control in his codedBook of Stones.In 827,Abbasid caliphal-Ma'munhad a silver and golden tree in his palace inBaghdad,which had the features of an automatic machine. There were metal birds that sang automatically on the swinging branches of this tree built byMuslim inventorsandengineers.[20][page needed]The Abbasid caliphal-Muqtadiralso had a silver and golden tree inhis palacein Baghdad in 917, with birds on it flapping their wings and singing.[21]In the 9th century, theBanū Mūsābrothers invented aprogrammableautomaticfluteplayer and which they described in theirBook of Ingenious Devices.[22]
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Al-Jazaridescribed complex programmablehumanoid automataamongst other machines he designed and constructed in theBook of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devicesin 1206.[23]His automaton was a boat with four automatic musicians that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties.[24]Hismechanismhad a programmable drum machine with pegs (cams) that bump into littleleversthat operate thepercussion.The drummer could be made to play different rhythms and drum patterns if the pegs were moved around.[25]
Al-Jazari constructed ahand washingautomaton first employing the flush mechanism now used in moderntoilets.It features a female automaton standing by abasinfilled with water. When the user pulls the lever, the water drains and the automaton refills the basin.[26]His "peacock fountain" was another more sophisticated hand washing device featuring humanoid automata asservantswho offersoapandtowels.Mark E. Rosheim describes it as follows: "Pulling a plug on the peacock's tail releases water out of the beak; as the dirty water from the basin fills the hollow base a float rises and actuates alinkagewhich makes a servant figure appear from behind a door under the peacock and offer soap. When more water is used, a second float at a higher level trips and causes the appearance of a second servant figure—with a towel! "[27]
Al-Jazari thus appears to have been the first inventor to display an interest in creating human-like machines for practical purposes such as manipulating the environment for human comfort.[28]Lamia Balafrej has also pointed out the prevalence of the figure of the automated slave in al-Jazari's treatise.[29]Automated slaves were a frequent motif in ancient and medieval literature but it was not so common to find them described in a technical book. Balafrej has also written about automated female slaves, which appeared in timekeepers and as liquid-serving devices in medieval Arabic sources, thus suggesting a link between feminized forms of labor like housekeeping, medieval slavery, and the imaginary of automation.[30]
In 1066, the Chinese inventor Su Song built awater clockin the form of a tower which featured mechanical figurines which chimed the hours.[31]
Samarangana Sutradhara,aSanskrittreatise byBhoja(11th century), includes a chapter about the construction of mechanical contrivances (automata), including mechanical bees and birds, fountains shaped like humans and animals, and male and female dolls that refilled oil lamps, danced, played instruments, and re-enacted scenes from Hindu mythology.[32][33][34][better source needed]
Villard de Honnecourt,in his 1230s sketchbook, depicted an early escapement mechanism in a drawing titledHow to make an angel keep pointing his finger toward the Sunwith an angel that would perpetually turn to face the sun. He also drew an automaton of a bird with jointed wings, which led to their design implementation in clocks.[35][36]
At the end of the thirteenth century,Robert II, Count of Artois,built a pleasure garden at his castle atHesdinthat incorporated several automata as entertainment in the walled park. The work was conducted by local workmen and overseen by the Italian knight Renaud Coignet. It included monkey marionettes, a sundial supported by lions and "wild men", mechanized birds, mechanized fountains and a bellows-operated organ. The park was famed for its automata well into the fifteenth century before it was destroyed by English soldiers in the sixteenth century.[37][38][39]
The Chinese author Xiao Xun wrote that when theMing dynastyfounderHongwu(r. 1368–1398) was destroying the palaces ofKhanbaliqbelonging to the previousYuan dynasty,there were—among many other mechanical devices—automata found that were in the shape of tigers.[40]
Renaissance and early modern
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TheRenaissancewitnessed a considerable revival of interest in automata. Hero's treatises were edited and translated into Latin and Italian. Hydraulic and pneumatic automata, similar to those described by Hero, were created for gardengrottoes.
Giovanni Fontana,aPaduanengineer in 1420, developedBellicorum instrumentorum liber[b]which includes a puppet of acameliddriven by a clothed primate twice the height of a human being and an automaton of Mary Magdalene.[42]He also created mechanical devils and rocket-propelled animal automata.[43][44]
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While functional, early clocks were also often designed as novelties and spectacles which integrated features of automata. Many big and complex clocks with automated figures were built as public spectacles in Europeantown centres.One of the earliest of these large clocks was theStrasbourg astronomical clock,built in the 14th century which takes up the entire side of a cathedral wall. It contained an astronomical calendar, automata depicting animals, saints and the life of Christ. The mechanical rooster of Strasbourg clock was active from 1352 to 1789.[45][46]The clock still functions to this day, but has undergone several restorations since its initial construction. ThePrague astronomical clockwas built in 1410, animated figures were added from the 17th century onwards.[47]Numerous clockwork automata were manufactured in the 16th century, principally by the goldsmiths of theFree Imperial Citiesof central Europe. These wondrous devices found a home in thecabinet of curiositiesorWunderkammernof the princely courts of Europe.
In 1454,Duke Philipcreated an entertainment show namedThe extravagantFeast of the Pheasant,which was intended to influence the Duke's peers to participate in a crusade against the Ottomans but ended up being a grand display of automata, giants, and dwarves.[48]
A banquet in Camilla of Aragon's honor in Italy, 1475, featured a lifelike automated camel.[49]The spectacle was a part of a larger parade which continued over days.
Leonardo da Vincisketched a complex mechanical knight, which he may have built and exhibited at a celebration hosted byLudovico Sforzaat the court of Milan around 1495. The design ofLeonardo's robotwas not rediscovered until the 1950s. A functional replica was later built that could move its arms, twist its head, and sit up.[50]
Da Vinci is frequently credited with constructing a mechanicallion,which he presented toKing Francois IinLyonin 1515. Although no record of the device's original designs remain, a recreation of this piece is housed at theChâteau du Clos Lucé.[51]
TheSmithsonian Institutionhas in its collection a clockwork monk, about 15 in (380 mm) high, possibly dating as early as 1560. The monk is driven by a key-wound spring and walks the path of a square, striking his chest with his right arm, while raising and lowering a small wooden cross and rosary in his left hand, turning and nodding his head, rolling his eyes, and mouthing silent obsequies. From time to time, he brings the cross to his lips and kisses it. It is believed that the monk was manufactured byJuanelo Turriano,mechanician to theHoly Roman EmperorCharles V.[52]
The first description of a moderncuckoo clockwas by theAugsburgnoblemanPhilipp Hainhoferin 1629.[53]The clock belonged to Prince ElectorAugust von Sachsen.By 1650, the workings of mechanical cuckoos were understood and were widely disseminated inAthanasius Kircher's handbook on music,Musurgia Universalis.In what is the first documented description of how a mechanical cuckoo works, a mechanical organ with several automated figures is described.[54]In 18th-century Germany, clockmakers began making cuckoo clocks for sale.[47]Clock shops selling cuckoo clocks became commonplace in theBlack Forestregion by the middle of the 18th century.[55]
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Japanadopted clockwork automata in the early 17th century as "karakuri"puppets. In 1662, Takeda Omi completed his firstbutai karakuriand then built several of these large puppets for theatrical exhibitions. Karakuri puppets went through a golden age during theEdo period(1603–1867).[56]
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A new attitude towards automata is to be found inRené Descarteswhen he suggested that the bodies of animals are nothing more than complex machines – the bones, muscles and organs could be replaced withcogs,pistons,andcams.Thusmechanismbecame the standard to whichNatureand theorganismwas compared.[57]Francein the 17th century was the birthplace of those ingeniousmechanical toysthat were to become prototypes for the engines of theIndustrial Revolution.Thus, in 1649, whenLouis XIVwas still a child,François-Joseph de Camusdesigned for him a miniature coach, complete with horses and footmen, a page, and a lady within the coach; all these figures exhibited a perfect movement. According toLabat,General de Gennesconstructed, in 1688, in addition to machines for gunnery and navigation, a peacock that walked and ate.Athanasius Kircherproduced many automata to create Jesuit shows, including a statue which spoke and listened via aspeaking tube.
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The world's first successfully-built biomechanical automaton is considered to beThe Flute Player,which could play twelve songs, created by the French engineerJacques de Vaucansonin 1737. He also constructedThe Tambourine Playerand theDigesting Duck,a mechanical duck that – apart from quacking and flapping its wings – gave the false illusion of eating and defecating, seeming to endorse Cartesian ideas that animals are no more than machines of flesh.[58]
In 1769, a chess-playing machine calledthe Turk,created byWolfgang von Kempelen,made the rounds of the courts ofEuropepurporting to be an automaton.[59]: 34 The Turk beatBenjamin Franklinin a game of chess when Franklin was ambassador to France.[59]: 34–35 The Turk was actually operated from inside by a hidden human director, and was not a true automaton.
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Other 18th century automaton makers include the prolific SwissPierre Jaquet-Droz(seeJaquet-Droz automata) and his son Henri-Louis Jaquet-Droz, and his contemporaryHenri Maillardet.Maillardet, a Swiss mechanic, created an automaton capable of drawing four pictures and writing three poems. Maillardet's Automaton is now part of the collections at theFranklin InstituteScience Museum inPhiladelphia.Belgian-bornJohn Joseph Merlincreated the mechanism of theSilver Swanautomaton, now atBowes Museum.[60]A musical elephant made by the FrenchclockmakerHubert Martinet in 1774 is one of the highlights ofWaddesdon Manor.[61]Tipu's Tigeris another late-18th century example of automata, made forTipu Sultan,featuring a European soldier being mauled by a tiger.Catherine the Greatof Russia was gifted a very large and elaboratePeacock Clockcreated by James Cox in 1781 now on display in theHermitage MuseuminSaint Petersburg.
According to philosopherMichel Foucault,Frederick the Great,king of Prussiafrom 1740 to 1786, was "obsessed" with automata.[62]According toManuel de Landa,"he put together his armies as a well-oiledclockworkmechanism whose components were robot-like warriors ".
In 1801,Joseph Jacquardbuilthis loom automatonthat was controlled autonomously with punched cards.
Automata, particularly watches and clocks, were popular in China during the 18th and 19th centuries, and items were produced for the Chinese market. Strong interest by Chinese collectors in the 21st century brought many interesting items to market where they have had dramatic realizations.[63]
Modern
[edit]The famous magicianJean-Eugène Robert-Houdin(1805–1871) was known for creating automata for his stage shows.[64][59]: 33 Automata that acted according to a set of preset instructions were popular with magicians during this time.[59]: 33
In 1840, Italian inventorInnocenzo Manzetticonstructed aflute-playing automaton, in the shape of a man, life-size, seated on a chair. Hidden inside the chair were levers, connecting rods andcompressed airtubes, which made the automaton's lips and fingers move on the flute according to a program recorded on a cylinder similar to those used inplayer pianos.The automaton was powered by clockwork and could perform 12 different arias. As part of the performance, it would rise from the chair, bow its head, and roll its eyes.
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The period between 1860 to 1910 is known as "The Golden Age of Automata". Mechanical coin-operated fortune tellers were introduced to boardwalks in Britain and America.[65]In Paris during this period, many small family based companies of automata makers thrived. From their workshops they exported thousands of clockwork automata and mechanical singing birds around the world. Although now rare and expensive, these French automata attract collectors worldwide. The main French makers wereBontems,Lambert, Phalibois, Renou,Roullet & Decamps,Theroude and Vichy.
Abstract automata theory started in mid-20th century withfinite automata;[66]it is applied in branches offormalannatural scienceincludingcomputer science,physics,biology,as well aslinguistics.
Contemporary automata continue this tradition with an emphasis on art, rather than technological sophistication. Contemporary automata are represented by the works ofCabaret Mechanical Theatrein theUnited Kingdom,Thomas Kuntz,[67]Arthur Ganson,Joe JonesandLe Défenseur du Tempsby French artistJacques Monestier.
Since 1990 Dutch artistTheo Jansenhas been building large automated PVC structures calledstrandbeest(beach animal) that can walk on wind power or compressed air. Jansen claims that he intends them to automatically evolve and developartificial intelligence,with herds roaming freely over the beach.
British sculptorSam Smith(1908–1983) was a well-known maker of automata.[68][69][70]
Proposals
[edit]In 2016, theNASA Innovative Advanced Conceptsprogram studied a rover, theAutomaton Rover for Extreme Environments,designed to survive for an extended time in Venus' environmental conditions. Unlike other modern automata, AREE is an automaton instead of arobotfor practical reasons—Venus's harsh conditions, particularly its surface temperature of 462 °C (864 °F), make operating electronics there for any significant time impossible. It would be controlled by amechanical computerand driven by wind power.[71]
Clocks
[edit]Automaton clocks are clocks which feature automatons within or around the housing and typically activate around the beginning of each hour, at each half hour, or at each quarter hour. They were largely produced from the 1st Century BC to the end of the Victorian times in Europe. Older clocks typically featured religious characters or other mythical characters such as Death or Father Time. As time progressed, however, automaton clocks began to feature influential characters at the time of creation, such as kings, famous composers, or industrialists. Examples of automaton clocks includeChariot clockandCuckoo Clocks.TheCuckooland Museumexhibits autonomous clocks. While automaton clocks' usage are largely perceived to have been in use during medieval times in Europe, they are largely produced in Japan today.
InAutomata theory,clocks are regarded astimed automatons,a type offinite automaton.Automaton clocks being finite essentially means that automaton clocks have a certain number of states in which they can exist.[72]The exact number is the number of combinations possible on a clock with the hour, minute, and second hand: 43,200. The title of timed automaton declares that the automaton changes states at a set rate, which for clocks is 1 state change every second. Clock automata only takes as input the time displayed by the previous state. The automata uses this input to produce the next state, a display of time 1 second later than the previous. Clock automata often also use the previous state's input to 'decide' whether or not the next state requires merely changing the hands on the clock, or if a special function is required, such as a mechanical bird popping out of a house like in cuckoo clocks.[73]This choice is evaluated through the position of complex gears, cams, axles, and other mechanical devices within the automaton.[74]
In art and popular culture throughout history
[edit]- One of the oldest stories involving an automaton is"The Sandman" (short story)written in 1816 byE. T. A. Hoffmann.[75]
- The Clockwork Man(1923) by E.V. Odle, features an automaton-like man orcyborg.[76]
- Metropolis(1927 silent film) features a female automaton in this science fiction story.
- Elizabeth King,American artist and sculptor, has work that has focused on automata.[77]
- The Pretended(2000 novel) by Darryl A. Smith features automata doppelgängers in order to critique race.[78]
- The Invention of Hugo CabretbyBrian Selznick(2007 graphic novel) and film of the same name features an automaton.
- The Alchemy of StonebyEkaterina Sediais a 2008 novel that features an automaton girl who must be wound up with a key to live.
- The Automation(2014 novel) and its sequel The Pre-programming (2018) features creatures called "Automatons" created by the Greco-Roman godVulcan.
- Genshin Impactfeatures an enemy group called an Automaton (Chinese:Tự hạn chế cơ quan) which are mechanical beings with most originating from the lost kingdom of Khaenri'ah.
- Immortals Fenyx Rising(2020) includes a side plot featuring a fallenHephaistosand his automatons, complete with an automaton Boss fight.[79]
- American Godsseason 3 (2021) features an automaton at a fair made by an early version of Technical Boy. This differs from the novel the show is based on.
- In theSyberiavideo game series, one of the main characters is an automaton called Oscar. He is very proud of his own design and dislikes being called a "robot".
- In the video gameHelldivers 2,one of the enemy factions is called the Automatons.
See also
[edit]- Automata theory,the study of abstract machines and automata
- Mechanical toy
- Wind-up toy
- Android
- Brazen head
- Cellular automaton
- Centre International de la Mécanique d'Art
- Christian Ristow
- Ctesibius
- Genesis Redux
- Fortune teller machine
- Giles Walker
- Golem
- Hero of Alexandria
- La Maison de la Magie Robert-Houdindisplay of 19th century automata
- Maillardet's automaton
- Marvin's Marvelous Mechanical Museum
- Orchestrion
- Singing bird box
- Theo Jansen
- Whirligig
Further reading
[edit]- Bailly, Christian (2003).Automata: The Golden Age: 1848–1914.London: Robert Hale.ISBN9780709074038.
- Balafrej, Lamia (2022)."Automated Slaves, Ambivalent Images, and Noneffective Machines in al-Jazari's Compendium of the Mechanical Arts, 1206".21: Inquiries into Art, History, and the Visual.3(4): 737–774.doi:10.11588/xxi.2022.4.91685.ISSN2701-1569.
- Baynes, T. S., ed. (1878).Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. III (9th ed.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 142. .
- Beyer, Annette (1983).Faszinierende Welt der Automaten: Uhren, Puppen, Spielereien(1st ed.). München: Callwey.ISBN9783766706591.
- Bowers, Q. David (1974).Encyclopedia of Automatic Musical Instruments(4. printing ed.). Vestal, NY: Vestal Press.ISBN9780911572087.
- Brauers, Jan (1984).Von der Äolsharfe zum Digitalspieler: 2000 Jahre mechanische Musik, 100 Jahre Schallplatte.München: Klinkhardt & Biermann.ISBN9783781402393.
- Chapuis, Alfred; Gélis, Edouard (1928).Le monde des automates; étude historique et technique.OCLC3006589.
- Critchley, Macdonald; Henson, R. A. (1978).Music and the brain. Studies in the neurology of music.London: Heinemann.ISBN9780433067030.
- Waard, R. D. (1967).From music boxes to street organs.OCLC609338403.
- Chapuis, Alfred; Droz, Edmond (1956).The Jaquet-Droz mechanical puppets.Neuchatel: Historical Museum.OCLC315497609.
- Hyman, Wendy Beth (2011).The Automaton in English Renaissance Literature.Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate.ISBN978-0-7546-6865-7.
- Cardinal, Catherine; Mercier, François (1993).Museums of horology La Chaux-de-Fonds, Le Locle.Geneva: Banque Paribas.ISBN9783908184348.
- Montiel, Luis (30 June 2013)."Proles sine matre creata: The Promethean Urge in the History of the Human Body in the West".Asclepio.65(1): 001.doi:10.3989/asclepio.2013.01.
- Lapaire, Claude (1992).Clock and Watch Museum, Geneva.Geneva: Art and History Museum.ISBN9782830600728.
- Ord-Hume, Arthur W. J. G. (1973).Clockwork music: an illustrated history of mechanical musical instruments from the music box to the pianola, from automation lady virginal players to orchestrion.New York: Crown Publishers.ISBN9780517500002.
- Ord-Hume, Arthur W.J.G. (1978).Barrel organ: the story of the mechanical organ and its repair.South Brunswick, N.J.: A.S. Barnes.ISBN9780498014826.
- Rausser, Fernand; Bonhôte, Daniel; Baud, Frédy (1972).All'Epoca delle Scatole Musicali,Edizioni Mondo, 175 pp.
- Carrera, Roland; Loiseau, Dominique; Roux, Olivier; Luder, Jean Jacques (1979).Androids: The Jaquet-Droz Automatons.Lausanne: Scriptar.ISBN9782880120184.
- Troquet, Daniel (1989).The wonderland of music boxes and automata.Sainte-Croix.OCLC27888631.
{{cite book}}
:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Webb, Graham (1984).The musical box handbook(2nd ed.). Vestal, NY: Vestal Press.ISBN9780911572360.
- Weiss-Stauffacher, Heinrich; Bruhin, Rudolf (1976).The marvelous world of music machines.Tokyo: Kodansha International.ISBN9780870112584.
- Winter-Jensen, Anne (1987).Automates & musiques: pendules.Genève: Musée de l'horlogerie et de l'émaillerie.ISBN9782830600476.
- Wosk, Julie (2015).My Fair Ladies: Female Robots, Androids, and Other Artificial Eves.ISBN9780813563374.
Notes
[edit]- ^This "first cuckoo clock" was further stated and described in the 2007 bookThe Rise and Fall of Alexandria: Birthplace of the Modern Worldby Justin Pollard and Howard Reid on page 132:"Soon Ctesibius's clocks were smothered in stopcocks and valves, controlling a host of devices from bells to puppets to mechanical doves that sang to mark the passing of each hour – the very first cuckoo clock!"
- ^Full title:Bellicorum instrumentorum liber, cum figuris et fictitys litoris conscriptus,Latin for "Illustrated and encrypted book of war instruments"[41]
References
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... the date of the design and possible construction of this robot was 1495... Beginning in the 1950s, investigators at the University of California began to ponder the significance of some of da Vinci's markings on what appeared to be technical drawings... It is now known that da Vinci's robot would have had the outer appearance of a Germanic knight.
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External links
[edit]- The Automata and Art Bots mailing list home pageArchived2016-03-03 at theWayback Machine
- History
- Modern Automata Museum
- The House of Automata – The largest online gallery of automata
- Automata Magazine
- Maillardet's Automaton
- Japanese KarakuriArchived2021-03-18 at theWayback Machine
- J. Douglas Bruce, 'Human Automata in Classical Tradition and Mediaeval Romance',Modern Philology,Vol. 10, No. 4 (Apr., 1913), pp. 511–526
- M. B. Ogle, 'The Perilous Bridge and Human Automata',Modern Language Notes,Vol. 35, No. 3 (Mar., 1920), pp. 129–136
- conservation of automata
- Thomas Edison's talking doll
- Automata in the Waddesdon Manor collection
- Video of elephant automatononYouTube
- Video of Catherine the Great's 'The Peacock Clock'onYouTube