War of the First Coalition
| War of the First Coalition | |||||||||
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| Part of theFrench Revolutionary Warsand theCoalition Wars | |||||||||
 Click an image to load the appropriate article. Left to right, top to bottom: Battles ofValmy,Toulon,Fleurus,Quiberon,ArcoleandMantua | |||||||||
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First Coalition:
 Papal States(until 1797)[7] Parma(until 1796) Portugal Prussia(until 1795)[5] Sardinia(until 1796)[8] Spain(until 1795)[5] Naples(until 1796)Other Italian states[9] |
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| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
 94,000 soldiers killed in combat[16]~282,000 died of disease 220,000 captured 100,000 wounded[17] |
 100,000 soldiers killed in combat~300,000 died of disease 150,000 captured[18][16] | ||||||||
TheWar of the First Coalition(French:Guerre de la Première Coalition) was a set of wars that several European powers fought between 1792 and 1797, initially against theconstitutional Kingdom of Franceand then theFrench Republicthat succeeded it.[19]They were only loosely allied and fought without much apparent coordination or agreement; each power had its eye on a different part of France it wanted to appropriate after a French defeat, which never occurred.[20]
Relations between the French revolutionaries and neighbouring monarchies had deteriorated following theDeclaration of Pillnitzin August 1791. Eight months later,following a vote of the revolutionary-led Legislative Assembly,France declared war onAustriaon 20 April 1792;Prussia,having allied with Austria in February, declared war on France in June 1792. In July 1792, an army under theDuke of Brunswickand composed mostly of Prussians joined the Austrian side and invaded France. Thecapture of Verdun(2 September 1792) triggered theSeptember massacresin Paris. France counterattacked withvictory at Valmy(20 September) and two days later theLegislative Assemblyproclaimed the French Republic.
Subsequently, these powers made several invasions of France by land and sea, in association with Prussia and Austria attacking from theAustrian Netherlandsand theRhine,andGreat Britainsupporting revolts in provincial France and layingsiege to Toulon in October 1793.France suffered reverses (Battle of Neerwinden,18 March 1793) and internal strife (War in the Vendée) and responded withdraconianmeasures. TheCommittee of Public Safetywas formed (6 April 1793) and thelevée en massedrafted all potential soldiers aged 18 to 25 (August 1793). The new French armies counterattacked, repelled the invaders, and advanced beyond France.
The French established theBatavian Republicas asister republic(May 1795) and gained Prussian recognition of French control of theLeft Bank of the Rhineby the firstPeace of Basel.With theTreaty of Campo Formio,Austria ceded the Austrian Netherlands to France and Northern Italy was turned into several French sister republics. Spain made a separate peace accord with France (Second Treaty of Basel) and theFrench Directoryannexed more of theHoly Roman Empire.
North of theAlps,Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschendefeated the invading armies during the Rhine campaign, butNapoleonBonaparte succeeded againstSardiniaand Austria in northern Italy (1796–1797) near thePo Valley,culminating in thePeace of Leobenand the Treaty of Campo Formio (October 1797). The First Coalition collapsed, leaving only Britain in the field fighting against France.
Background
[edit]Revolution in France
[edit]As early as 1791, other monarchies in Europe were watching the developments in France with alarm, and considered intervening, either in support ofLouis XVIor to take advantage of the chaos in France. The key figure, theHoly Roman EmperorLeopold II,brother of the French QueenMarie Antoinette,had initially looked on theRevolutioncalmly. He became increasingly concerned as the Revolution grew more radical, although he still hoped to avoid war.
On 27 August 1791, Leopold and KingFrederick William II of Prussia,in consultation withémigréFrench nobles, issued theDeclaration of Pillnitz,which declared the concern of the monarchs of Europe for the well-being of Louis and his family, and threatened vague but severe consequences if anything should befall them. Although Leopold saw the Pillnitz Declaration as a way of taking action that would enable him to avoid actually doing anything about France, at least for the moment, Paris saw the Declaration as a serious threat and the revolutionary leaders denounced it.[21]
In addition to the ideological differences between France and the monarchical powers of Europe, disputes continued over the status of Imperial estates inAlsace,[21]and the French authorities became concerned about the agitation ofémigrénobles abroad, especially in the Austrian Netherlands and in the minor states of Germany. In the end, France declared war on Austria first, with the Assembly voting for war on 20 April 1792, after the presentation of a long list of grievances by the newly appointed foreign ministerCharles François Dumouriez,who sought a war which might restore some popularity and authority to the King.[22]
1792
[edit]Invasion of the Austrian Netherlands
[edit]Dumouriez prepared an invasion of the Austrian Netherlands, where he expected the local population to rise against Austrian rule. However, the revolution had thoroughly disorganized the French army, which had insufficient forces for the invasion. Its soldiers fled at the first sign of battle, desertingen masse,in one case murdering GeneralThéobald Dillon.[22]The French soldiers were insulted, hissed, even assaulted. The situation of "Flanders Campaign" was alarming.[23]
While the revolutionary government frantically raised fresh troops and reorganized its armies, an allied army underCharles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswickassembled atKoblenzon theRhine.The invasion commenced in July 1792. The Duke then issued adeclarationon 25 July 1792, which had been written by the brothers of Louis XVI, that declared his [Brunswick's] intent to restore the King of France to his full powers, and to treat any person or town who opposed him as rebels to be condemned to death by martial law.[22]This motivated the revolutionary army and government to oppose the Prussian invaders by any means necessary,[22]and led almost immediately to the overthrow of the King by a crowd whichstormedtheTuileries Palace.[24]
Prussian progress
[edit]Brunswick's army, composed mostly of Prussian veterans, crossed into French territory on 19 August and easily took the fortresses ofLongwyandVerdun.[25]But at theBattle of Valmyon 20 September 1792 they came to a stalemate against Dumouriez andKellermannin which the highly professional Frenchartillerydistinguished itself. Although the battle was a tactical draw, it bought time for the revolutionaries and gave a great boost to French morale. Furthermore, the Prussians, facing a campaign longer and more costly than predicted, decided against the cost and risk of continued fighting and determined to retreat from France to preserve their army.[19]
Fronts in Italy and Germany
[edit]Meanwhile, the French had been successful on several other fronts, occupying theDuchy of Savoyand theCounty of Niceuntil the Massif de l'Authion, while GeneralCustineinvaded Germany, capturingSpeyer,WormsandMainzalong the Rhine, and reaching as far asFrankfurt.Dumouriez went on the offensive in the Austrian Netherlands once again, winning a great victory over the Austrians atJemappeson 6 November 1792, and occupying the entire country by the beginning of winter.[19]
1793
[edit]
On 21 January the revolutionary governmentexecuted Louis XVIafter a trial.[26]This united all European governments, includingSpain,Naples & Sicily,and theNetherlandsagainst the Revolution. France declared war against Britain and the Netherlands on 1 February 1793 and soon afterwards against Spain. In the course of the year 1793 the Holy Roman Empire (on 23 March), the kings ofPortugaland Naples, and theGrand Duke of Tuscanydeclared war against France. Thus the First Coalition was formed.[19]
Introduction of conscription
[edit]France introduced a new levy of hundreds of thousands of men, beginning a French policy of usinglevée en masse(mass conscription) to deploy more of its manpower than the other states could,[19]and remaining on the offensive so that these mass armies could commandeer war material from the territory of their enemies. TheGirondinfaction of the French government sentCitizen Genetto theUnited Statesto encourage them to enter the war on France's side. The newly formed nation refused, and theWashington administration's 1793Proclamation of Neutralitythreatened legal action against any citizen providing assistance to any side in the conflict.
After a victory in theBattle of Neerwindenin March, the Austrians suffered twin defeats at the battles ofWattigniesandWissembourg.[27]British land forces were defeated at theBattle of Hondschootein September.[27]
1794
[edit]
Battle of Fleurus
[edit]1794 brought increased success to the revolutionary armies. A major victory against combined coalition forces at theBattle of Fleurusgained all of the Austrian Netherlands and theRhinelandfor France.[27]Although the British navy maintained its supremacy at sea, it was unable to support effectively any land operations after the fall of the Belgian provinces.[28]The Prussians were slowly driven out of the eastern provinces[27]and by the end of the year they had retired from any active part in the war.[28]Against Spain, the French made successful incursions into bothCataloniaandNavarre[28]in theWar of the Pyrenees.
Actions in the West Indies
[edit]Action extended into the French colonies in theWest Indies.A British fleet occupiedMartinique,St. Lucia,andGuadeloupe,although a French fleet arrived later in the year and recovered the latter by ousting the invaders.[29]
1795
[edit]French capture of the Low Countries
[edit]After seizing theLow Countriesin a surprise winter attack, France established theBatavian Republicas apuppet state.Even before the close of 1794 Prussia retired from any active part in the war, and on 5 April 1795 King Frederick William II concluded with France thePeace of Basel,which recognized France's occupation of the left bank of theRhine.The new French-dominated Dutch government bought peace by surrendering Dutch territory to the south of that river. A treaty of peace between France and Spain followed in July. The grand duke of Tuscany had been admitted to terms in February. The coalition thus fell into ruin and France proper would be free from invasion for many years.[30]
Battle of Quiberon
[edit]Britain attempted to reinforce the rebels in theVendéeby landing French Royalist troops atQuiberon,but failed,[31]andattempts to overthrow the government at Paris by forcewere foiled by the military garrison led byNapoleon Bonaparte,leading to the establishment of theDirectory.[32][33]
Battle of Mainz
[edit]On the Rhine frontier, GeneralPichegru,negotiating with the exiledRoyalists,betrayed his army and forced the evacuation ofMannheimand the failure of thesiege of MainzbyJourdan.[34]
1796
[edit]
The French prepared a great advance on three fronts, with Jourdan andJean Victor Marie Moreauon the Rhine and the newly promotedNapoleon Bonapartein Italy. The three armies were to link up inTyroland march onVienna.
Rhine campaign
[edit]In theRhine campaign of 1796,Jourdan and Moreau crossed the Rhine river and advanced into Germany. Jourdan advanced as far asAmbergin late August while Moreau reachedBavariaand the edge of Tyrol by September. However Jourdan was defeated byArchduke Charles, Duke of Teschenand both armies were forced to retreat back across the Rhine.[34][35]
Invasion of Italy
[edit]Napoleon, on the other hand, was successful in a daring invasion of Italy. In theMontenotte Campaign,he separated the armies ofSardiniaandAustria,defeating each one in turn, and then forced apeace on Sardinia.Following this, his army capturedMilanand started theSiege of Mantua.Bonaparte defeated successive Austrian armies sent against him underJohann Peter Beaulieu,Dagobert Sigmund von WurmserandJózsef Alvincziwhile continuing the siege.[35][34]
End of the War of the Vendée
[edit]Therebellion in the Vendéewas also crushed in 1796 byLouis Lazare Hoche.[35]Hoche's subsequent attempt to land a large invasion force inMunsterto aid theUnited Irishmenwas unsuccessful.[29]
1797
[edit]Battle of Mantua
[edit]
On 2 February Napoleon finally capturedMantua,[36]with the Austrians surrendering 18,000 men. Archduke Charles of Austria was unable to stop Napoleon from invading the Tyrol, and the Austrian government sued for peace in April. At the same time, there was a new French invasion of Germany under Moreau and Hoche.[36]
Invasion of Great Britain
[edit]On 22 February, a French invasion force consisting of 1,400 troops from theLa Legion Noire(The Black Legion) under the command ofIrish AmericanColonelWilliam Tatelanded near FishguardinWales.They were met by a quickly assembled group of around 500 Britishreservists,militiaand sailors under the command ofJohn Campbell, 1st Baron Cawdor.After brief clashes with the local civilian population and Lord Cawdor's forces on 23 February, Tate was forced into anunconditional surrenderby 24 February. This would be the only battle fought on British soil during the Revolutionary Wars.
Austrian peace
[edit]Austria signed theTreaty of Campo Formioin October,[36]ceding Belgium to France and recognizing French control of the Rhineland and much of Italy.[35]The ancientRepublic of Venicewas partitioned between Austria and France. This ended the War of the First Coalition, although Great Britain and France remained at war.
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]- ^Left the war after signing theTreaty of The Hague (1795)with France.
- ^https:// britannica /event/Wars-of-the-VendeeArchived2024-01-19 at theWayback Machine
- ^Including theArmy of Condé
- ^Nominally theHoly Roman Empire,underAustrian rule,also encompassed many other Italian states, such as the
Duchy of Modenaand the
Duchy of Massa.Left the war after signing theTreaty of Campo Formiowith France.
- ^abcLeft the war after signing thePeace of Baselwith France.
- ^abLeft the war after signing thePeace of Pariswith France.
- ^Left the war after signing theTreaty of Tolentinowith France.
- ^Left the war after signing theTreaty of Pariswith France.
- ^Virtually all of the Italian states, including the neutral
Republic of Genoaand the
Republic of Venice,as well the
Grand Duchy of Tuscany,were conquered followingNapoleon's invasion in 1796 and became French satellite states. The
Principality of Monacohad been annexed in 1793. Even
Switzerlandbegan to be involved into the conflict through itsassociatedThree Leaguesthat lost theVal Telline.
- ^Including thePolish Legionsformed in French-allied Italy in 1797, following the abolition of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealthafter theThird Partitionin 1795.
- ^TheFrench Revolutionary ArmyandDutch revolutionariesoverthrew the Dutch Republic and established the Batavian Republic as a puppet state in its place.
- ^Various conquered Italian states, including theCisalpine Republicfrom 1797
- ^Re-entered the war against Britain as an ally of France after signing theSecond Treaty of San Ildefonso.
- ^The coalition was prepared by EmperorLeopold II:"The French Revolution, 1789–1799".Archivedfrom the original on 2024-05-27.Retrieved2023-02-20.;"Austria's Leopold II on the French Revolution (1791)".30 March 2015.Archivedfrom the original on 27 May 2024.Retrieved20 February2023.
- ^Lynn, John A. (1994).Recalculating French Army Growth during the Grand Siecle, 1610–1715.French Historical Studies 18, no. 4: 881–906, p. 904. Only counting frontline army troops, not naval personnel, militiamen, or reserves; the National Guard alone was supposed to provide a reserve of 1,200,000 men in 1789.
- ^ab"Victimario Histórico Militar Capítulo IV Guerras de la Revolución Francesa (1789 a 1815)".Archivedfrom the original on 2015-04-30.Retrieved2020-04-02.
- ^Clodfelter, Micheal (2017).Warfare and Armed Conflicts A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015,4th edition, MacFarland. p. 100.
- ^Clodfelter, p. 100.
- ^abcdeHolland 1911,Battle of Valmy.
- ^(in Dutch)Shusterman, Noah (2015).De Franse Revolutie (The French Revolution).Veen Media, Amsterdam. (Translation of:The French Revolution. Faith, Desire, and Politics.Routledge, London/New York, 2014.) Chapter 7, pp. 271–312: The federalist revolts, the Vendée and the beginning of the Terror (summer–fall 1793).
- ^abHolland 1911,The king and the nonjurors.
- ^abcdHolland 1911,War declared against Austria.
- ^Howe, P.C. (2008). Endgame, March–December 1793, p. 159, 172. In: Foreign Policy and the French Revolution. Palgrave Macmillan, New York.https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230616882_11Archived30 December 2023 at theWayback Machine
- ^Holland 1911,Rising of the 10th of August.
- ^Holland 1911,The revolutionary Commune of Paris.
- ^Holland 1911,Trial and execution of Louis XVI.
- ^abcdHolland 1911,The Revolutionary War. Republican successes..
- ^abcHolland 1911,Progress of the war..
- ^abHannay 1911,p. 204.
- ^One of more of the preceding sentences text from a publication now in thepublic domain:Holland 1911,Progress of the war
- ^Holland 1911,Progress of the war.
- ^Holland 1911,Insurrection of 13 Vendémiaire.
- ^Holland 1911,Character of the Directory.
- ^abcHannay 1911,p. 182.
- ^abcdHolland 1911,Military triumphs under the Directory. Bonaparte.
- ^abcHannay 1911,p. 193.
References
[edit]- Hannay, David (1911)..InChisholm, Hugh(ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- Holland, Arthur William (1911)..InChisholm, Hugh(ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Further reading
[edit]- Clausewitz, Carl von (2018).Napoleon's 1796 Italian Campaign.Trans and ed. Nicholas Murray and Christopher Pringle. This also includes the notes from J. Colin's French translation as well as extensive commentary on Clausewitz's history and theory. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas.ISBN978-0-7006-2676-2
- Fremont-Barnes, Gregory (2013).The French Revolutionary Wars
- Gardiner, Robert (2006).Fleet Battle And Blockade: The French Revolutionary War 1793–1797
- Lefebvre, Georges(1964).The French Revolution Volume II: from 1793 to 1799
- Ross, Steven T.(1973).Quest for Victory; French Military Strategy, 1792–1799
External links
[edit]
Media related toWar of the First Coalitionat Wikimedia Commons
| Preceded by Siege of Namur (1792) |
French Revolution: Revolutionary campaigns War of the First Coalition |
Succeeded by War in the Vendée |
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| National | |
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