Hakka people

"Hakka" redirects here. For other uses, seeHakka (disambiguation).

Not to be confused withHakha.

Hakka

Người HẹHak-kâ Người Hẹ dân tộc Hán
Hakka dancers performingtraditional Qilin dancein Malaysia
Total population
80 million
Regions with significant populations
China,Taiwan,Southeast Asia,Europe,Americas
Languages
Hakka Chinese Standard Chinese Taiwanese Hakka Taiwanese Mandarin Cantonese
Religion
Chinese folk religion,Confucianism,Taoism,Mahayana Buddhism,Christianity,Islam

Hakka people
Chinese name
Chinese	Người Hẹ
Literal meaning	guest families
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Kèjiā Bopomofo ㄎㄜˋ ㄐㄧㄚ Wade–Giles K'o4-chia1 Tongyong Pinyin Kè-jia IPA [kʰɤ̂.tɕjá] Gan Romanization Kak6 Ga1 Hakka Romanization Hag2-ga24 Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Haak-gāa Jyutping Haak3 gaa1 IPA [hak̚˧ ka˥] Southern Min Tâi-lô Kheh-ka
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese	người Khách Gia, người Hẹ

TheHakka(Chinese:Người Hẹ), sometimes also referred to asHakka Han,orHakka Chinese,orHakkas,are a southernHan Chinese subgroupwhose principal settlements and ancestral homes are dispersed widely across the provinces of southern China and who speak a language that is closely related toGan,a Han Chinese dialect spoken in Jiangxi province. They are differentiated from other southern Han Chinese by their dispersed nature and tendency to occupy marginal lands and remote hilly areas. The Chinese characters forHakka(KháchGia) literally mean "guest families".

The Hakka have settled inGuangdong,Fu gian,Jiangxi,Guangxi,Sichuan,Hunan,Zhe gian g,Hainan,andGuizhouin China, as well as inTaoyuan City,Hsinchu County,Miaoli County,Pingtung County,andKaohsiung CityinTaiwan.Their presence is especially prominent in the Lingnan or Liangguang area, comprising theCantonese-speaking provinces ofGuangdongandGuangxi.Despite being partly assimilated to the Cantonese-speaking population, they retain a significant presence there.

Like the other southern Han Chinese subgroups, Hakka mainly comprise Central Plains Chinese refugees fleeing social unrest, upheaval, and invasions. However, the Hakka were different in being late arrivals, moving from Central China into Southern China when the earlier groups of Han Chinese settlers in the south had already developed distinctive local identities and languages.Their migration path was also different, and they entered Guangdong, Guangxi and Fu gian via Jiangxi province, instead of traversing Hunan or moving along the Fu gian coast.

Today, substantial numbers of Hakka Chinese have migrated overseas to various countries throughout the world.

Origin and identity

Migrations

The Hakka arrived in southern China much later than other southern Han Chinese populations. These earlier waves of southern Han Chinese immigrants occupied the coastal areas and fertile lowlands and had already formed distinctive cultural identities and dialects. Consequently, the Hakka were forced to locate their settlements on marginal territories and relatively infertile land.

The Hakka arrived in the Lingnan region by traversing Jiangxi and Fu gian. During their journey through Jiangxi they intermarried with the Yao and She, two non-Han ethnic minorities. In Fu gian, they developed the habit of living in communal fortresses. Intermarriage with aboriginal groups and the adoption of habits that diverged from the Han, such as communal fortress living, increased the Cantonese distaste for the Hakka and aroused suspicion.

During the 16th century, in response to an economic boom, the Hakkas moved into hilly areas to mine forzincandleadand also moved into the coastal plains to cultivate cash crops. After an economic downturn, many of these ventures failed, and many Hakka had to turn to pillaging to survive.

Genetic findings

Studies show extensive gene flows and a very close relationship between the Hakka and the surrounding Han Chinese populations in the south.According to a 2009 study published in theAmerican Journal of Human Genetics,Hakka are principally of Han Chinese descent,exhibiting an average genetic difference of 0.32% with other tested Han Chinese persons.Nonetheless, compared with other southern Han Chinese groups, the Hakka genetic profile exhibits a slight skew towards northern Han people.This is in line with their migratory history as later arrivals to the south than the other Han Chinese groups.

Cultural identity

Hakka peasants wearingHanfuduringMing dynasty,as depicted in theBoxer Codex(1590)

The Hakka identify as Han Chinese and genetic studies show they are principally of Han ancestry,despite a recorded history of intermarriage with minority groups such as the Yao and the She. Furthermore, the Hakka language belongs to the Sinitic group of languages, being linguistically proximate to the Gan dialect of Jiangxi. The Hakka also exhibit traditional Confucian values, such as a respect for family, ancestor veneration, and a commitment to both learning and the ideals of a Confucian gentleman. Finally, they carry Han Chinese surnames and use Han Chinese naming conventions.LingnanHakka place names indicate a long history of the Hakka being culturally Han Chinese.Like the Cantonese, they fiercely insisted on their Han identities and were principal movers of the Anti-Qing movement.

However, the Hakka differed in their lifestyles and their preferred mode of habitation - living in large communal fortress-like buildings (known astulou)instead of residing in courtyard houses (orsiheyuan). They also settled in marginal or hardscrabble hill land avoided by other Han Chinese subgroups, and in this regard, were considered similar to non-Han aborigines. They also exhibited gender egalitarianism to a greater degree than other southern Chinese.

Hakka language distribution in mainland China and Taiwan

Unlike other Han Chinese groups, the Hakkas are not named after a geographical region, e.g. a province, county or city. The Hakka people have a distinct identity from theCantonese people.As 60% of the Hakkas in China reside in Guangdong province, and 95% of overseas Hakkas ancestral homes are in Guangdong. Hakkas fromChaoshan,Guangzhou, andFu gianmay self-identify as only Chaoshanese, Cantonese and Hokkiens.

Distant origins

It is commonly held that the Hakkas are a subgroup of the Han Chinese that originated in the central plains.To trace their origins, a number of theories so far have been brought forth among anthropologists, linguists and historians:

1. the Hakkas are Han Chinese originating solely from theCentral Plain;
2. the Hakkas are northern Han Chinese from the Central Plain with some inflow of Han Chinese from the south;
3. the Hakkas are southern Han Chinese with some inflow of northern Han Chinese from the Central Plain.

The theories indicating a descent from both northern and southern Han are the most likely and are together supported by multiple scientific studies.Furthermore, research into the mitochondrial DNA of the Hakka indicates that the majority of their matrilineal gene pool consists of lineages prevalent in the southern Han.Clyde Kiang stated that the Hakkas' origins may also be linked with Han's ancient neighbors, theDongyiandXiongnupeople.However, this is disputed by many scholars and Kiang's theories are considered to be false.

Hakka Chinese scientist and researcher Dr. Siu-Leung Lee stated in the book by Chung Yoon-Ngan,The Hakka Chinese: Their Origin, Folk Songs And Nursery Rhymes,that the potential Hakka origins from the Northern Han andXiongnuand that of the indigenous SouthernSheandYuetribes, "are all correct, yet none alone explain the origin of the Hakka", pointing out that the problem withDNA profilingon limited numbers of people within population pools cannot correctly ascertain who is really the Southern Chinese, because many Southern Chinese are also from Northern Asia; Hakka or non-Hakka.It is known that the earliest major waves of Hakka migration began due to the attacks of the two aforementioned tribes during theJin dynasty (266–420).

Definitional problems and disambiguation

The study of this population group is complicated by linguistic uncertainty and nomenclatural ambiguity in the historical record. The termHakka(KháchGia) is sometimes broadly used to refer to other southern Han Chinese groups during their southward migration. Imperial census statistics did not distinguish whatvarieties of Chinesethe population spoke. Some family genealogies also employ the term Hakka (KháchGia) to refer to their southward migration, even though they belonged to the earlier groups of Han Chinese settlers and did not speak a Gan-affiliated language. These clans would be properly regarded as belonging to local dialect groups due to the timing of their arrival, the language they spoke, the customs they practiced, and the route of their traversal. These families were not part of the groups of settlers today associated with the Hakka, who arrived in southern China at a much later date through Jiangxi province and who spoke a Gan-affiliated language.

For example, the study byLo Hsiang-lin,K'o-chia Yen-chiu Tao-Liu / An Introduction to the Study of the Hakkas(Hsin-Ning & Singapore, 1933) used genealogical sources of family clans from various southern counties, leading to the inclusion of native southern Han Chinese families into the Hakka category.

Language

Main article:Hakka Chinese

Hakka Chinesesign

Hakka Chinese is the native Chinese variety of the Hakka people. Hakka Chinese is the closest Chinese variety toGan Chinesein terms of phonetics, with scholars studies consider the late Old Gan together with Hakka Chinese and the Tongtai dialect ofJianghuai Mandarinto have been thelingua francaof theSouthern dynasties.Northern Hakka varieties have partial mutual intelligibility with southern Gan. Accordingly, Hakka is sometimes classified as a variety of Gan. Some studies posit that Hakka people andGan peoplehave close genetic relations and sharedareal features.

In Taiwan, theMinistry of Educationnamed "Taiwanese Hakka Chinese" as one of thelanguages of Taiwan.

Culture

Main article:Hakka culture

Hakka culturehas been largely shaped by the new environment, which they had to alter many aspects of their culture to adapt, which helped influence their architecture and cuisine. When the Hakka expanded into areas with pre-existing populations in the South, there was often little agricultural land left for them to farm. As a result, many Hakka men turned towards careers in the military or in public service.

Architecture

Main article:Hakka architecture

Tianluokeng tulou cluster.Hukeng, Fu gian

Hakka people built several types oftulouand peasantfortified villagesin the mountainous rural parts of far western Fu gian and adjacent southern Jiangxi and northern Guangdong regions. A representative sample ofFu gian tulou(consisting of 10 buildings or building groups) in Fu gian was inscribed in 2008 as a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site.

Another very popular architectural style in northern east Guangdong, such asXingningandMeixian,is Wrapped Dragon Village (Chinese:Vây long phòng;pinyin:wéilóngwū).

Cuisine

Main article:Hakka cuisine

Lei Cha, a very healthy dish made with green tea, basil, coriander and mugwort

Hakka cuisine is known for the use of preserved meats and tofu, as well as stewed and braised dishes. Some of the popular dishes areYong Tau FooandLei Cha.These dishes are popular in Taiwan, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and Singapore. The taste profile is generally light, tending even towards blandness, with a preference for allowing the taste of the ingredients, especially the herbs, to emerge through any seasoning.

Yong Tau Foo in Malaysia, brought over by Hakka emigres

Lei chais a traditionalSouthern Chinesetea-based beverage or rice gruel that forms a part ofHakka cuisine.Ingredients include green tea, basil, sawtooth coriander, mug wort, and a kind of herb known as "Fu Yip Sum". Generally regarded as laborious and difficult to make. Usually eaten with side dishes.

Yong tau foois a Hakka Chinese food consisting primarily of tofu that has been filled with either a ground meat mixture or fish paste. It can be eaten dry with sauce or served in a soup base.

Suanpanziis another popular Hakka dish which literally means "abacus seeds". It consists of mainly yam or tapioca beaten in to the shape of abacus beads. The dish is served with minced pork or chicken and with light seasoning.

Music

TaiwaneseHakka operaat theGhost Festival

Hakkapop festival

Hill song

Main article:Hakka hill song

Hakka hill songs are traditionally used by hillside farmers in parts of Taiwan and China, mainly for entertainment in the farming fields and courting practices. They are characterized by the strong, resonating melody and voice, which echo around hills and can be heard for up to a mile around the area. Hill songs can be considered a form of communication, as its participants often use it to communicate love songs or news.

Hakkapop

Main article:Hakka popular music

Hakkapop is a genre of Hakka pop music made primarily in China, Taiwan, Malaysia and Indonesia.

Views on gender

Historically, Hakka women did notbind their feetwhen the practice was commonplace in other parts of China.Hakka women are known for their independent nature and willingness to engage in hard work typically reserved for men in other dialect groups.

This may have been driven by historical necessity rather than cultural differences, since the Hakka employed marginal hill lands which were less fertile than the river valley occupied by other Han subgroups, such as the Cantonese, the Teochew and the Hoklo people.

Media

In 1950, China Central People's Broadcasting Station recruited the first Hakka broadcaster, Zhang Guohua, based on a radius of two kilometers from the Meixian government. On April 10th, 1950, theVoice of Hakka( người Hẹ tiếng động )started broadcasting. It broadcast nine hours of Hakka Chinese programs every day through shortwave radio and online radio, targeting countries and regions where Hakka people gather, such as Japan, Indonesia, Mauritius, Reunion Island, Australia, Hong Kong and Taiwan.

In 1988,Meizhou Television Station( Mai Châu đài truyền hình )was founded. In 1994,Hakka Public Channel,also known asMeizhou TV-2had started broadcasting. Hakka Chinese began to appear in television programs. In 2021, it was renamedHakka Life Channel( người Hẹ sinh hoạt kênh ).

In 1991,Meizhou People’s Broadcasting Station( Mai Châu nhân dân đài phát thanh ),also known asMeizhou Wired Broadcasting Station( Mai Châu truyền thanh radio )officially started broadcasting. Meizhou Radio News: FM94.8 or urban FM101.9. Meizhou Radio Traffic Channel: FM105.8 MHz. Meizhou Radio Private Car Channel: FM94.0 or urban FM103.9. Until now, Hakka Chinese is still used for news program, radio drama program, emotional program, entertainment program and cultural program.

In 1999,3CW Chinese Radio Australia(3CW Australia tiếng Trung đài phát thanh )was launched. It used Mandarin, Cantonese and Hakka.

In 2001, Meizhou Television Station merged with Meizhou People’s Broadcasting Station and was renamedMeizhou Radio and Television Station(MRT, Mai Châu quảng bá đài truyền hình ).In 2004, the station had officially completed its establishment.

In 2003,Taiwan Broadcasting System (TBS, Đài Loan công cộng quảng bá TV tập đoàn )established a Hakka satellite cable channel "Hakka TV".In Taiwan, there are seven Hakka Chinese radio channels.

In 2005,Meixian Radio and Television Station( mai huyện quảng bá đài truyền hình )was reorganized after the separation of the National Cultural System Reform Bureau. It is a public institution under the jurisdiction of the Meixian County Party Committee and County Government. The channel can be watched in Meizhou and surrounding area with an audience of over 4 million people.

In 2012,Voice of Hong Kong( Hong Kong tiếng động )started broadcasting. Hakka Chinese is used on Sihai Kejia Channel.

In 2019,Shenzhou Easy Radio( Thần Châu tiếng động )added a Hakka Chinese radio break which broadcasts to the southeast coast of Mainland China, Taiwan, Southeast Asia, the South Pacific and Japan. OnRadio The Greater Bay( đại loan khu tiếng động ),Sihai Kejia Channel has also joined.

In 2023, TheLearning Power( học tập cường quốc )Platform under the supervision of thePublicity Department of the Chinese Communist Partyhad added automatic broadcasting in Hakka Chinese.

Religion

See also:Religion in China

Typical traditional hillside tombs.Hukeng, Fu gian

The religious practices of Hakka people are largely similar to those of other Han Chinese.Ancestor venerationis the primary form of religious expression.One distinctively Hakka religious practice involves the worship of dragon deities.

Discrimination

Imperial era - Qing dynasty

People of Hakka ancestry comprised the notable mainstay of theTaiping Heavenly Kingdom,although other dialect groups also enlisted. The leader of theXiang Army,Zeng Guofan,had a special contempt for Hakka women, referring to them as "hillbilly witches".

In retaliation for killing three Hunanese officers, the Xiang Army exterminated the entire Hakka population of Wukeng andChixiduring military counter-attacks on the Hakkas in the year 1888. The army also massacred tens of thousands of other Hakkas in Guanghai, a region of Taishan, Guangdong. Many of the killings in Guanghai took place in the Dalongdong area.

The Taiping rebellion caused millions of casualties on both sides. In retaliation, after defeating the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the Xiang Army targeted Hakka villages and is estimated to have killed ~30,000 Hakkas every day during the height of the retaliation.

Discrimination against Hakka by the Cantonese

Cantonese people have had a history of friction with Hakka, despite the both of them being Han subgroups speaking varieties of Chinese that exhibit relatively high mutual intelligibility (both dialects tracing straightforward descent from Middle Chinese). The Cantonese regarded the Hakka as displaying non-Han habits and as opportunists intruding on Cantonese territory. The conflict between the two groups led to one of the largest inter-ethnic genocides in history.

Mass killings of Hakkas in China

Shenzhen Hakkas Folk Customs Museum-Hehu New Residence

TheRed Turbanrebels, who were mostly of Cantonese ancestry, carried out a genocidal campaign against the Hakkas during a revolt against the Qing dynasty. The Cantonese Red Turbans killed 13 Hakka village chiefs and 7,630 other Hakkas while on their way to Heshan, and after conquering it, they killed another 1,320 Hakkas.

The bloodyPunti–Hakka Clan Wars,saw reciprocal massacres by both groups, but the Hakka bore the brunt of the casualties. This war eventually killed some 500,000 Hakkas (or quite possibly even more). During these killings, the Cantonese generally collaborated with the Xiang people, since both dialect groups had an axe to grind against the Hakka.

In retaliation for a Hakka massacre of Cantonese people, Cantonese peasants butchered 500 Hakkas in a village located in the rural Enping county forcing the surviving Hakkas to flee, but these refugees, who numbered some 4,000 Hakka, were later all caught and killed by Cantonese peasants, who spared neither women nor child. Government officials mobilized officers and men from the local Cantonese peasants to regain the Guanghai area which was occupied by the Hakkas. The number of Hakkas killed was tens of thousands in the Dalongdong area of Guanghai alone.

Discrimination and hatred of Hakka outside Guangdong

The Cantonese murdered more than 70 Hakka fellow provincials in Shanghai under the justification of a Hakka conspiracy that theJiayinggroup was surrendering the city to foreign control.On 27 August 1925, villages in a county belonged to the Hakka minority were attacked, Chiang's Punti (Cantonese) men and soldiers did not hesitate to rape their women and pillage their homes.

Inter-ethnic hatred between the two groups also rose to a boil in Malaysia. Memories of conflict and old grudges sparked another round of conflict between the Hakkas and Cantonese in Perak,Malaya,leading to theLarut Wars.

Upon arriving in Madagascar, the Cantonese colluded to prevent any Hakka migration to Madagascar.

By Guangxi people

More than 100,000 Hakkas were slaughtered by the locals in Guangxi province during another clan war. In October 1850, the Cantonese and Hakkas were hacking and killing each other for over 40 days inGuigang.

Attacks against Hakka by the Lingao people

Between 1925 and 1926, thousands were killed and wounded when the ethnic hatred of the Hakkas by the natives ofLingaoturned violent in northwestern Hainan.

Hakka in Mainland China

Meizhou Prefecture(in yellow) in Guangdong Province, whereXingningandMeixianare located.

Hakka populations are found in 13 out of the 27provincesandautonomous regionsof mainland China.

Guangdong

Christian missionaries with Hakka students of a girls' school inWaichow,Guangdong,1921.

Hakkas who live in Guangdong comprise about 60% of the total Hakka population. Worldwide, over 95% of the overseas-descended Hakkas came from this Guangdong region, usually fromMeizhouandHeyuanas well as other towns such asShenzhen,Jieyang,DongguanandHuizhou.Hakkas live mostly in the northeast part of the province, particularly in the so-called Xing-Mei (Xingning–Meixian) area. Unlike their kin in Fu gian, Hakka in the Xingning and Meixian area developed a non-fortress-like unique architectural style, most notably the weilongwu (Vây long phòng;wéilóngwūor Hakka: Wui Lung Wuk) and sijiaolou (Tứ giác lâu;sìjǐaolóuor Hakka: Si Kok Liu).

Fu gian

Gun port in a HakkaFu gian tulou

A musket in a Hakka Fu gian tulou

Tradition states that the early Hakka ancestors traveling from north China entered Fu gian first, then by way of theTing Riverthey traveled to Guangdong and other parts of China, as well as overseas. Thus, the Ting River is also regarded as the Hakka Mother River.

The Hakkas who settled in the mountainous region of south-western Fu gian province developed a unique form of architecture known as thetulou(Thổ lâu), literally meaningearthen structures.Thetulouare round or square and were designed as a combined large fortress and multi-apartment building complex. The structures typically had only one entrance-way, with no windows at ground level. Each floor served a different function: the first floor contained a well and livestock, the second food storage and the third and higher floors living spaces.Tulouwere built to withstand attack from bandits and marauders.

Today, Western Fu gian is inhabited by 3 million Hakkas, scattered around villages in 10 counties (county-level 'cities' and districts) in Longyan and Sanming prefectures, 98% of whom are Hakkas living in Changting, Liancheng, Shanghang, Wuping, Yongding, Ninghua, Qingliu and Mingxi counties.

Jiangxi

Jiangxi contains the second largest Hakka community. Nearly all of southern Jiangxi province is Hakka, especially inGanzhou.In the Song dynasty, a large number of Han Chinese migrated to the delta area as the Court moved southward because invasion of northern minority. They lived in Jiangxi and intermixed with the She and Yao minorities. Ganzhou was the place that the Hakka have settled before migrating to Western Fu gian and Eastern Guangdong. During the early Qing dynasty, there was a massive depopulation in Gannan due to the ravage of pestilence and war. However, Western Fu gian and Eastern Guangdong suffered population explosion at the same time. Some edicts were issued to block the coastal areas, ordering coastal residents to move to the inland. The population pressure and the sharp contradiction of the land redistribution drove some residents to leave. Some of them moved back to Gannan, integrating with other Hakka people who lived there already for generations. Thus, the modern Gannan Hakka community was finally formed.

Sichuan

The Kangxi Emperor (r. 1662–1722) after a tour of the land, decided the province of Sichuan had to be repopulated after the devastation caused byZhang Xianzhong.Seeing the Hakka were living in poverty in the coastal regions in Guangdong province, the emperor encouraged the Hakkas in the south to migrate to Sichuan province. He offered financial assistance to those willing to resettle in Sichuan: eight ounces of silver per man and four ounces per woman or child.

Sichuan was originally the origin of the Deng lineage until one of them was hired as an official in Guangdong during the Ming dynasty but during the Qing plan to increase the population in 1671 they came to Sichuan again.Deng Xiaopingwas born in Sichuan.

Hunan

Hakka people are mainly concentrated in Liuyang and Liling villages.

Henan

As with those in Sichuan, many Hakka emigrated toXinyang Prefecture(in Southern Henan Province), whereLi Zichengcarried out a massacre in Guangzhou (now inHuangchuan) on 17 January 1636.

Hakka in Hong Kong

Sam Tung Uk Museum

During the 15th century to 19th century,Hong Kongwas in the imperial district ofXin'an(nowShenzhen) County.The1819 gazetteerlists 570Puntiand 270 Hakka contemporary settlements in the whole district.However, the area covered by Xin'an county is greater than what was to become the British imperial enclave of Hong Kongby 1898.Although there had been settlers originating from the mainland proper even before the Tang dynasty, historical records of those people are non-extant, only evidence of settlement from archaeological sources can be found.TheNew Territorieslowland areas had been settled originally by several clan lineages inKam Tin,Sheung Shui,Fanling,Yuen Long,Lin Ma HangandTai Poand hence termed the Punti before the arrival of the Hakka, and fishing families of theTankaandHoklogroups to the area.Since the prime farming land had already been farmed, the Hakka land dwellers settled in the less accessible and more hilly areas. Hakka settlements can be found widely distributed around the Punti areas, but in smaller communities. Many are found on coastal areas in inlets and bays surrounded by hills.

Hakka-speaking communities are thought to have arrived in the Hong Kong area after the rescinding of thecoastal evacuationorder in 1688,such as the Hakka speaking Lee clan lineage ofWo Hang,one of whose ancestors is recorded as arriving in the area in 1688.

As the strong Punti lineages dominated most of the north western New Territories, Hakka communities began to organise local alliances of lineage communities such as theSha Tau KokAlliance of TenorShap YeukasPatrick Hasewrites.Hakka villages from Wo Hang to the west andYantianto the east of Sha Tau Kok came to use it as a local market town and it became the center of Hakka dominance. Further, the Shap Yeuk'sland reclamationproject transforming marshland to arable farmland with the creation of dykes and levees to prevent storm flooding during the early 19th century shows an example of how local cooperation and the growing affluence of the landed lineages in the Alliance of Ten provided the strong cultural, socioeconomic Hakka influence on the area.

Farming and cultivation has been the traditional occupations of Hakka families from imperial times up until the 1970s. Farming was mostly done by Hakka women while their menfolk sought labouring jobs in the towns and cities. Many men entered indentured labour abroad as was common from the end of the 19th century to the Second World War. Post war, males took the opportunity to seek work in Britain and other countries later to send for their families to join them once they sent enough money back to cover travel costs.

As post war education became available to all children in Hong Kong, a new educated class of Hakka became more mobile in their careers. Many moved to thegovernment planned new townswhich sprung up from the 1960s. The rural Hakka population began to decline as people moved abroad, and away to work in the urban areas. By the end of the 1970s, agriculture was firmly in the decline in Hakka villages.Today, there are still Hakka villages around Hong Kong, but being remote, many of their inhabitants have moved to the post war new towns likeSheung Shui,Tai Po,Sha Tinand further afield.

Hakka in Taiwan

Hakka women in traditional attire inKaohsiung,Taiwan, pre-1945.

The Hakka population in Taiwan is around 4.6 million people today.Hakka comprise about 15 to 20% ofTaiwanese peopleand form the second-largest ethnic group in the country. They are descended largely from Hakka who migrated from southern and northern Guangdong and western Fu gian.The early Hakka immigrants were the island's first agriculturalists and formed the nucleus of the Chinese population, numbering tens of thousands at the time.They resided in "savage border districts, where land could be had for the taking, and where a certain freedom from official oppression was ensured."Back then the Hakka on Taiwan had gained a reputation with the authorities of being turbulent and lawless.

In the past the Hakka in Taiwan ownedmatchlockmuskets.Han people traded and sold matchlock muskets to theTaiwanese aborigines.The Aboriginals used their matchlock muskets to defeat the Americans in theFormosa Expedition.During theSino-French Warthe Hakka and Aboriginals used their matchlock muskets against the French in theKeelung CampaignandBattle of Tamsui.

Liu Mingchuan took measures to reinforce Tamsui, in the river nine torpedo mines were planted and the entrance was blocked with ballast boats filled with stone which were sunk on 3 September, matchlock armed "Hakka hill people" were used to reinforce the mainland Chinese battalion, and around the British Consulate and Customs House at the Red Fort hilltop, Shanghai Arsenal manufactured Krupp guns were used to form an additional battery.

Taoyuan Hakka Culture Hall,Taiwan

Lin Ch'ao-tung(Lâm triều đống) was the leader of the Hakka militia recruited by Liu Ming-ch'uan.

The Hakka used their matchlock muskets to resist the Japanese invasion of Taiwan and Hakka Han people and Aboriginals conducted an insurgency against Japanese rule. The Hakka rose up against the Japanese in theBeipu uprising.

Taiwan's Hakka population concentrates inHsinchuandHsinchu County,Miaoli Countyand aroundZhongli DistrictinTaoyuan CityandMeinong DistrictinKaohsiungand inPingtung County,with smaller presences inHualien CountyandTaitung County.In recent decades,many Hakka have moved to the largest metropolitan areas, including Taipei and Taichung.

On 28 December 1988, 14,000Hakka protestors took to the streets in Taipei to demand the Nationalist government to "return our mother tongue", carrying portraits of Sun Yat-sen.The movement was later termed "1228 Return Our Mother Tongue Movement".

Hakka-related affairs in Taiwan are regulated by theHakka Affairs Council.Hakka-related tourist attractions in Taiwan areDongshih Hakka Cultural Park,Hakka Round House,Kaohsiung Hakka Cultural Museum,Meinong Hakka Culture Museum,New Taipei City Hakka Museum,Taipei Hakka Culture HallandTaoyuan Hakka Culture Hall.

Hakka Diaspora

Hakka Round HouseinMiaoli County.

Southeast Asia

Vietnam

There are two groups of Hakka in Vietnam. One is known asNgái peopleand lives along the border with China in Northern Vietnam. Another group are Chinese immigrants to Southern Vietnam, known asNgười Hẹand is located aroundHo Chi Minh CityandVũng Tàu.

Cambodia

About 65% of theHakkatrace their roots back toMeizhouandHeyuan prefecturesin Guangdong Province. About 70% of the Hakkas are found in Phnom Penh where they dominate professions in the field ofTraditional Chinese Medicineand shoemaking. Hakkas are also found inTakéo Province,Stung TrengandRattanakiriwho consist of vegetable growers and rubber plantation workers. Hakka communities in the provinces migrated to Cambodia through Tonkin and Cochinchina in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Thailand

The Hakkas association ofPak Chong

There are no records as to when Hakka descendants arrived in Thailand. In 1901, Yu Cipeng, a Hakka member of The League Society of China came to visit Thailand and found that the establishment of many varied organizations among the Hakka was not good for unity. He tried to bring the two parties together and persuaded them to dissolve the associations in order to set up a new united one. In 1909 The Hakka Society of Siam was established andChao Phraya Yommarat (Pan Sukhum),then interior minister, was invited to preside over the opening ceremony for the establishment of the society's nameplate, located in front of the Chinese shrine "Lee Tee Biao". Yang Liqing was its first president.

Singapore

In 2010, 232,914 people in Singapore reported Hakka ancestry. Singapore's most prominent Hakka is its founding prime minister,Lee Kuan Yew.

Malaysia

Muar Hakka Association inJohor.

Hakka people form the second largest subgroup of the ethnicChinesepopulation ofMalaysia,particularly in thepeninsula,with several prominent Hakka figures emerging duringcolonial British rule.There are 1,729,000 people of Hakka ancestry in Malaysia as of 2016.Chung Keng Quee,"Captain China" ofPerakandPenang,was the founder of the mining town ofTaiping,the leader of theHai San,a millionaire philanthropist and an innovator in themining of tin,having been respected by both Chinese and European communities in the early colonial settlement. Another notable Hakka wasYap Ah Loy,who foundedKuala Lumpurand was aKapitan Cinaof the settlement from 1868 to 1885, bringing significant economic contributions and was also an influential figure among the ethnic Chinese.

In the district ofJelebu,Negeri Sembilan,Hakka people make up more than 90% of the Chinese subgroup with dialect itself acting as alingua francathere. This has contributed greatly to the fact that the place is commonly known among Hakka Chinese as "Hakka Village". The greatest concentration of Hakkas in northern peninsular Malaysia is inIpoh,Perakand in Kuala Lumpur and its satellite cities inSelangor.Concentrations of Hakka people in Ipoh and surrounding areas are particularly high. The Hakkas in theKinta Valleycame mainly from theJiaying PrefectureorMeixian,while those in Kuala Lumpur are mainly ofHuizhouorigin.

A large number of Hakka people are also found inSarawak,particularly in the city of Kuching andMiri,where there is a notable population of Hakka people who speak the "Ho Poh"variant of Hakka.

InSabah,most of the ethnic Chinese are of Hakka descent. In the 1990s, the Hakkas formed around 57% of the total ethnic Chinese population in Sabah.Hakka is the lingua franca among the Chinese in Sabah to such an extent that Chinese of other subgroups who migrate to Sabah from other states in Malaysia and elsewhere usually learn the Hakka dialect, with varying degrees of fluency.

In 1882 theNorth Borneo Chartered Companyopted to bring in Hakka labourers fromLongchuan County, Guangdong.The first batch of 96 Hakkas brought to Sabah landed inKudaton 4 April 1883 under the leadership of Luo Daifeng (Hakka: Lo Tai Fung). In the following decades Hakka immigrants settled throughout the state, with their main population centres inKota Kinabalu(then known as Jesselton) and its surroundings (in the districts ofTuaran,Penampang,Ranau,Papar,Kota Beludas well as a lesser extent toKota Marudu), with a significant minority residing inSandakan(mainly ex-Taiping revolutionists) and other large populations in other towns and districts, most notably inTawau,Tenom,Kuala Penyu,Tambunan,Lahad Datu,Semporna,Sipitang,Beaufort,KeningauandKudat.The British felt the development of North Borneo was too slow and in 1920 they decided to encourage Hakka immigration into Sabah. In 1901, the total Chinese population in Sabah was 13897; by 1911, it had risen 100% to 27801.Hakka immigration began to taper off during World War 2 and declined to a negligible level in the late 1940s.

Indonesia

Indonesian Hakka MuseuminJakarta.

Migration of Hakka people to Indonesia happened in several waves. The first wave landed inRiau Islandssuch as inBangka Islandand Belitung as tin miners in the 18th century. The second group of colonies were established along theKapuas RiverinBorneoin the 19th century, predecessor to early Singapore residents. In the early 20th century, new arrivals joined their compatriots as traders, merchants and labourers in major cities such as Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, etc.

Some research shows that the establishment of the Silk Road created commercial trade for the Hakka people in the south or along the way, and created conditions for overseas migration. The book "An Overview of Hakka Migration History: Where are you from?" published by My China Roots & CBA Jamaica mentions that the Hakka people traded with the caravans and stayed overseas to facilitate business, and added descendants Immigrants, Indonesia, Calcutta, Toronto, and Jamaica all still retain a long history of Hakka culture and organization.

In Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore, Hakka people are sometimes known asKhek,from theHokkienpronunciationkheh.However, the use of the word 'Khek' is limited mainly to areas where the local Chinese population is mainly of Hokkien origin. In places where other Chinese subgroups predominate, the term 'Hakka' is still the more commonly used.

Bangka (in Indonesia)

Belinyu, a little Hakka town in northern part of Bangka Island.

Hakka also live in Indonesia's largesttinproducer islands ofBangka Belitung Islandsprovince. They are the second majority ethnic group afterMalays.The Hakka population in the province is also the second largest in Indonesia afterWest Kalimantan's and one of the highest percentages of Chinese living in Indonesia.

The first group of Hakka in Bangka and Belitung reached the islands in the 18th century from Guangdong. Many of them worked as tin mining labourers. Since then, they have remained on the island along with the native Malay. Their situation was much different from those of Chinese and native populations of other regions, where legal cultural conflicts were prevalent since the 1960s until 1999, by whichIndonesian Chinesehad finally regained their cultural freedoms. Here they lived together peacefully and still practiced their customs and cultural festivals, while in other regions they were strictly banned by government legislation prior to 1999.Hakka on the island of Bangka spoke Hopo dialect mixed with Malay, especially in younger generations. Hakka spoken in Belinyu area in Bangka is considered to be standard.

West Kalimantan (in Indonesia)

Hakka people inPontianaklive alongsideTeochewspeaking Chinese. While the Teochews are dominant in the centre of Pontianak, the Hakka are more dominant in small towns along theKapuas Riverin the regencies of Sanggau, Sekadau and Sintang. Their Hakka dialect is originally Hopo which influenced by Teochew dialect and also has vocabulary from the local Malay andDayaktribes. The Hakka were instrumental in theLanfang Republic.

The Hakka in this region are descendants of gold prospectors who migrated from China in the late 19th century.

The Hakka inSingkawangand the surrounding regencies ofSambas,Bengkayang,Ketapangand Landak speak a different standard of Hakka dialect to the Hakkas along the Kapuas River. Originally West Borneo has diverse Hakka origin but during the 19th century, a large people came from Jiexi so more Hakkas in the region speak Hopo mixed with Wuhua and Huilai accents that eventually formed the dialect of Singkawang Hakka.

Jakarta (in Indonesia)

Hakka people in Jakarta mainly have roots fromMeizhou,who came in the 19th century. Secondary migration of the Hakkas from other provinces like Bangka Belitung Islands and West Borneo came later.

East Timor

Main article:Chinese people in East Timor

A mixed wedding of East Timorese and Hakka inEast Timor,where the fourflower girlsand the mother of the bride on the far right are of Hakka descent.

There was already a relatively large and vibrant Hakka community in East Timor before the 1975Indonesian invasion.According to an estimate by the local Chinese Timorese association, the Hakka population ofPortuguese Timorin 1975 was estimated to be around 25,000 (including a small minority of other Chinese ethnicities from Macau, which like East Timor was a Portuguese colony). According to a book source, an estimated 700 Hakka were killed within the first week of invasion inDilialone. No clear numbers had been recorded since many Hakka had already escaped to neighbouring Australia. The recent re-establishment of Hakka associations in the country registered approximately 2,400 Hakka remaining, organised into some 400 families, including part-Timorese ones.

The Timorese Hakka diaspora can currently be found inDarwin,Brisbane,SydneyandMelbournein Australia; in Portugal; in Macau; and in other parts of the world in smaller numbers. They often are highly educated and many continue their education in either Taiwan or the People's Republic of China, while a majority of the younger generation prefer to study in Australia. The Australian government took some years to assess their claims to be genuinerefugeesand not illegal immigrants, as partially related to the political situation in East Timor at the time. As Asian countries were neither willing to accept them as residents nor grant them political asylum to the Timorese in general, they were forced to live asstateless personsfor some time. Despite this condition, many Hakka had become successful, establishing restaurant chains, shops, supermarkets and import operations in Australia. Sincethe independence of East Timorin 2000, some Hakka families had returned and invested in businesses in the newborn nation.

South Asia

India

There used to be 1500 Hakkas largely at Tangra and Bombay, arriving after the greatBritish Raj violence and chaos.

However, from the 1960s, after armed fighting broke out, there has been a steady migration to other countries, which accelerated in the succeeding decades. The majority moved to Britain and Canada, while others went to the United States, Australia, Taiwan, Austria and Sweden. The predominant dialect of Hakka in these communities is Meixian.

Hakkas are the largest Chinese community in India after Chinese Cantonese people of Indian ancestry. During the time he held office in Calcutta until the late 2000s, Yap Kon Chung, the Hakka ambassador, protected and helped the Chinese residents in India. Specifically, during the Sino-Indian war of 1962, oppression of Sino-Indian residents accused ofAnti-Indian sentimentby the Indians was escalated. Yap then made appeals to Prime Minister Nehru to bridge a bond between the Indians and Chinese persons. During his office, he was also the principal at a highly regarded school as well as a political facilitator who helped many families migrate to other countries such as Britain, Canada, the United States and parts of Europe until he himself migrated to Toronto, Canada to join his family. Yap died surrounded by family on 18 April 2014, at the age of 97.

Africa

South Africa

Some Hakka people, notably from Taiwan,migrated to South Africa.

Mauritius

The vast majority of Mauritian Chinese are Hakkas. Most Mauritian Hakkas who emigrated to Mauritius in the mid-1940s came from Northeastern Guangdong, especially from the Meizhou or Meixian region.

As of 2008, the total population ofSino-Mauritian,consisting of Hakka and Cantonese, is around 35,000.

Réunion

ManyChinese people in Réunionare of Hakka origin.They either came toRéunionasindentured workersor as voluntary migrants.

Americas

United States

Hakka from all over the world have also migrated to the USA. One group is the New England Hakka Association, which reminds its members not to forget their roots. One example is a blog by Ying Han Brach called "Searching for My Hakka Roots". Another group is the Hakka Association of New York, which aims to promote Hakka culture across the five boroughs ofNew York City.In the mid-1970s, the Hakka Benevolent Association in San Francisco was founded by Tu Chung. The association has strong ties with the San Francisco community and offers scholarships to their young members. There are significantHakka Americancommunities inSan Francisco,San Jose,SeattleandLos Angeles.

There are around 20,000 Taiwanese Hakkas in the United States.

Canada

There are several Hakka communities across Canada. One group that embraces on Hakka culture in this diverse country is the Hakka Heritage Alliance. Also see Jamaica.

Jamaica

MostChinese Jamaicansare Hakka; they have a long history inJamaica.Between 1854 and 1884, nearly 5,000 Hakkas arrived in Jamaica in three major voyages. The Hakkas seized the opportunity to venture into a new land, embracing the local language, customs and culture. During the 1960s and 1970s, substantial migration of Jamaican Hakkas to the US and Canada have occurred.The Hakkas in Jamaica came mainly fromDongguan,HuiyangandBao'an countiesof Guangdong Province.

Suriname

The Chinese inSurinameare homogeneous as a group and the great majority can trace their roots to Huidong'an (Huệ đông an). One famous Hakka is PresidentHenk Chin A Sen.

Guyana

Chinese people are a small minority atGuyana.Guyana's most prominent Hakka Chinese is its first president,Arthur Chung.

Oceania

Australia

Hakka people first arrived in Australia in the 1880s. Hakka arrivals were halted along with other Chinese immigrants during theWhite Australia policyera from 1901 to 1973 and resumed thereafter. Some estimate that there are now 100,000 Hakka people in Australia.

New Zealand

There are people of Hakka descent in New Zealand.

Tahiti

Hakka people first arrived inPapara,Tahitiin 1865.

Population

At a 1994 seminar of the World Hakka Association held inMeixian,statistics showed that there were 6,562,429 Hakkas living abroad.

In 2000, the worldwide population of Hakka was estimated at 36,059,500 and in 2010 it was estimated at 40,745,200.

Another estimate is that approximately 36 million Hakka people are scattered throughout the world. More than 31 million lives in over 200 cities and counties spread throughout five provinces of China (Guangdong, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Fu gian, Hunan) as well as Hong Kong.

Region	Hakka	Chinese	Total	Percentage	Majority	Source
Taiwan	4,202,000	22,813,000	23,374,000	18.4%	Second largest	Hakka Affairs Council,Taiwan, 2014
Hong Kong	1,250,000 est	6,643,000	7,300,000	18.8%	Second largest	Prof Lau Yee Cheung,Chinese University of Hong Kong,2010
Singapore	232,914	2,794,000	3,771,700	8.3%	Fourth largest	Singapore census, 2010
Malaysia	1,650,000	6,550,000	30,116,000	25.2%	Second largest	Malaysia census, 2015
Thailand	1,502,846	9,392,792	67,091,371	16.0%	Second largest	The World Factbook, 2012

Hakkaology

Tsai Ing-wen,President of Taiwan of Hakka descent, attended the "Lecturer Hakka Language Radio Broadcasting", to give a speech.

Hakkaology (Người Hẹ học) is the academic study of the Hakka people and their culture. It encompasses their origins, identity, language, traits, architecture, customs, food, literature, history, politics, economics, diaspora and genealogical records.

The study of the Hakka people first drew attention to Chinese and foreign scholars, adventurers, missionaries, travellers and authors of theTaiping Heavenly Kingdomera.Ernest John Eitel,a prominent German missionary, was one of those who took a great interest in this area.Theodore Hamberg,who also wrote an early English-language account of the Taiping Rebellion, is also considered a forefather of Hakka studies in the West.

Many foreign scholars were full of admiration of the Hakka people. According to prominent sinologistVictor Purcell,the Hakkas "have a stubbornness of disposition that distinguishes them from their fellow Chinese".

Political and military leadership

See also:List of notable Hakkas

It has been suggested that Hakkas have had a significant influence, disproportionate to their smaller total numbers, on the course of modern Chinese andoverseas Chinesehistory, particularly as a source of revolutionary, political, military leaders, as well aspresidents,prime ministers.

Hakkas started and formed the backbone of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom,the largest uprising in the modern history of China. The uprising, also known asJintian Uprising,originated at the Hakka village of Jintian in Guiping, Guangxi province. It was led by the failed Qing scholar,Hong Xiuquan,who was influenced byProtestantmissionaries. Hong's charisma tapped into a consciousness of national dissent which identified with his personal interpretations of the Christian message. His following, who were initially Hakka peasants from Guangxi, grew across the southern provinces.

The Taiping army, which included women in their ranks, captured towns and cities from the defenders, the Taiping troops killed all Manchu children because the Taiping troops with fatal rocks smashed Manchu children's headsFour of the six top Taiping leaders are Hakkas: Hong Xiuquan,Feng Yunshan,Yang XiuqingandShi Dakai.Hong Rengan,the Premier of the Kingdom, was the first person in China to advocate a federal government and reform. The kingdom lasted from 1851 to 1864.

Hakkas continued to play leading roles during theXinhai Revolutionthat overthrew the Qing dynasty and the republican years of China. WhenSun Yat-senwas a child, he used to listen to an old Taiping soldier telling them stories about the heroics of the Taipings.This influenced Sun and he proclaimed that he shall be the second Hong Xiuquan. Sun was to become the Father of modern China and many of his contemporaries were his fellow Hakkas.

Zheng Shiliang, a medical student and classmate of Sun, led theHuizhou Uprising(Huệ Châu khởi nghĩa) in 1900. Huizhou is an area in Guangdong province where most of the population are Hakkas. Deng Zhiyu led theHuizhou Qinühu Uprising(Huệ Châu bảy nữ hồ khởi nghĩa) in 1907. All of the Four Martyrs of Honghuagang (Hoa hồng cương bốn liệt sĩ) are Hakkas – one of which was Wen Shengcai who assassinated the Manchu general, Fu Qi, in 1911.

Brothers Hsieh Yi-qiao and Hsieh Liang-mu raised the 100,000Chinese Yuanneeded for theHuanghuagang Uprisingfrom the overseas Chinese community inNanyang(Southeast Asia) in 1911. At least 27 of the 85 (initially 72 because only 72 bodies could be identified) martyrs of Huanghuagang are Hakkas. Yao Yuping led the Guangdong Northern Expeditionary Force (Quảng Đông bắc phạt quân) to successive victories against the Qing Army which were vital in the successful defence of theProvisional GovernmentinNanjingand Puyi's early abdication.

Liao Zhongkaiand Deng Keng were Sun Yat-sen's main advisors on financial and military matters respectively. A big majority of the soldiers in the Guangdong Army (Việt quân) were Hakkas.Other Hakkas for example,Eugene Chen,was an outstanding foreign minister in the 1920s. Some of the best of Nationalist China generals:Chen Mingshu,Chen Jitang,Xue Yue,Zhang Fakui,andLuo Zhuoyingamongst many others are Hakka as well.

The Hakka occupied communist Bases reached a peak of more than 30,000 square kilometres and a population that numbered more than three million, covering mostly Hakka areas of two provinces: Jiangxi and Fu gian. The Hakka city ofRuijinwas the capital of the republic.

When it was overrun in 1934 by the Nationalist army in theFifthof itsEncirclement campaigns,the Communists began their famousLong Marchwith 86,000 soldiers, of which more than 70% were Hakkas. The Fifth Encirclement Campaign was led by Nationalist Hakka general, Xue Yue. During the retreat, the Communists managed to strike a deal with the Hakka warlord controlling Guangdong province, Chen Jitang, to let them pass through Guangdong without a fight. When thePeople's Liberation Armyhad its rank structure from 1955 to 1964, the highest number of generals, totalling 54, came from the small Hakka county ofXingguoin Jiangxi province. The county had also previously produced 27 Nationalist generals. Xingguo county is thus known as the Generals' County.

During the same period, there were 132 Hakkas out of 325 generals in Jiangxi, 63 Hakkas out of 83 generals in Fu gian, and 8 Hakkas out of 12 generals in Guangdong respectively, not mentioning those from Guangxi, Sichuan and Hunan. The number could have been significantly higher if the majority of the personnel who started the Long March had not perished before reaching its destination. Only less than 7,000 of the original 86,000 personnel had survived it.

Prominent Hakka communist leaders include: MarshalZhu De,the founder of the Red Army, later known as the People's Liberation Army;Ye Ting,Commander-in-chief,New Fourth Army,one of the two main Chinese communist forces fighting the Japanese during theWorld War II(the other main communist force,Eighth Route Army,was commanded by Zhu De); MarshalYe Jianying,governor of Guangdong; andHu Yaobang,where the memorial for his funeral sparked off a pro-democracy movement which led to theTiananmen Square protestsin 1989. In Guangdong, China's most prosperous province, the "Hakka clique" (Người Hẹ giúp) has consistently dominated the provincial government. Guangdong's Hakka governors include Ye Jianying,Ding Sheng,Ye XuanpingandHuang Huahua.

Besides playing major roles in all the three major revolutions of China, Hakkas had also been prominently involved in many of the wars against foreign intrusion of China. During theFirst Opium War,Lai Enjueled the Qing navy against the British at theBattle of Kowloonin 1839 andYan Botaocommanded the coastal defence at theBattle of Amoyin 1841.Feng ZicaiandLiu Yongfuwere instrumental in the defeat of the French at theBattle of Bang Bowhich led to the FrenchRetreat from Lạng Sơnand the conclusion of the war in 1885. When the Japanese invaded Taiwan, the Hakka militia forces led byQiu Fengjia,were able to put up a stiff resistance to the Japanese when the Qing army could not. During theBattle of Shanghaiin the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, the heroism ofXie Jinyuanand his troops, known as the "Eight Hundred Warriors" (800 tráng sĩ) in Chinese history, gained international attention and lifted flagging Chinese morale in their successfulDefence of Sihang Warehouseagainst the better equipped Japanese. However, in the ensuingBattle of Nanjing,seventeen Nationalist generals were killed in action, of which six were Hakkas.

During the war against the Japanese, both the commander-in-chiefs of the two main Chinese communist forces, Eighth Route Army and New Fourth Army, are Hakkas: Zhu De and Ye Ting. On the Nationalist side, Xue Yue and Zhang Fakui were commander-in-chiefs for the 9th and 4th War Zones respectively. Called the "Pattonof Asia "by the West and the" God of War "(Chiến thần) by the Chinese, Xue was China's most outstanding general during the war, having won several major battles that killed hundreds of thousands of Japanese troops.Luo Zhuoyingwas the commander-in-chief for the1st Route Expeditionary Forces, Burma(China's first participation of a war overseas), 1942.

During theJapanese occupation of Hong Kongfrom 1941 to 1945, theDong River Columnguerrilla force (Đông Giang cánh quân) was a constant harassment to the Japanese troops. The force, whose members were mostly Hakkas and led by its commanderZeng Sheng,was highly successful due to its strong Hakka network. Noteworthy accomplishments of the partisan guerrilla force included the aiding of British and Commonwealth (British Raj Colonial rulers) prisoners of war to escape successfully from Japanese internment camps and the rescuing of twenty American pilots who parachuted into Hong Kong when they were shot down.

Overseas Hakkas have also been prominent politicians in the countries they had migrated to, many of which are leading political figures of the countries or the Chinese communities there. Since the 20th century, there have been twenty Hakkas who had becomeheads of stateorheads of governmentin different countries.

In popular culture

• The Guest People(Chinese:Người Hẹ chi ca), a 1997 30-episode Singapore television drama about four young Hakka men who migrated from China to Singapore in the 1950s and were caught in the tumultuous anti-colonial period of the country's history. The Hakka-language version of the drama was broadcast in Taiwan. The drama was nominated for the Best Drama Series awards in theAsian Television Awardsand theNew York Television Festival,1998.
• 1895orBlue Brave: The Legend of Formosa 1895(Chinese:1895 Ất chưa), a 2008 Taiwan Hakka-language film about the Hakkamilitiasfighting the Japanese during theJapanese invasion of Taiwanin 1895. The edited version for television won the Best Drama Series award in the Asian Television Awards, 2009.
• The Great Southern Migration(Chinese:Đại nam dời or cát đằng lõm), a 2012 32-episode China television drama about the Hakkas' migration toSouthern Chinaduring the lateTang dynastyin the 9th century.
• Hakka Women(Chinese:Người Hẹ nữ nhân) orTo Be or Not to Be(Chinese:Kiếp sau không làm Hong Kong người), a 2014 25-episode Hong Kong television drama about the lives of two Hakka sisters separated when young, one in Hong Kong and the other in China.
• Gold Leaf(Chinese:Trà kim ),a 2021 Taiwanese period drama about the booming tea trade in Taiwan during the 1950 and a Hakka Taiwanese tea trader family owned tea exporting company.

See also

• Hakka architecture
• Hakka cuisine
• Hakka hill songs
• Hakka language
• Hakka opera
• Larut War
• Lee Youn Chin
• Punti–Hakka Clan Wars
• Tea-picking opera

Further reading

People and identity

• Char, Tin-Yuke(1969).The Hakka Chinese – Their Origin & Folk Songs.Jade Mountain Press.
• Eberhard, Wolfram (1974).Studies in Hakka Folktales.Taipei: Chinese Association for Folklore.
• Kiang, Clyde (July 1991).The Hakka Search for a Homeland.Allegheny Press.ISBN9780910042611.
• Constable, Nicole, ed. (1996).Guest People: Hakka Identity in China and Abroad.University of Washington Press.ISBN9780295984872.
• Leong, Sow-Theng (1997). Wright, Tim (ed.).Migration and Ethnicity in Chinese History: Hakkas, Pengmin and Their Neighbors.Stanford University Press.ISBN9780804728577.
• Chung, Yoon-Ngan (2005).The Hakka Chinese: Their Origin, Folk Songs and Nursery Rhymes.Poseidon Books.ISBN978-1921005503.
• Leo, Jessieca (September 2015).Global Hakka: Hakka Identity in the Remaking.BRILL.ISBN9789004300262.

Politics

• Erbaugh, Mary S. (December 1992). "The Secret History of the Hakkas: The Chinese Revolution as a Hakka Enterprise".The China Quarterly.132(132): 937–968.doi:10.1017/S0305741000045495.JSTOR654189.S2CID154584671.
• Spence, Jonathan D. (December 1996).God's Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan.W. W. Norton & Company.ISBN9780393315561.
• Zhang, Delai (2002).The Hakkas of Sabah: A Survey of Their Impact on the Modernization of the Bornean Malaysian State.Sabah Theological Seminary.ISBN9789834084004.
• Yong, Kee Howe (July 2013).The Hakkas of Sarawak: Sacrificial Gifts in Cold War Era Malaysia.University of Toronto Press.ISBN9781442615465.
• Lee, Wei Ling (January 2015). Yap, Koon Hong (ed.).A Hakka Woman's Singapore Stories: My Life as a Daughter, Doctor and Diehard Singaporean.Straits Times Press.ISBN9789814642477.
• Liu, L. Larry (January 2015).Hakkas in Power: A Study of Chinese Political Leadership in East and Southeast Asia, and South America.Create Space Independent Publishing Platform.ISBN9781505429435.

Language

• Lee, T.H. (1955).Hakka Lessons for Malayan Students.Government Federation of Malaya.
• Tsang, Joseph Mang Kin (January 2003).The Hakka Epic.President's Fund for Creative Writing in English.ISBN9789990397406.
• Chen, Matthew Y.; Lian, Hee Wee; Yan, Xiuhong (2004).The Paradox of Hakka Tone Sandhi.Dept of Chinese Studies, National University of Singapore.ISBN9789810519438.
• Hashimoto, Mantaro J. (June 2010).The Hakka Dialect: A Linguistic Study of its Phonology, Syntax and Lexicon.Cambridge University Press.ISBN9780521133678.

Religion

• Constable, Nicole (August 1994).Christian Souls and Chinese Spirits: A Hakka Community in Hong Kong.University of California Press.ISBN9780520083844.
• Lutz, Jessie G.; Lutz, Rolland Ray (January 1998).Hakka Chinese Confront Protestant Christianity, 1850-1900: With the Autobiographies of Eight Hakka Christians, and Commentary.Routledge.ISBN9780765600387.
• Christofferson, Ethan (September 2012).Negotiating Identity: Exploring Tensions between Being Hakka and Being Christian in Northwestern Taiwan.Wipf & Stock Publishers.ISBN9781610975032.

Food

• Anusasananan, Linda Lau (October 2012).The Hakka Cookbook: Chinese Soul Food from around the World.University of California Press.ISBN9780520273283.

Family stories

• Tan, Amy (October 1995).The Hundred Secret Senses.Penguin Books.ISBN9780399141157.The book was shortlisted for the 1996Orange Prize for Fiction.
• Lee, J.P. (January 2004).Breaking the Curse of the Green Dragon (A Hakka Story).Instrument of Truth.ISBN9789810480424.
• Chin, Woon Ping (June 2008).Hakka Soul: Memories, Migrations and Meals.University of Hawaii.ISBN9780824832896.
• Huang, Suhua (April 2012).A Faithful Reading Partner: A Story from a Hakka Village.AuthorHouse.ISBN9781468562675.
• Lampotang, Peggy (January 2014).The Coral Heart: A Shopkeeper's Journey.Atelier d'ecriture.ISBN9789990336924.
• Sze, Elsie (February 2014).Ghost Cave: A Novel of Sarawak.Hong Kong Women in Publishing Society.ISBN978-1496073945.
• Hsiung, C. Fong (September 2014).Picture Bride.Mawenzi House/TSAR Publishers.ISBN9781927494394.
• Lin Ung, Charlene (March 2015).Nam Moi: A Young Girl's Story of Her Family's Escape from Vietnam.Createspace Independent Publishing Platform.ISBN9781508700791.
• Madison, Paula Williams (April 2015).Finding Samuel Lowe: China, Jamaica, Harlem.Amistad.ISBN9780062331632.

External links

Media related toHakka peopleat Wikimedia Commons