History of pseudoscience

The Alchemist in Search of the Philosopher's Stone,by Joseph Wright, 1771

Thehistory of pseudoscienceis the study of pseudoscientific theories over time. Apseudoscienceis a set of ideas that presents itself as science, while it does not meet the criteria to properly be called such.

Distinguishing between properscienceand pseudoscience is sometimes difficult. One popular proposal for demarcation between the two is thefalsification criterion,most notably contributed to by the philosopherKarl Popper.In the history of pseudoscience it can be especially hard to separate the two, because some sciences developed from pseudosciences. An example of this is the sciencechemistry,which traces its origins from theprotoscienceofalchemy.

The vast diversity in pseudosciences further complicates the history of pseudoscience. Some pseudosciences originated in the pre-scientific era, such asastrologyandacupuncture.Others developed as part of an ideology, such asLysenkoism,or as a response to perceived threats to an ideology. An example of this iscreationism,which was developed as a response to the scientifictheory of evolution.

Despite failing to meet proper scientific standards, many pseudosciences survive. This is usually due to a persistent core ofdevoteeswho refuse to accept scientific criticism of their beliefs, or due to popular misconceptions. Sheer popularity is also a factor, as is attested by astrology which remains popular despite being rejected by a large majority of scientists.

19th century

Aphrenologychart from 1883. During the first half of the 19th century, phrenology was a popular study and considered scientific. By the second half of the century, the theory was largely abandoned.

Among the most notable developments in the history of pseudoscience in the 19th century are the rise ofSpiritualism(traced in America to 1848),homeopathy(first formulated in 1796), andphrenology(developed around 1800). Another popular pseudoscientific belief that arose during the 19th century was the idea that there werecanals visible on Mars.A relatively mild Christian fundamentalist backlash against the scientifictheory of evolutionforeshadowed subsequent events in the 20th century.

The study of bumps and fissures in people's skulls to determine their character,phrenology,was originally considered a science. It influenced psychiatry and early studies into neuroscience.As science advanced, phrenology was increasingly viewed as a pseudoscience. Halfway through the 19th century, the scientific community had prevailingly abandoned it,although it was not comprehensively tested until much later.

Halfway through the century,iridologywas invented by the Hungarian physicianIgnaz von Peczely.The theory would remain popular throughout the 20th century as well.

The astrological signs of the zodiac.

Spiritualism(sometimes referred to as "Modern Spiritualism" or "Spiritism" )or "Modern American Spiritualism"grew phenomenally during the period. The American version of this movement has been traced to theFox sisterswho in 1848 began claiming the ability to communicate with the dead.The religious movement would remain popular until the 1920s, when renowned magicianHarry Houdinibegan exposing famous mediums and other performers as frauds (see alsoHarry Houdini#Debunking spiritualists). While the religious beliefs of Spiritualism are not presented as science, and thus are not properly considered pseudoscientific, the movement did spawn numerous pseudoscientific phenomena such asectoplasmandspirit photography.

The principles ofhomeopathywere first formulated in 1796, by German physicianSamuel Hahnemann.At the time, mainstream medicine was a primitive affair and still made use of techniques such asbloodletting.Homeopathic medicine by contrast consisted of extremely diluted substances, which meant that patients basically received water. Compared to the damage often caused by conventional medicine, this was an improvement.During the 1830s homeopathic institutions and schools spread across the US and Europe.Despite these early successes, homeopathy was not without its critics.Its popularity was on the decline before the end of the 19th century, though it has been revived in the 20th century.

The supposedMartian canalswere first reported in 1877, by the Italian astronomerGiovanni Schiaparelli.The belief in them peaked in the late 19th century, but was widely discredited in the beginning of the 20th century.

The publication ofAtlantis: The Antediluvian Worldby politician and authorIgnatius L. Donnellyin 1882, renewed interest in the ancient idea ofAtlantis.This highly advanced society supposedly existed several millennia before the rise of civilizations likeAncient Egypt.It was first mentioned byPlato,as a literary device in two of his dialogues. Other stories of lost continents, such asMuandLemuriaalso arose during the late 19th century.

In 1881 theDutchVereniging tegen de Kwakzalverij(English:Society against Quackery) was formed to oppose pseudoscientific trends in medicine. It is still active.

20th century

Among the most notable developments to pseudoscience in the 20th century are the rise ofCreationism,the demise ofSpiritualism,and the first formulation ofancient astronaut theories.

Reflexology,the idea that an undetectable life force connects various parts of the body to the feet and sometimes the hands and ears, was introduced in the US in 1913 as 'zone therapy'.

Creationismarose during the 20th century as a result of various other historical developments. When themodern evolutionary synthesisovercame theeclipse of Darwinismin the first half of the 20th century, Americanfundamentalist Christiansbegan opposing the teaching of thetheory of evolutionin public schools. They introduced numerous laws to this effect, one of which was notoriously upheld by theScopes Trial. In the second half of the century theSpace Racecaused a renewed interest in science and worry that the USA was falling behind on the Soviet Union. Stricter science standards were adopted and led to the re-introduction of thetheory of evolutionin the curriculum. The laws against teaching evolution were now ruled unconstitutional, because they violated theseparation of church and state.Attempting to evade this ruling, the Christian fundamentalists produced a supposedly secular alternative to evolution, Creationism. Perhaps the most influential publication of this new pseudoscience wasThe Genesis Floodbyyoung earth creationistsJohn C. WhitcombandHenry M. Morris.

The dawn of the space age also inspired various versions ofancient astronaut theories.While differences between the specific theories exists, they share the idea that intelligent extraterrestrials visited Earth in the distant past and made contact with then living humans. Popular authors, such asErich von DänikenandZecharia Sitchin,began publishing in the 1960s. Among the most notable publications in the genre isChariots of the Gods?,which appeared in 1968.

Late in the 20th century several prominentskepticalfoundations were formed to counter the growth of pseudosciences. In the US, the most notable of these are, in chronological order, theCenter for Inquiry(1991),The Skeptics Society(1992), theJames Randi Educational Foundation(1996), and theNew England Skeptical Society(1996). TheCommittee for Skeptical Inquiry,which has similar goals, had already been founded in 1976. It became part of the Center for Inquiry as part of the foundation of the latter in 1991. In the NetherlandsStichting Skepsiswas founded in 1987.

21st century

At the beginning of the 21st century, a variety of pseudoscientific theories remain popular and new ones continue to crop up.

The Flat Earthis the idea that the Earth is flat. It is believed to have existed for thousands of years, but studies show this is a relatively new theory that begun in the 1990s when the internet starting up allowed such ideas to spread much quicker.

Creationism,in the form ofIntelligent Design,suffered a major legal defeat in theKitzmiller v. Dover Area School Districttrial. JudgeJohn E. Jones IIIruled that Intelligent Design is inseparable from Creationism, and its teaching in public schools violates theEstablishment Clause of the First Amendment.The trial sparked much interest, and was the subject of several documentaries including the award-winningNOVAproductionJudgment Day: Intelligent Design on Trial(2007).

The pseudoscientific idea thatvaccines cause autismoriginated in the 1990s, but became prominent in the media during the first decade of the 21st century. Despite a broadscientific consensusagainst the idea that there is a link betweenvaccinationandautism,several celebrities have joined the debate. Most notable of these isJenny McCarthy,whose son has autism. In February 2009, surgeonAndrew Wakefield,who published the original research supposedly indicating a link between vaccines and autism, was reported to have fixed the data byThe Sunday Times.A hearing by theGeneral Medical Councilbegan in March 2007, examining charges of professional misconduct. On 24 May 2010, he was struck off the United Kingdom medical register, effectively banning him from practicing medicine in Britain.

The most notable development in theancient astronautsgenre was the opening of Erich von Däniken'sMystery Parkin 2003. While the park had a good first year, the number of visitors was much lower than the expected 500,000 a year. This caused financial difficulties, which led to the closure of the park in 2006.

See also

Histories of specific pseudosciences

• History of astrology
• History of creationism
• History of perpetual motion machines