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Jacobaea vulgaris

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Cushag" and "Ragwort" redirect here. For the Manx poet, seeJosephine Kermode.For other plants, seelist of plants known as ragwort.

Jacobaea vulgaris
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Genus: Jacobaea
Species:
J. vulgaris
Binomial name
Jacobaea vulgaris
Synonyms[1][2][3]

Senecio jacobaeaL.

Jacobaea vulgaris,syn.Senecio jacobaea,[2]is a very common wild flower in the familyAsteraceaethat is native to northernEurasia,usually in dry, open places, and has also been widely distributed as a weed elsewhere.

Common names includeragwort,common ragwort,[4]stinking willie,[5]tansy ragwort,benweed,St. James-wort,stinking nanny/ninny/willy,staggerwort,dog standard,cankerwort,stammerwort.In the western United States it is generally known astansy ragwort,ortansy,though its resemblance to the truetansyis superficial.[6]

In some countries it is aninvasive speciesand regarded as anoxious weed.In the UK, where it is native, it is often unwanted because of its toxic effect forcattleandhorses,but it is also valued for itsnectarproduction which feeds insectpollinatorsand its ecological importance is thus considered significant.

Description

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The plant is generally considered to be biennial but it has the tendency to exhibit perennial properties under certain cultural conditions (such as when subjected to repeated grazing or mowing).[7]The stems are erect, straight, have no or few hairs, and reach a height of 0.3–2.0 metres (1 ft 0 in – 6 ft 7 in). The leaves arepinnatelylobed and the end lobe is blunt.[8]The many names that include the word "stinking" (and Mare's Fart) arise because of the unpleasant smell of theleaves.The hermaphroditeflowerheads are 1.5–2.5 centimetres (0.6–1.0 in) diameter, and are borne in dense, flat-topped clusters; the florets are bright yellow. It has a long flowering period lasting from June to November (in theNorthern Hemisphere).

Pollination is by a wide range ofbees,fliesandmoths and butterflies.Over a season, one plant may produce 2,000 to 2,500 yellow flowers in 20- to 60-headed, flat-toppedcorymbs.Theacheneshavedandelion-like groups of prickly hairs calledpappuses,which helpseed dispersalby the wind.[9][10]The number of seeds produced may be as large as 75,000 to 120,000, although in its native range in Eurasia very few of these would grow into new plants and research has shown that most seeds do not travel a great distance from the parent plant.[11][12]

Taxonomy

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Two subspecies are accepted:

  • Jacobaea vulgarisssp.vulgaris- the typical plant, with ray florets present.
  • Jacobaea vulgarisssp.dunensis- the ray florets are missing.

Distribution

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Ragwort is native to the Eurasian continent. In Europe it is widely spread, fromScandinaviato the Mediterranean.[citation needed]In Britain and Ireland, where it is native, it is listed as a noxious weed.[13]

Ragwort is abundant in waste land, waysides and grazing pastures.[14]Its natural habitat is sand dunes, but it is commonly found along road sides, railways and in light, low fertility soil.[15]

It has been introduced in many other regions, and is listed as a weed in many. These include:[citation needed]

Ecological importance

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Although the plant is often unwanted by landowners because of its toxic effect for cattle and horses, and because it is considered aweedby many, it provides a great deal ofnectarforpollinators.It was rated in the top 10 for most nectar production (nectar per unit cover per year) in aUKplants survey conducted by the AgriLand project which is supported by the UK Insect Pollinators Initiative.[16]It also was the top producer of nectar sugar in another study in Britain, with a production per floral unit of (2921 ± 448μg).[17]

Drone flyon ragwort
Jacobaea vulgaris

In the United Kingdom, where the plant is native, ragwort provides a home and food source to at least 77 insect species. Thirty of these species of invertebrate use ragwort exclusively as their food source[18]and there are another 22 species where ragwort forms a significant part of their diet.

English Nature identifies a further 117 species that use ragwort as a nectar source whilst travelling between feeding and breeding sites, or between metapopulations.[18]These consist mainly of solitary bees, hoverflies, moths, and butterflies such as the small copper butterfly (Lycaena phlaeas). Pollen is collected by solitary bees.[19]

Besides the fact that ragwort is very attractive to such a vast array of insects, some of these are very rare indeed. Of the 30 species that specifically feed on ragwort alone, seven are officially deemednationally scarce.A further three species are on theIUCN Red List.In short, ragwort is an exclusive food source for ten rare or threatened insect species, including thecinnabar moth(Tyria jacobaeae),[20]the picture winged fly (Campiglossa malaris), the scarce clouded knot horn moth (Homoeosoma nimbella), and the Sussex emerald moth (Thalera fimbrialis).[18]The Sussex Emerald has been labelled a Priority Species in theUnited Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan.A priority species is one which is "scarce, threatened and declining".[21]The remainder of the ten threatened species include three species of leaf beetle, another picture-winged fly, and three micro moths. All of these species are Nationally Scarce B, with one leaf beetle categorised as Nationally Scarce A.[18]

The most common of those species that are totally reliant on ragwort for their survival is the cinnabar moth. The cinnabar is a United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan Species, its status described as "common and widespread, but rapidly declining".[21]

Poisonous effects

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Structure of senecionine

Ragwort contains many differentalkaloids,making it poisonous to certain animals.(EHC 80,section 9.1.4).Alkaloids which have been found in the plant confirmed by the WHO report EHC 80 are --jacobine,jaconine,jacozine,otosenine,retrorsine,seneciphylline,senecionine,andsenkirkine(p. 322 Appendix II). There is a strong variation between plants from the same location in distribution between the possible alkaloids and even the absolute amount of alkaloids varies drastically.[22]

Ragwort is of concern to people who keephorsesand cattle.[23][24]In areas of the world where ragwort is a native plant, such as Britain and continental Europe, documented cases of proven poisoning are rare.[25]Horses do not normally eat fresh ragwort due to its taste.[citation needed][26]The result, if sufficient quantity is consumed, can be irreversiblecirrhosisof the liver of a form identified as megalocytosis where cells are abnormally enlarged. Signs that a horse has been poisoned include yellow mucous membranes, depression, and lack of coordination.[27]

There is no definitive test for the poisoning however, since megalocytosis is not a change in the liver which is specific to ragwort poisoning. It is also seen in poisoning by otheralkylating agents,such as nitrosamines andaflatoxins.[28]Aflatoxins are a common contaminant formed in feedstuffs by moulds. Research in the United Kingdom has produced results showing megalocytosis, which may be due to various causes, to be a relatively uncommon cause of liver disease in horses.[29]

The alkaloid does not actually accumulate in the liver but a breakdown product can damageDNAand progressively kills cells.[citation needed]About 3-7% of the body weight is sometimes claimed as deadly for horses,[citation needed]but an example in the scientific literature exists of a horse surviving being fed over 20% of its body weight.[citation needed]The effect of low doses is lessened by the destruction of the original alkaloids by the action of bacteria in the digestive tract before they reach the bloodstream. There is no known antidote or cure to poisoning, but examples are known from the scientific literature of horses making a full recovery once consumption has been stopped.[30][31]

The alkaloids can be absorbed in small quantities through the skin but studies have shown that the absorption is very much less than by ingestion. Also they are in the N-oxide form which only becomes toxic after conversion inside the digestive tract and they will be excreted harmlessly.[32]

Some sensitive individuals can suffer from an allergic reaction because ragwort, like many members of the family Compositae, containssesquiterpene lactoneswhich can cause compositae dermatitis. These are different from thepyrrolizidine alkaloidswhich are responsible for the toxic effects.

Honey collected from ragwort has been found to contain small quantities of jacoline, jacobine, jacozine, senecionine, and seneciphylline, but the quantities have been judged as too minute to be of concern.[33]

Control

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As indicated above, common ragwort has become a problem in several areas in which it has been introduced, and various methods are employed to help prevent its spread.

In many Australian states ragwort has been declared anoxious weed,and landholders are required to remove it from their property by law.[citation needed]In the island state ofTasmania,ragwort is responsible for more than half of the total costs of that state's control of invasive species. The species has been calculated as the 8th most expensive invasive species in terms of cost to Australian farmers, at overA$500mover 60 years.[34]

It is also legislated as a noxious weed in New Zealand, where farmers sometimes bring in helicopters to spray their farms if the ragwort is too widespread.[citation needed]

Legislation

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Ireland

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InIreland,theNoxious Weeds (Thistle, Ragwort, and Dock) Order 1937,issued under theNoxious Weeds Act 1936,declares ragwort as a noxious weed, requiring landowners to control its growth.[35][36]

United Kingdom

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In theUnited Kingdom,common ragwort (Senecio jacobaea) is one of the five plants named as aninjurious weedunder the provisions of theWeeds Act 1959.The wordinjuriousin this context indicates that it could be harmful to agriculture, not that it is dangerous to animals, as all the otherinjurious weedslisted are non-toxic. Under the terms of this Act, a land occupier can be required by theSecretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairsto prevent the spread of the plant. However, the growth of the plant is not made illegal by the Act and there is no statutory obligation for control placed upon landowners in general.[37]

TheRagwort Control Act 2003provides for a code of practice, which the government states is guidance,[38]on ragwort and does not place any further legal responsibilities on landowners to control the plant.[39]

Biological control

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Flowering plant with cinnabar moth caterpillars

Ragwort is afood plantfor the larvae ofCochylis atricapitana,Phycitodes maritima,andPhycitodes saxicolais.Ragwort is best known as the food ofcaterpillarsof thecinnabar mothTyria jacobaeae.They absorb alkaloids from the plant and become distasteful to predators, a fact advertised by the black and yellow warning colours. The red and black, day-flying adult moth is also distasteful to many potential predators. The moth is used as a control for ragwort in countries in which it has been introduced and become a problem, likeNew Zealandand the westernUnited States.[40]As both larvae and adults are distinctly colored and marked, identification of cinnabars is easy outside of their natural range, and grounds and range keepers can quickly recognize them. In both countries, thetansy ragwort flea beetle(Longitarsus jacobaeae) has been introduced to combat the plant. Another beetle,Longitarsus ganglbaueri,also feeds on ragwort, but will feed on other plants as well, making it an unsuitable biological control.[41]Another biological control agent introduced in the western United States is the ragwort seed fly, although it is not considered very effective at controlling ragwort.[42]The biological control of ragwort was already used in the 1930s.[43]

Other usage

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In ancient Greece and Rome a supposedaphrodisiacwas made from the plant; it was calledsatyrion.[44]

The leaves can be used to obtain a good greendye,although it fades. The flowers can be used to produce a dye that is yellow when the fabric is mordanted with alum. Brown and orange dyes are also reported.[45]

Literature, poetry and mythology

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Ragwort thou humble flower

The Greek physicianPedanius Dioscorides(c.40-90 CE) recommended the herb. The two "fathers" of herbalism,GerardandCulpeper,also recommended the herb. Culpeper was anastrological botanistand thought the plant was "under the command of Dame Venus, and [it] cleanses, digests, and discusses."[46]

The poetJohn Clarehad a more positive opinion of the plant, as revealed in this poem of 1831:

Ragwort thou humble flower with tattered leaves
I love to see thee come and litter gold...
Thy waste of shining blossoms richly shields
The sun tanned sward in splendid hues that burn
So bright and glaring that the very light
Of the rich sunshine doth to paleness turn
And seems but very shadows in thy sight.

The ragwort, under its Manx nameCushag,is the national flower of theIsle of Man[47]According to one storyKing Orrychose as his emblem the cushag flower, as its twelve petals represent one of the isles of theKingdom of Mann and the Isles:the Isle of Man, Arran, Bute, Islay, Jura, Mull, Iona, Eigg, Rum, Skye, Raasay, and the Outer Hebrides.[citation needed]The ragwort, in fact, usually has thirteen petals. The Manx poetJosephine Kermode(1852–1937) wrote the followingpoemabout theCushag:

Now, the Cushag, we know,
Must never grow,
Where the farmer's work is done.
But along the rills,
In the heart of the hills,
The Cushag may shine like the sun.
Where the golden flowers,
Have fairy powers,
To gladden our hearts with their grace.
And in Vannin Veg Veen,
In the valleys green,
The Cushags have still a place.

(Vannin Veg Veen isManxfordear littleIsle of Man.)

Donald Macalastair of Druim-a-ghinnir on the Isle of Arran told a story of the fairies journeying to Ireland. The ragwort was their transport and every one of them picked a plant, sat astride and arrived in Ireland in an instant.[48]

See also

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References

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  1. ^"Jacobaea vulgaris".Germplasm Resources Information Network.Agricultural Research Service,United States Department of Agriculture.Retrieved10 August2012.
  2. ^abUniProt."SpeciesSenecio jacobaea".Retrieved29 June2008.
  3. ^"Jacobaea vulgarisGaertn ".International Plant Names Index(IPNI).Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew;Harvard University Herbaria&Libraries;Australian National Botanic Gardens.29 June 2008.
  4. ^BSBI List 2007(xls).Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland.Archived fromthe original(xls)on 26 June 2015.Retrieved17 October2014.
  5. ^USDA, NRCS(n.d.)."​Senecio jacobaea​".The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov).Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team.Retrieved9 November2015.
  6. ^"Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board".18 October 2024.
  7. ^Howatt, Stephen (1989). "The Toxicity of Tansy Ragwort".Weed Technology.3(2): 436–438.doi:10.1017/S0890037X00032115.S2CID90478222.
  8. ^Parnell, J.; Curtis, T. (2012).Webb's An Irish Flora.Cork University Press.ISBN978-185918-4783.
  9. ^"BMP:TANSY RAGWORT (Senecio jacobaea)".WeedWise Program.Retrieved20 July2024.
  10. ^"Care and advice".The Donkey Sanctuary Ireland.Retrieved20 July2024.
  11. ^Poole, A. L.; Cairns, D. (1940). "Botanical Aspects of Ragwort (Senecio jacobaeaL.) Control ".Bulletin of the New Zealand Department of Science and Industrial Research.82:1–66.
  12. ^McEvoy, Peter B.; Cox, Caroline S. (1987). "Wind Dispersal Distances in Dimorphic Achenes of Ragwort, Senecio Jacobaea".Ecology.68(6): 2006–2015.doi:10.2307/1939891.JSTOR1939891.PMID29357152.
  13. ^"Seven of the most invasive plants in the UK".celsolicitors.co.uk.13 July 2020.
  14. ^Clapham, A. R.; Tutin, T. G.; Warburg, E. F. (1968).Excursion flora of the British Isles(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-04656-5.
  15. ^"Common ragwort".Garden Organic.Retrieved3 May2024.
  16. ^"Which flowers are the best source of nectar?".Conservation Grade. 15 October 2014. Archived fromthe originalon 14 December 2019.Retrieved18 October2017.
  17. ^Hicks, D. M.; Ouvrard, P.; Baldock, K. C. R. (2016)."Food for Pollinators: Quantifying the Nectar and Pollen Resources of Urban Flower Meadows".PLOS ONE.11(6): e0158117.Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1158117H.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0158117.PMC4920406.PMID27341588.
  18. ^abcd"Ragwort Fact File".Archived fromthe originalon 14 May 2012.Retrieved31 March2012.
  19. ^Wood, Thomas J.; Holland, John M.; Goulson, Dave (2016)."Providing foraging resources for solitary bees on farmland: current schemes for pollinators benefit a limited suite of species"(PDF).Journal of Applied Ecology.54:323–333.doi:10.1111/1365-2664.12718.
  20. ^"Common caterpillars: A simple guide".countrylife.co.uk. 7 June 2017.Retrieved20 July2017.
  21. ^ab"The United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan - moths"(PDF).Butterfly Conservation. 2007. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 7 May 2012.
  22. ^Macel, Mirka; Vrieling, Klaas; Klinkhamer, Peter G. L. (April 2004). "Variation in pyrrolizidine alkaloid patterns ofSenecio jacobaea".Phytochemistry.65(7): 865–873.Bibcode:2004PChem..65..865M.doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2004.02.009.PMID15081286.
  23. ^Cortinovis, Cristina; Caloni, Francesca (2015)."Alkaloid-Containing Plants Poisonous to Cattle and Horses in Europe".Toxins.7(12): 5301–7.doi:10.3390/toxins7124884.PMC4690134.PMID26670251.
  24. ^Wiedenfeld, H (2011)."Plants containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids: Toxicity and problems"(PDF).Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A.28(3): 282–292.doi:10.1080/19440049.2010.541288.PMID21360374.S2CID23218347.
  25. ^Giles, C. J. (1983). "Outbreak of ragwort (Senecio jacobea) poisoning in horses".Equine Veterinary Journal.15(3): 248–50.doi:10.1111/j.2042-3306.1983.tb01781.x.PMID6136403.
  26. ^"Is ragwort poisonous? A ragwort mythbuster | Friends of the Earth".friendsoftheearth.uk.Retrieved20 July2024.
  27. ^Theiler, Arnold (April 1918)."Acute Liver-Atrophy and Parenchymatous Hepatitis in Horses".Union of South Africa. Dept. of Agriculture:7–164 – via Cabi Digital Library.
  28. ^Jubb, K. V. F.; Kennedy, P. C.; Palmer, N. (2007).Pathology of Domestic Animals(5th ed.). Elsevier Saunders.ISBN9780702028236.
  29. ^Durham, A. E. (2015). "Surveillance focus: Ragwort toxicity in horses in the UK".Veterinary Record.176(24): 620–622.doi:10.1136/vr.h2817.PMID26067012.S2CID8833710.
  30. ^De Lanux-Van Gorder, V. (2000)."Tansy ragwort poisoning in a horse in southern Ontario".The Canadian Veterinary Journal.41(5): 409–10.PMC1476261.PMID10816838.
  31. ^Lessard, P.; Wilson, W. D.; Olander, H. J.; Rogers, Q. R.; Mendel, V. E. (1986). "Clinicopathologic study of horses surviving pyrrolizidine alkaloid (Senecio vulgaris) toxicosis".American Journal of Veterinary Research.47(8): 1776–80.PMID2875683.
  32. ^"Ragwort".iNaturalist.Retrieved11 July2023.
  33. ^Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food(1995),Surveillance for pyrrolizidine alkaloids in honey,UK Food Standards Agency, archived fromthe originalon 8 August 2007,retrieved12 August2007
  34. ^Khan, Jo (29 July 2021)."Invasive species have cost Australia $390 billion in the past 60 years, study shows".ABC News.Australian Broadcasting Corporation.Retrieved30 July2021.
  35. ^"Ragwort in Ireland".Archived fromthe originalon 28 July 2009.Retrieved1 July2009.
  36. ^Leiss, Kirsten A (2010)."Management practices for control of ragwort species".Phytochemistry Reviews.10(1): 153–163.doi:10.1007/s11101-010-9173-1.PMC3047715.PMID21475410.
  37. ^Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs,Weeds Act 1959,Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs,archived fromthe originalon 12 September 2007,retrieved12 August2007
  38. ^"Ragwort Control Act 2003 Question for Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs".Hansard.
  39. ^Revised text of the Ragwort Control Act 2003fromLegislation.gov.uk.Accessed on 9 December 2011.
  40. ^McEvoy, Peter; Cox, Caroline; Coombs, Eric (1991). "Successful Biological Control of Ragwort, Senecio Jacobaea, by Introduced Insects in Oregon".Ecological Applications.1(4): 430–442.doi:10.2307/1941900.JSTOR1941900.PMID27755672.S2CID21701854.
  41. ^McLaren, D. A.; Ireson, J. E.; Kwong, R. M. (2000). "Biological Control of Ragwort (Senecio jacobaeaL.) in Australia ".Proceedings of the X International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds:67–79.
  42. ^Filley, Shelby; Hulting, Andy; Pirelli, Gene; Coombs, Eric (August 2011)."Tansy Ragwort".Oregon State University Extension Service.
  43. ^Cameron, Ewen (1935). "A Study of the Natural Control of Ragwort (Senecio JacobaeaL.) ".The Journal of Ecology.23(2): 265–322.doi:10.2307/2256123.JSTOR2256123.
  44. ^"Definition - Numen - The Latin Lexicon - An Online Latin Dictionary - A Dictionary of the Latin Language".latinlexicon.org.Retrieved18 September2024.
  45. ^"Senecio jacobaea - L."Plants For A Future.PFAF Charity.Retrieved14 August2020..Cites references at"Plants For A Future Species Database Bibliography".Plants For A Future.PFAF Charity.Retrieved14 August2020.
  46. ^Grieve, Maud (1971).A Modern Herbal: The Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic and Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folk-lore of Herbs, Grasses, Fungi, Shrubs, & Trees with All Their Modern Scientific Uses, Volume 2.
  47. ^"Island Facts - Isle of Man Government -".gov.im.Archived fromthe originalon 10 May 2007.
  48. ^Wentz, W. Y. (1911).The Fairy-faith in Celtic countries(1981 reprint ed.). Colin Smythe. p.87.ISBN978-0-901072-51-1.
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