Polabian Slavs
Polabian Slavs,also known asElbe Slavs[a]and more broadly asWends,is a collective term applied to a number ofLechitic(West Slavic) tribes who lived scattered along theElberiver in what is todayeastern Germany.The approximate territory stretched from theBaltic Seain the north, theSaale[1]and theLimes Saxoniae[2]in the west, theOre Mountainsand theWestern Sudetesin the south, andPolandin the east.
The Polabian Slavs were largely conquered bySaxonsandDanessince the 9th century and were subsequently included and graduallyassimilatedwithin theHoly Roman Empire.The tribes were graduallyGermanizedand assimilated in the following centuries; theSorbsare the only descendants of the Polabian Slavs to have retained their identity and culture.
ThePolabian languageis now extinct. However, the twoSorbian languagesare spoken by approximately 22,000–30,000 inhabitants[3]of the region and the languages are regarded by the government of Germany as official languages of the region.
Tribes
[edit]
TheBavarian Geographer,an anonymous medieval document compiled inRegensburgin 830, contains a list of the tribes inCentral Europeto the east of the Elbe. Among other tribes it lists the Uuilci (Veleti) with 95civitates,the Nortabtrezi (Obotrites) with 53 civitates, the Surbi (Sorbs) with 50 civitates, the Milzane (Milceni) with 30 civitates, the Hehfeldi (Hevelli) with 14 civitates and so on. TheGreat Soviet Encyclopediaclassifies the Polabian Slavs in three main tribes, theObotrites,theVeleti,and theLusatian Sorbs.
The main tribes[4]of the Obotritic confederation were theObotritesproper (Wismar Bayto theSchweriner See); theWagrians(easternHolstein); theWarnabi(Warnower) (the upperWarnowandMildenitz); and thePolabiansproper (between theTraveand theElbe). Other tribes associated with the confederation include the Linones (Linonen) nearLenzen,the Travnjane near theTrave,and theDrevaniin theHanoverian Wendlandand the northernAltmark.[5]
TheVeleti,also known as the Liutizians or Wilzians, included theKessinians(Kessiner,Chyzzini) along the lower Warnow andRostock;theCircipani(Zirzipanen) between theRecknitz,Trebel,andPeeneRivers; the Tollenser east and south of the Peene along theTollenseRiver; and the Redarier south and east of theTollenseseeon the upperHavel.The Redarier were the most important of the Veleti tribes.[5]TheRaniofRügen,not to be confused with the older GermanicRugians,are sometimes considered to be part of the Veleti.[6]South of the Rani were theUcri(Ukranen) along theUckerand the Morici (Morizani,Müritzer) along theMüritz;[5]the former gave their name to theUckermark.Smaller tribes included the Došane along theDosse,the Zamzizi in theRuppin Land,and the Rěčanen on the upperHavel.Along the lower Havel and near the confluence of the Elbe and the Havel lived the Nelětici, the Liezizi, the Zemzizi, the Smeldingi (Smeldinger), and the Bethenici.[5]The middleHavelregion and theHavellandwere settled by theHevelli,a tribe loosely connected to the Veleti. East of the Hevelli lived theSprevaneof the lowerDahmeandSpreerivers.[5]Small tribes on the middle Elbe included the Morizani and the Zerwisti.
TheSorbsconfederation in the Elbe-Saale region included Citici, Serimunt, Colodici, Siusler, Nizici, Glomaci (Daleminzier) and Nisanen who lived along the upper Elbe, while the Chutici, Plisni, Gera, Puonzowa, Tucharin, Weta, and groups of Nelětici lived near the Saale.[7]Joachim Herrmannconsidered that the core Sorbian tribes surely were Colodici, Siusler and Glomaci, and that they also settled and influenced aroundMagdeburg,Havelland, Thuringia and northeast Bavaria.[8]To the East possibly later included theLusiciofLower Lusatiaand theMilceniofUpper Lusatia,[5]while to the East of them were the Selpoli and the Besunzanen, and on the middleOderthe Leubuzzi who were associated with medieval Poland.[7]
Small groups of West Slavs lived on theMainand theRegnitznearBamberg,in northeasternBavaria.[7]
History
[edit]
The Polabian Slavs partly replaced theGermanic tribeswho had emigrated by the 6th century during themigration period.[9][10]According toradiocarbon dating,the first Slavs reached Southwestern Hungary,Suchohradin Western Slovakia andPraguein Czechia in the first-third of the 6th century, andRegensburgof Northeast Bavaria in 568.[10]The earliest dating ofPrague-type pottery and sites between Elbe and Saale andSukow-type in Northeastern Germany was found to be from 590s.[10]However,palynologyand other evidence show that the land in Germany became forested and not well resettled by the Slavs, with most material and sites dating since the 8th century.[9][10]
Slavic settlement area was largely stable by the 8th century.Charlemagneenlisted theObotritesas allies in his campaign against the rebelliousSaxonsofHolstein.Many of the Slavic tribes became dependencies of theCarolingian Empireand theFrankscreated theSorbian Marchto defend against theSorbs.EinhardinVita Karoli Magnidescribes an expedition into Slavic territory led byCharlemagnehimself, in 798. The Veleti noted as Wilzi (referred to themselves asWelatabians)[11]were invaded by theFranksbecause of their continuous expeditions intoObodritelands, with the Obodrites being allies of the Franks against theSaxons.[11][12]
German campaigns against the Slavs began in earnest during theOttonian dynasty.Henry the Fowlerattacked the Slavs in several campaigns with his cavalry. During the reigns of Henry and his sonOtto I,several marches were established to guard the eastern acquisitions, such as theBillung Marchto the north and theMarca Geronisto the south. AfterGero's death in 965, the Marca Geronis was divided into theNorthern March,theMarch of Lusatia,and theThuringian March,the latter being divided into the marches ofZeitz,Merseburg,andMeissen.Bishoprics such asMagdeburg,Brandenburg,andHavelbergwere founded to support the conversion of the Slavs toChristianity.
After the defeat ofOtto IIat theBattle of Stiloin 982, the pagan Slavs rebelled against theGermansthe following year; theHevelliandLiutizidestroyed the Bishoprics of Havelberg and Brandenburg, andObotrites(Mstivoj) destroyed Hamburg.[13]Some Slavs advanced across the Elbe into Saxon territory, but retreated when the Christian Duke of Poland,Mieszko I,attacked them from the east. TheHoly Roman Empireretained only nominal control over the Slavic territories between the Elbe and the Oder. Despite the efforts of Christian missionaries, most Polabian Slavs sawJesusas a "German god"and remainedpagan.
The Obotrite princeUdoand his sonGottschalkexpanded their realm by unifying the Obotrite tribes and conquering some Liutizi tribes in the 11th century. They encouraged the establishments of bishoprics to support Christian missionary activity. However,a revolt in 1066led to the murder of Gottschalk and his replacement by the paganKrutoof Wagria. Gottschalk's sonHenryeventually killed Kruto in 1093.
From 1140 to 1143Holsatiannobles advanced intoWagriato permanently settle in the lands of the pagan Wagri. CountAdolf IIof Holstein andHenry of Badewidetook control ofPolabiansettlements atLiubiceandRacisburg.Impressed with the success of theFirst Crusade,Saxons began calling for a crusade against their Slav neighbors. TheWendish Crusadeof 1147, concurrent to theSecond Crusade,was largely unsuccessful, resulting in devastation to the Liutizi lands and forcedbaptisms.The campaign did secure Saxon control ofWagriaandPolabia,however. The Obotrites were largely at peace with the Saxons during the following decade, although Slavic pirates raided Denmark.
Beginning in the late 1150s, KingValdemar the Greatof Denmark enlisted the aid of DukeHenry the LionofSaxonyagainst the Slavs; their cooperation led to the death of the Obotrite prince,Niklot,in 1160. The two Christian lords distributed much of the conquered territory among their vassals. When Niklot's exiled son,Pribislav,engineered an Obotrite rebellion, the pair retaliated by occupyingDemminand warding off Pribislav's Liutizian allies.
After conquering Wagria and Polabia during the 1140s, Saxon nobles attempted to expel the "native" Slavs and replace them with Saxon andFlemishsettlers. The 1164 Obotrite revolt led by Niklot's son Pribislav convinced Henry the Lion that keeping the Slavs as allies would be less troublesome. The duke returned the Christian Pribislav to power as Prince ofMecklenburg,Kessin,andRostock,and a vassal of the Saxons.
Tactics and weaponry were decisive in Denmark's campaigns against the eastern Polabian Slavs. The Danes utilized quick coastal and river raids, tactics similar to those of theVikings.Although they lacked siege experience, the Danes were able to cripple Slavic regions by burning crops and unwalled suburbs. Slav counterattacks were repulsed bycrossbowsand Norwegianlongbows.The Danesoccupied Rugiain 1168, conquering theRanistronghold ofArkona.Similar to Henry's reinstatement of Pribislav as a Saxon vassal, Valdemar allowed the Rani princeJaromarto rule as a Christian Danish vassal. After Valdemar refused to share Rugia with Henry, the Saxon duke enlisted the aid of the Obotrite confederacy and the Liutizi against the Danes; Valdemar ended the conflict by paying Henry in 1171.
Alarmed at the expansion of Henry the Lion's power, EmperorFrederick Barbarossadeposed the Saxon duke and redistributed his lands in 1180/81. The withdrawal of Saxon support left the Liutizi and theirPomeraniansupporters vulnerable to the Danish fleet. A Slavic fleet attempting to reclaim Rugia was crushed at theBay of Greifswaldon 19 May 1184. Danish monks engaged in missionary activity in Pomeranian abbeys, and PrinceBogislaw Isurrendered to KingCanute VIin 1185 to become the Danish king's vassal.
Pribislav,a Christian prince of theHevelli,bequeathed his lands to the SaxonAlbert the Bearupon his death, thereby leading to the establishment of theMargraviate of Brandenburg.
TheLusatian Sorbsremained independent to a large extent. They were temporarily subdued byCharlemagne,but upon his death the links with the Franks were broken. In a series of bloody wars between 929 and 963 their lands were conquered by KingHenry the Fowlerand his sonOtto the Greatand were incorporated into theKingdom of Germany.By the 14th century, the majority of Slavs living there had beenGermanizedand assimilated. However, theSorbs,the descendants of theMilceniand the Lusici, have retained their identity withinLusatia,a region divided between the German states ofBrandenburgandSaxony.
The Slavic language was spoken by the descendants of the Drevani in the area of the lower Elbe until the early 18th century.
Society
[edit]
Princes
[edit]A Polabian prince was known as aknez.His power was relatively greater in Slavic society than those of Danish or Swedish kings in their kingdoms,[citation needed]although it was not absolute. He was the general leader of his tribe and was foremost among its nobles, holding much of the forestedhinterlandand expecting reverence from his warriors.[14]However, his authority largely extended only to the territory controlled by his governor, orvoivod.Eachvoivodgoverned small territories based around fortifications.
Princely power often differed between tribes. The Obodrite princeHenrykwas able to maintain a sizable army ca. 1100 at the expense of the towns, and the importance ofknezwithin the Obodrites only increased after his death.[15]The prince of theRani,on the other hand, was limited by the localsenate,which was led by thehigh priestatCape Arkona;the Raniknezwas essentially first among the tribe's landowners.[16]
Towns
[edit]The power of the prince and his governors was often restricted by the river towns, known tochroniclersascivitates,especially within the territory of the Veleti. Polabian towns were centered on smallearthworksarranged in circles or ovals.[14]Thegordwas situated at the highest altitude of the town and held a barracks, citadel, and princely residence. It was often protected by a moat, walls, and wooden towers. Below thegord,but still within the town walls, was theurbsorsuburbium,which held the residences for the nobility and merchants. The towns often held wooden temples forSlavic godswithin theurbs.Outside of the walls were homes for the peasantry.[17]With the exception ofArkonaonRügen,few Polabian towns on theBaltic coastwere built near the shore, out of concern for pirates and raiders. While not highly populated compared toFlandersorItaly,the Polabian towns were relatively large for the Baltic region, such as in comparison to those of Scandinavia.[15]
Peasantry
[edit]The majority of Polabian Slavs werepeasantsin small villages who engaged in agriculture[18](rich in grains, flax) andanimal husbandry(poultry, cattle).[6]Some villagers were fishermen, beekeepers, or trappers. Farmland was divided into a unit called akuritz(Latin:uncus), for which peasants paid grain taxes to thevoivot.[14]
Military
[edit]Polabian society developed during the 9th and 10th centuries under pressure from theHoly Roman Empireand theVikingsofScandinavia.They were often forced to paytributeto the kings ofDenmark,Catholicbishops, and imperialmargraves.Polabian society became militarized and its leaders began organizing armed forces and defenses. Many Polabianmagnateslived in forest fortresses, while towns were inhabited by warriors andburghers.[14]
The magnates often raided Germanic territories or engaged in piracy. In times of large-scale war, theknestook overall command. The prince'svoivotensured military service from the warriors and taxes from the peasantry. While the countryside provided land forces, the towns were known for theirlongships,which were lighter and lower than those used by theDanesandSwedes.[19]
From a distance, Polabian fleets resembled those of the Scandinavians, although targets would recognize the Slavs' closely cropped hair and shriekingbattle crieswhen they grew close.[20]Polabian cavalry usedsmall horseswhich were effective in quick raiding campaigns, but less effective against theSaxonand Danishheavy cavalry.[21]
Religion
[edit]Religion was an important aspect of Polabian society. Much of their territory was dotted with holy places in nature to which the Slavs could pray and make offerings to Slavicgods.The priesthood was an important class which developed images and objects of worship. Polabian towns often included elaborate temples often visited for offerings and pilgrimages. In contrast, priests in the countryside often lived meagerly.[16]
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]- ^
- Lower Sorbian:Połobske Słowjany,pronounced[ˈpɔwɔpskɛˈswɔwʲanɨ];
- German:Elbslawen;
- Polish:Słowianie połabscy,Połabianie;
- Czech:Polabští Slované;
- Latin:Slavi Polabicae
References
[edit]- ^De Vere, 353
- ^Christiansen, 18
- ^Heinz Kannenberg."Peinliches Hickhack".moz.de.
- ^Herrmann, 7
- ^abcdefHerrmann, 8
- ^abChristiansen, 27
- ^abcHerrmann, 9
- ^Herrmann, 26–27, 32
- ^abBrather, Sebastian(2004). "The beginnings of Slavic settlement east of the river Elbe".Antiquity,Volume 78, Issue 300. pp. 314–329
- ^abcdMichel Kazanski(2020). "Archaeology of the Slavic Migrations".Encyclopedia of Slavic Languages and Linguistics Online.BRILL, pp. 13–16.
- ^ab"Einhard: The Life of Charlemagne".Archived fromthe originalon 9 October 2014.Retrieved4 January2014.
- ^Full Latin textArchived12 April 2016 at theWayback Machineat the Latin Library
- ^Barkowski, 152–155
- ^abcdChristiansen, 28
- ^abChristiansen, 32
- ^abChristiansen, 33
- ^Christiansen, 29
- ^"p. 85"(PDF).Utlib.ee.Retrieved16 December2013.
- ^Christiansen, 15
- ^Christiansen, 34
- ^Christiansen, 35
Bibliography
[edit]- Barkowski, Robert F.(2015).Słowianie połabscy. Dzieje zagłady(in Polish). Warszawa: Bellona.ISBN978-83-11-13741-7.
- Christiansen, Erik (1997).The Northern Crusades.London: Penguin Books. p.287.ISBN0-14-026653-4.
- Goldberg, Eric Joseph (2006).Struggle for Empire: Kingship and Conflict Under Louis the German, 817-876.Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press.ISBN0-8014-3890-X.
- Herrmann, Joachim(1970).Die Slawen in Deutschland: Geschichte und Kultur der slawischen Stämme westlich von Oder und Neisse vom 6. bis 12. Jahrhundert(in German). Berlin: Akademie-Verlag GmbH.
- De Vere, Maximilian Schele (1853).Outlines of comparative philology, with a sketch of the languages of Europe.New York: University of Virginia.
- Zeuß, Kaspar(1837).Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstämme(in German). Munich: Ignaz Joseph Lentner.
External links
[edit]
- Map of the lands inhabited by Polabian Slavs(in Polish)
