Teff
Teff | |
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Scientific classification![]() | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Monocots |
Clade: | Commelinids |
Order: | Poales |
Family: | Poaceae |
Genus: | Eragrostis |
Species: | E. tef
|
Binomial name | |
Eragrostis tef (Zucc.)Trotter
| |
Synonyms | |
Eragrostis abyssinica(Jacq.) Link |
Teff(Amharic:ጤፍ), also known asEragrostis tef,Williams lovegrass,[1]orannual bunch grass,[2]is anannualgrass,a species oflovegrassnative to theHorn of Africa,notably to bothEritreaandEthiopia.[3]It is cultivated for its edible seeds, also known as teff. Teff was one of the earliest plants domesticated. It is one of the most important staple crops inEthiopia.
Description
[edit]Eragrostis tefis a self pollinatedtetraploid[4]annualcereal grass.[5]Teff is aC4plant,[4]which allows it to more efficiently fix carbon in drought and high temperatures, and is an intermediate between a tropical and temperate grass.[6]The name teff is thought to originate from theAmharicwordጠፍፋteffa,which means "lost".[5][7]This probably refers to its tiny seeds, which have a diameter smaller than 1 mm (0.039 in).[7]Teff is a fine-stemmed, tufted grass with large crowns and manytillers.Its roots are shallow, but develop a massive fibrous rooting system.[7]The plant height varies depending on the cultivation variety and the environmental conditions.[6]As with many ancient crops, teff is quite adaptive and can grow in various environmental conditions;[6]particularly, teff can be cultivated in dry environments, but also under wet conditions on marginal soils.[7]
Teff originated in theHorn of Africa,corresponding to what is today modern dayEthiopiaandEritrea,where it is one of the most important cereals.[8]It is grown for its edible seeds and also for its straw to feed the cattle.[7]The seeds are very small, about a millimeter in length, and a thousand grains weigh approximately 0.3 g (0.011 oz).[9]They can have a color from a white to a deep reddish brown.[6]Teff is similar tomilletandquinoain cooking, but theseedis much smaller and cooks faster, thus using less fuel.[10]
Distribution
[edit]Teff is mainly cultivated inEthiopiaandEritrea,where it originates.[8]It is one of the most important staple crops in these two countries, where it is used to makeinjeraor Tayta. In 2016, Ethiopia grew more than 90 percent of the world's teff.[11]It is now also marginally cultivated inIndia,Australia,Germany,theNetherlands,Spain,and theUS,particularly inIdaho,California,Texas,andNevada.[12][11][10]Because of its very small seeds, a handful is enough to sow a large area. This property makes teff particularly suited to aseminomadiclifestyle.[8]
History
[edit]Teff was one of the earliest plants domesticated.[13]Teff is believed to have originated inEthiopiabetween 4000 BC and 1000 BC. Genetic evidence points toE. pilosaas the most likely wild ancestor.[14]A 19th-century identification of teff seeds from an ancient Egyptian site is now considered doubtful; the seeds in question (no longer available for study) are more likely ofE. aegyptiaca,a common wild grass inEgypt.[15]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/An_Eritrean_woman_harvesting_Teff_in_Geshinashim..jpg/220px-An_Eritrean_woman_harvesting_Teff_in_Geshinashim..jpg)
Teff is the most important commodity produced and consumed inEthiopiawhere the flat pancake-likeinjeraprovides a livelihood for around 6.5 million small farmers in the country.[16]In 2006, the Ethiopian government outlawed the export of raw teff, fearing export-driven domestic shortages like those suffered by South American countries after the explosion ofquinoaconsumption in Europe and the US.[16][17]Processed teff, namelyinjera,could still be exported and was mainly bought by the Ethiopian and Eritreandiasporaliving in northern Europe, the Middle East and North America.[16]After a few years, fears of a domestic shortage of teff in the scenario of an international market opening decreased.[17]Teff yields had been increasing by 40 to 50% over the five previous years while prices had remained stable in Ethiopia.[16][17]This led the government to partially lift the export ban in 2015. To ensure that the domestic production would not be minimized, the export licenses have only been granted to 48 commercial farmers which had not cultivated the plant before.[17]Lack ofmechanizationis a barrier to potential increases in teff exports.[17]Yet the increasing demand, rising by 7–10% per year, and the subsequent increase in exports is encouraging the country to speed up the modernization of agriculture and is also boosting research.[17]Because of its potential as an economic success, a few other countries, including the US and some European countries, are already cultivating teff and selling it on domestic markets.[17]
Uses
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Eritrean_Injera_with_stews.jpg/220px-Eritrean_Injera_with_stews.jpg)
Teff is a multipurpose crop which has a high importance for the Ethiopian diet and culture.[6][8]In Ethiopia, teff provides two-thirds of the dailyproteinintake.[18]It is not only important for human nutrition, but also as fodder for livestock, or as building material.[6][18]Teff is the main ingredient to prepareinjera,asourdough-risen flatbread.[19]During meals, it is often eaten with meat or ground pulses.[6]Sometimes it is also eaten asporridge.[6]Moreover, teff can be used to prepare alcoholic drinks, calledarak'eorkatikalla[6]or beer, calledt'ellaorfersso.[18]Finally, due to its high mineral content, teff is also mixed withsoybeans,chickpeasor other grains to manufacture baby foods.[6]
According to a study in Ethiopia, farmers indicated a preference among consumers for white teff over darker colored varieties.[20]As a nutritiousfodder,teff is used to feedruminantsin Ethiopia and horses in the United States.[21]It is a source of animal feed, especially during the dry season, and it is often preferred over straw from other cereals.[6][18]Teff grass can be used as a construction material when mixed with mud to plaster the walls of local grain storage facilities.[6][18]
Ecology
[edit]Teff is adaptable and it can grow in various environments, at altitudes ranging from sea level to 3,200 metres (10,500 ft).[22]However, it does not tolerate frost. Highest yields are obtained when teff is grown between 1,800 to 2,100 m (5,900 to 6,900 ft), with an annual rainfall of 450 to 550 mm (18 to 22 in), and daily temperatures range from 15 to 27 °C (59 to 81 °F). Yields decrease when annual rainfall falls below 250 mm and when the average temperature during pollination exceeds 22 °C.[23]Despite its superficial root system, teff is quite drought-resistant thanks to its ability to regenerate rapidly after a moderate water stress and to produce fruits in a short time span. It is daylight-sensitive and flowers best with 12 hours of daylight. Teff is usually cultivated on pH neutral soils, but it was noticed that it could sustain acidity up to a pH below 5. Teff has aC4photosynthesismechanism.[24]
Cultivation
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/The_Teff_Harvest%2C_Northern_Ethiopia_%283131617016%29.jpg/220px-The_Teff_Harvest%2C_Northern_Ethiopia_%283131617016%29.jpg)
The cultivation of teff is labor-intensive and the small size of its seeds makes it difficult to handle and transport without loss.[7]In Ethiopia, teff is mostly produced during the main rain season, between July and November. It is known as an "emergency crop" because it is planted late in the season, when the temperatures are warmer, and most other crops have already been planted.[24]Teff germination generally occurs 3–12 days after sowing. Optimal germination temperatures range from 15 to 35 °C; below 10 °C, germination almost does not occur.[24]Teff is traditionally sown or broadcast by hand, on firm, humid soil.[25]Usual sowing density ranges from 15 to 20 kg/ha, though farmers can sow up to 50 kg/ha, because the seeds are hard to spread equally and a higher sowing density helps to reduce weed competition at the early stage.[24]Seeds are either left at the soil surface or slightly covered by a thin layer of soil, but must not be planted at a depth greater than 1 cm. The field can be subsequently rolled.[26]Sowing can also be done mechanically; row planting reduceslodging.[citation needed]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Tef_in_Ethiopia_01.jpg/220px-Tef_in_Ethiopia_01.jpg)
Recommendedfertilizationdoses are 25–60 kg/ha for N, and 10–18 kg/ha for P. Teff responds more tonitrogenthan tophosphorus;thus, high nitrogen inputs increase the biomass production and size of the plants, thereby increasing lodging.[27]To avoid this, farmers can decrease nitrogen input, cultivate teff after alegumecrop or adjust sowing time so that the rains have stopped when the crop reaches heading stage. In Ethiopia, teff is commonly used in crop rotations with othercerealsandlegumes.[26]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Ethiopie-Battage_du_teff_%284%29.jpg/220px-Ethiopie-Battage_du_teff_%284%29.jpg)
Teff is harvested 2–6 months after sowing, when the vegetative parts start to turn yellow. If teff is harvested past its maturation, seeds will fall off, especially in windy or rainy weather conditions.[24]In Ethiopia, harvest lasts from November to January; harvest is usually done manually, with sickles. Farmers cut the plants at the soil surface, pile them up in the field and transport them to thethreshingarea.[28]Teff is traditionally threshed by using animals walking on the harvest. Alternatively, some farmers rent threshing machines used for other cereals.[25]The seeds are easy to store, as they are resistant to most pests during storage. Teff seeds can stay viable several years if direct contact with humidity and sun is avoided.[6]Average yields in Ethiopia reach around twotonnesper ha. One single inflorescence can produce up to 1000 seeds, and one plant up to 10,000.[29]Moreover, teff offers some promising opportunities forbreedingprograms: the first draft of theEragrostis tefgenome was published in 2014 and research institutes have started selecting for more resistant varieties.[30]In 1996, theUS National Research Councilcharacterized teff as having the "potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable landcare."[8]
Challenges and prospects
[edit]The major challenges in teff production are its low yield and high susceptibility tolodging.Efforts to conventionally breed teff towards higher yields started in the 1950s and led to an average annual increase in yield of 0.8%.[31]However, no considerable improvements concerning the susceptibility of lodging have been made, due mainly to low demand outside ofEthiopiaandEritrea.[citation needed]
High-yielding varieties, such asQuencho,were widely adopted by farmers in Ethiopia.[31]Sequencingof the teffgenomeimproved breeding,[32]and anethyl methanesulphonate(EMS)-mutagenized population was then used to breed the first semi-dwarf lodging-tolerant teff line, calledkegne.[33]In 2015, researchers tested 28 new teff varieties and identified three promising lines that generated yields of up to 4.7 tonnes per ha.[34]
The "Teff Improvement Project" marked a milestone by releasing the first teff varietyTesfato the Ethiopian markets in March 2017.[35]Areas of further development include: "(i) improving productivity of teff; (ii) overcoming the lodging malady; (iii) developing climate-smart and appropriate crop andsoil managementoptions; (iv) developing tolerance to abiotic stresses such asdroughtand soil acidity; (v) developing suitable pre- and post-harvestmechanizationtechnologies suitable forsmallholderfarmersas well as commercial farms; (vi)food processingandnutritionaspects with special attention to the development of different food recipes and value-added products; (vii) developingcrop protectionmeasures against diseases, insect pests and weeds; and (viii) improving or strengtheningsocio-economicsand agricultural extension services. "[36]
Pests
[edit]The tef shoot fly (Atherigona hyalinipennis) is a major pest of the crop.[37][38][39]
Other insect pests include:[40]
- central shoot flyDelia arambourgi(seedling feeder)
- Wello-bush cricketDecticoides brevipennis(flower feeder)
- red tef wormMentaxya ignicollis
- tef epilachna beetleChnootriba similis(leaf feeder); also transmitsrice yellow mottle virusin rice
- chrysomelid black beetleErlangerius niger(adults feed on developing grains and leaves)
- stem-boring waspEurytomocharis eragrostidisin the United States
Nutritional value
[edit]Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Energy | 422 kJ (101 kcal) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
19.86 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dietary fiber | 2.8 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
0.65 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
3.87 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Other constituents | Quantity | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Water | 74.93 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
†Percentages estimated usingUS recommendationsfor adults,[41]except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation fromthe National Academies.[42] |
Uncooked teff is 9% water, 73% carbohydrates, 13% protein, and 2% fat. Cooked teff is 75% water, 20%carbohydrates,4%protein,and less than 1%fat(table). A100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) reference serving of cooked teff provides 420 kilojoules (101 kilocalories) offood energy,is a rich source ofprotein,dietary fiber,andmanganese,and contains moderate amounts ofthiamin,phosphorus,iron,magnesium,andzinc(table). The fiber content in teff is also higher than in most other cereals.[43]
Teff isglutenfree, and a method has been developed to process teff into a flour with a wider range of baking applications, such as forbreadandpasta.[44]
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Energy | 1,536 kJ (367 kcal) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
73.13 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Dietary fiber | 8.0 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
2.38 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
13.30 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Other constituents | Quantity | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Water | 8.82g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
†Percentages estimated usingUS recommendationsfor adults,[41]except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation fromthe National Academies.[42] |
Amino-acid | Concentration in raw teff, in g/16gN[44] |
---|---|
Lysine | 3.68 |
Isoleucine | 4.07 |
Leucine | 8.53 |
Valine | 5.46 |
Phenylalaline | 5.69 |
Tyrosine | 3.84 |
Tryptophan | 1.30 |
Threonine | 4.32 |
Histidine | 3.21 |
Arginine | 5.15 |
Methionine | 4.06 |
Cystine | 2.50 |
Asparagine + Aspartic Acid | 6.4 |
Proline | 8.2 |
Serine | 4.1 |
Glutamine + Glutamic Acid | 21.8 |
Glycine | 3.1 |
Alanine | 10.1 |
Patent and bio-piracy
[edit]This sectionneeds additional citations forverification.(June 2021) |
In 2003, a Dutch company, Health and Performance Food International (HPFI), paired with the Ethiopian Institute of Biodiversity Conservation to introduce teff to European markets.[45]The original agreement was for Ethiopia to provide HPFI with a dozen strains of teff to market globally, and the two entities would split the proceeds.
HPFI's CEO, Jans Roosjen, had taken out two patents on teff in 2003 and 2007, claiming that his way of milling and storing the flour was unique. HPFI went bankrupt in 2009, allowing Roosjen to continue to utilize those patents and the marketing rights for the grain while being freed from the original agreement with Ethiopia.[45]Ethiopia only received 4,000 euros over five years of collaboration.[46]
Roosjen ended up suing a Dutch bakery company, Bakers, for patent infringement because they were selling teff baked goods. The Dutch patent office declared that the patent was void, citing that the methods used to bake and mix flours were "general professional knowledge".[46]The deadline for Roosjen to appeal the decision expired in 2019, officially allowing Ethiopia access to Dutch teff markets.
However, Roosjen's company Ancientgrains BV still maintains patent rights in Belgium, Germany, Britain, Austria and Italy.
Teff is inherent to Ethiopia's national culture and identity,[47]and the government of Ethiopia has expressed intent to hold Roosjen accountable to the fullest extent of international patent law, as well as to regain ownership over international markets of its most important food.[48]
See also
[edit]References
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It is known by other names, such as Eragrostis tef, Williams lovegrass, annual bunch grass and taf.
- ^Stallknecht, Gilbert F. (24 February 1998)."New Crop FactSHEET: Teff".NewCROP, the New Crop Resource Online Program.Purdue University.Retrieved2019-10-20.
English: Teff, Lovegrass, Annual Bunch Grass, Warm Season Annual Bunch Grass
- ^Aptekar, Lewis (2013).In the Lion's Mouth: Hope and Heartbreak in Humanitarian Assistance(2nd ed.). XLibris LLC. p. 9.ISBN978-1-4836-9519-8.OCLC922837922.
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Teff is a C4 self-pollinated tetraploid cereal plant with a chromosome number of 2n=4x=20.
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- ^abcdef"Teff, Grain".Encyclopædia Britannica.2016.Retrieved14 November2018.
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Today, the resilient crop is also grown in countries such as the US, Spain, Germany and Australia; It also cooks quickly, so requires less fuel to prepare.
- ^abO'Connor, Anahad (16 August 2016)."Is Teff the New Super Grain?".New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on 2019-10-05.Retrieved2019-10-20.
But most of the teff consumed in North America, Europe and other parts of the world is grown in places like Idaho, the Netherlands, Australia and India; More than 90 percent of the world's teff is grown in Ethiopia.
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Teff […] is also being grown in Nevada, California and Texas, Miller says; Wayne Carlson, who operates the Teff Company in Idaho's Snake River Valley, is considered the father of American teff.
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Teff yields have increased by 50% in the last five years, […] and prices have remained steady, prompting the government to partially lift the export ban.
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- ^Nigus, C., and T. Damte. 2018. Identification of the tef shoot fly species from tef,Eragrostis tef(Zucc.), Trotter growing areas of Ethiopia.Afr. J. Insects5: 181–184.
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- ^El-Alfy, T. S.; Ezzat, S. M.; Sleem, A. A. (2012). "Chemical and biological study of the seeds ofEragrostistef (Zucc.) Trotter ".Natural Product Research.26(7): 619–29.doi:10.1080/14786419.2010.538924.PMID21867458.S2CID1808529.
- ^abGebremariam, M.M., Zarnkow, M. & Becker, T. (2014). Teff (Eragrostis tef) as a raw material for malting, brewing and manufacturing of gluten-free foods and beverages: a review. J. Food Sci. Technol., 51, 2881–2895.
- ^abSchemm, Paul."How Ethiopia Got Its Grain Back".The Washington Post.Retrieved12 April2020.
- ^ab"Teff patents declared invalid, 'great news' for Ethiopia".Kluwer Patent Blogger.Wolters Kluwer. 11 February 2019.Retrieved12 April2020.
- ^Zelalem, Zecharias (28 November 2019)."Ethiopia: Teffgate - a Dutchman's Conning of the Ethiopian State".allAfrica.Retrieved12 April2020.
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External links
[edit]- Traditional Crops: TeffFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
- Teff: OverviewEncyclopedia of Food Grains, 2nd ed., Academic Press, 2016
- Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) TrotterPurdue University Center for New Crops & Plant Products
- Tef (Eragrostis tef) hayFeedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO, 2017
- Tef Improvement ProjectUniversity of Bern
- Dressler, S.; Schmidt, M. & Zizka, G. (2014)."Eragrostis tef".African plants – a Photo Guide.Frankfurt/Main: Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg.