View source for Vegetable oil

{{Short description|Oil extracted from seeds or from other parts of plants}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Vegetable oils|image=Olive oil from Oneglia.jpg|caption=[[Olive oil]]}}
[[File:Peanut oil bottle.jpg|thumb|A bottle of [[peanut oil]]]]
'''Vegetable oils''', or '''vegetable fats''', are [[oil]]s extracted from seeds or from other parts of [[edible plant]]s. Like [[animal fat]]s, vegetable fats are ''mixtures'' of [[triglyceride]]s.<ref name=Ullmann>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Alfred Thomas |title=Fats and Fatty Oils|encyclopedia=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|publisher=Wiley-VCH|place=Weinheim|year=2002|doi=10.1002/14356007.a10_173|isbn=3527306730}}</ref> [[Soybean oil]], [[grape seed oil]], and [[cocoa butter]] are examples of [[seed oil]]s, or fats from seeds. [[Olive oil]], [[palm oil]], and [[rice bran oil]] are examples of fats from other parts of plants. In common usage, vegetable ''oil'' may refer exclusively to vegetable fats which are liquid at room temperature.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Pearson Guide to the B.Sc. (Nursing) Entrance Examination|author=Parwez Saroj|date=September 2007|publisher=Pearson Education India|page=109|isbn=978-81-317-1338-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The International Cocoa Trade|author=Robin Dand|publisher=Woodhead Publishing|year=1999|page=169|isbn=1-85573-434-6}}</ref> Vegetable oils are usually edible.

==History ==

=== In antiquity ===
Olive oil has been a part of human culture for millennia.<ref name= "haaretz" >Ruth Schuster (December 17, 2014). "8,000-year old olive oil found in Galilee, earliest known in world", ''Haaretz''. Retrieved December 17, 2014.</ref> Archaeological evidence shows that olives were turned into olive oil by 6000 BC<ref name= "haaretz" /> and 4500 BC in present-day [[Israel]].<ref>Ehud Galili ''et al.'', "Evidence for Earliest Olive-Oil Production in Submerged Settlements off the Carmel Coast, Israel", ''Journal of Archaeological Science'' '''24''':1141–1150 (1997)</ref> Pagnol, p. 19, says the 6th millennium in [[Tell es-Sultan|Jericho]], but cites no source.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} In ancient Egypt, plant oils including cedar oil, cypress oil, and olive oil were used during the [[mummification]] process.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dunham |first=Will |date=2023-02-01 |title=Ancient Egypt's mummification ingredients came from far-flung locales |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https:// reuters /lifestyle/science/ancient-egypts-mummification-ingredients-came-far-flung-locales-2023-02-01/ |access-date=2023-07-18}}</ref>

Vegetable oils have been used as lighting fuel for lamps, cooking, medicine and lubrication.{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}} [[Palm oil]] has long been recognized in West and Central African countries, and European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as a cooking oil in Europe. It became highly sought-after commodity by British traders for use as an industrial lubricant for machinery during Britain's [[Industrial Revolution]].<ref name= ":0" >{{cite journal |year=2000 |title=British Colonial Policies and the Oil Palm Industry in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria, 1900–1960. |url=http:// africa.kyoto-u.ac.jp/kiroku/asm_normal/abstracts/pdf/21-1/19-33.pdf |url-status=live |journal=African Study Monographs |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=19–33 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116234451/http:// africa.kyoto-u.ac.jp/kiroku/asm_normal/abstracts/pdf/21-1/19-33.pdf |archive-date=16 January 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

=== Modern history ===
Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers' (now [[Unilever]]) "Sunlight", and
B. J. Johnson Company's (now [[Colgate-Palmolive]]) "Palmolive," <ref name= ":1" >{{cite web |last=Bellis |first=Mary |title=The History of Soaps and Detergents |url=http://inventors.about /library/inventors/blsoap.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120714204434/http://inventors.about /library/inventors/blsoap.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 14, 2012 |website=[[About ]] |quote=In 1864, Caleb Johnson founded a soap company called B.J. Johnson Soap Co., in Milwaukee. In 1898, this company introduced a soap made of palm and olive oils called Palmolive.}}</ref> and by around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries.<ref name= ":2" >''Commercial Agriculture, the Slave Trade and Slavery in Atlantic Africa'' {{ISBN|978-1-847-01075-9}} p. 22</ref>

In 1780, [[Carl Wilhelm Scheele]] demonstrated that fats were derived from glycerol. Thirty years later [[Michel Eugène Chevreul]] deduced that these fats were [[esters]] of fatty acids and glycerol. [[Wilhelm Normann]], a German chemist, introduced the [[hydrogenation]] of liquid fats in 1901, creating what later became known as [[trans fat]]s, leading to the development of the global production of [[margarine]] and [[vegetable shortening]].{{cn|date=October 2024}}

In the United States, [[cottonseed oil]] was developed, and marketed by [[Procter & Gamble]] as a creamed shortening – [[Crisco]] – as early as 1911.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Graham |first=Drew Ramsey, Tyler |date=2012-04-26 |title=How Vegetable Oils Replaced Animal Fats in the American Diet |url=https:// theatlantic /health/archive/2012/04/how-vegetable-oils-replaced-animal-fats-in-the-american-diet/256155/ |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=The Atlantic |language=en}}</ref> [[Ginning mill]]s were happy to have someone haul away the cotton seeds. The extracted oil was refined and partially [[Hydrogenation|hydrogenated]] to give a solid at room temperature and thus mimic natural lard, and canned under nitrogen gas. Compared to the rendered lard Procter & Gamble was already selling to consumers, Crisco was cheaper, easier to stir into a recipe, and could be stored at room temperature for two years without turning rancid.{{cn|date=October 2024}}

Soybeans are protein-rich, and the medium viscosity oil rendered from them was high in polyunsaturates. [[Henry Ford]] established a soybean research laboratory, developed soybean plastics and a soy-based synthetic wool, and built a car "almost entirely" out of soybeans.<ref name= ":3" >{{cite web |title=Soybean Car |url=http:// thehenryford.org/research/soybeancar.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120919062130/http:// thehenryford.org/research/soybeancar.aspx |archive-date=2012-09-19 |access-date=2006-10-23 |work=Popular Research Topics |publisher=Benson Ford Research Center}}</ref> Roger Drackett had a successful new product with [[Windex]], but he invested heavily in soybean research, seeing it as a smart investment.<ref name= ":4" >{{cite news |last=Horstman |first=Barry M. |date=1999-05-21 |title=Philip W. Drackett: Earned profits, plaudits |work=[[The Cincinnati Post]] |publisher=[[E. W. Scripps Company]] |url=http:// cincypost /living/1999/drack052199.html |access-date=2006-10-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051205202014/http:// cincypost /living/1999/drack052199.html |archive-date=2005-12-05}}</ref> By the 1950s and 1960s, soybean oil had become the most popular vegetable oil in the US; today it is second only to [[palm oil]]. In 2018–2019, world production was at 57.4 MT with the leading producers including [[China]] (16.6 MT), [[US]] (10.9 MT), [[Argentina]] (8.4 MT), [[Brazil]] (8.2 MT), and [[EU]] (3.2 MT).<ref name= ":5" >{{cite web |title=World Soy Oil Production |url=http:// sopa.org/world-soy-oil-production/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104081829/http:// sopa.org/world-soy-oil-production/ |archive-date=2019-01-04 |access-date=2019-01-04 |publisher=The Soybean Processors Association of India}}</ref>

The early 20th century also saw the start of the use of [[Vegetable oil fuel|vegetable oil as a fuel]] in [[diesel engines]] and in heating oil burners. [[Rudolf Diesel]] designed his engine to run on vegetable oil. The idea, he hoped, would make his engines more attractive to farmers who had a source of fuel readily available. Diesel's first engine ran on its own power for the first time in [[Augsburg]], Germany, on 10 August 1893 on nothing but [[peanut oil]]. In remembrance of this event, 10 August has been declared "International Biodiesel Day".<ref name= ":6" >{{cite web |title=Biodiesel Day |url=http:// daysoftheyear /days/biodiesel-day/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225214325/https:// daysoftheyear /days/biodiesel-day/ |archive-date=25 February 2021 |access-date=30 May 2015 |work=Days Of The Year}}</ref> The first patent on Biodiesel was granted in 1937.<ref name= "knothe" >{{cite web |last=Knothe |first=G. |title=Historical Perspectives on Vegetable Oil-Based Diesel Fuels |url=http:// biodiesel.org/resources/reportsdatabase/reports/gen/20011101_gen-346.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004134307/http://biodiesel.org/resources/reportsdatabase/reports/gen/20011101_gen-346.pdf |archive-date=2018-10-04 |access-date=2007-07-11 |publisher=Inform, Vol. 12(11), pp. 1103–1107 (2001)}}</ref> Periodic petroleum shortages spurred research into vegetable oil as a diesel substitute during the 1930s and 1940s, and again in the 1970s and early 1980s when straight vegetable oil enjoyed its highest level of scientific interest. The 1970s also saw the formation of the first commercial enterprise to allow consumers to run straight vegetable oil in their vehicles. However, [[biodiesel]], produced from oils or fats using [[transesterification]] is more widely used. Led by Brazil, many countries built [[biodiesel production|biodiesel plants]] during the 1990s, and it is now widely available for use in motor vehicles, and is the most common [[biofuel]] in Europe today. In France, biodiesel is incorporated at a rate of 8% in the fuel used by all French diesel vehicles.<ref name= "RA29" >{{Harvsp|Avril Group: Activity Report|2014|p=58}}{{full citation needed|date=December 2022}}</ref>

In the mid-1970s, Canadian researchers developed a low-erucic-acid rapeseed cultivar. Because the word "rape" was not considered optimal for marketing, they coined the name "canola" (from "Canada Oil low acid" ). The U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] approved use of the canola name in January 1985,<ref name= ":7" >{{cite web |title=Canola oil |url=https:// fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/ANS00198.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060617234030/https:// fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/ANS00198.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date=2006-06-17 |access-date=2006-07-31 |website=[[Food and Drug Administration]]}}</ref> and U.S. farmers started planting large areas that spring. Canola oil is lower in saturated fats, and higher in monounsaturates. Canola is very thin (unlike corn oil) and flavorless (unlike olive oil), so it largely succeeds by displacing soy oil, just as soy oil largely succeeded by displacing cottonseed oil.{{cn|date=October 2024}}

The production of vegetable oils went up 125% between 2000 and 2020, driven by a sharp increase in [[palm oil]].<ref name= ":14" >{{Cite web |title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023 {{!}} FAO {{!}} Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=https:// fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=FAODocuments |language=en |doi=10.4060/cc8166en}}</ref>

==Uses==
===Culinary===
{{See also|Cooking oil}}

Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or indirectly as ingredients in food – a role that they share with some [[fat|animal fats]], including [[butter]], [[ghee]], [[lard]], and [[schmaltz]]. The oils serve a number of purposes in this role:
* [[Shortening]] – as in giving pastries a crumbly texture.
* Enriching – adding calories and satisfaction in consumption
* Texture – altering how ingredients combine, especially fats and starches
* Flavoring – examples include [[olive oil|olive]], [[sesame oil|sesame]], or [[almond oil|almond]] oil
* Flavor base – oils can also "carry" flavors of other ingredients, such as peppers,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https:// cooksillustrated /how_tos/6581-blooming-in-oil-for-flavor |title= "Blooming in Oil for Flavor" ''Cooks Illustrated'' |access-date=2021-07-16 |archive-date=2021-07-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716104712/https:// cooksillustrated /how_tos/6581-blooming-in-oil-for-flavor |url-status=live }}</ref> since many flavors are due to chemicals that are soluble in oil.

Oils can be heated to temperatures significantly higher than the boiling point of water, {{Convert|100|C}}, and used to [[frying|fry foods]]. Oils for this purpose must have a high [[flash point]]. Such oils include both the major cooking oils – [[soybean oil|soybean]], [[rapeseed oil|rapeseed]], [[canola oil|canola]], [[sunflower oil|sunflower]], [[safflower oil|safflower]], [[peanut oil|peanut]], [[cottonseed oil|cottonseed]], etc. – and tropical oils, such as [[Coconut oil|coconut]], [[Palm oil|palm]], and [[Rice bran oil|rice bran]]. The latter are particularly valued in Asian cultures for high-temperature cooking, because of their unusually high flash points.

===Industrial===
Vegetable oils are used as an ingredient or component in many manufactured products.{{cn|date=October 2024}}

Many vegetable oils are used to make soaps, skin products, candles, perfumes and other personal care and cosmetic products. Some oils are particularly suitable as [[drying oil]]s, and are used in making paints and other wood treatment products. They are used in [[alkyd]] resin production. Dammar oil (a mixture of linseed oil and [[dammar]] resin), for example, is used almost exclusively in treating the hulls of wooden boats. Vegetable oils are increasingly being used in the electrical industry as [[Electrical insulation|insulator]]s as vegetable oils are not toxic to the environment, [[biodegradable]] if spilled and have high [[flash point|flash]] and fire points. However, vegetable oils are less stable chemically, so they are generally used in systems where they are not exposed to [[oxygen]], and they are more expensive than crude oil distillate. Synthetic tetraesters, which are similar to vegetable oils but with four fatty acid chains compared to the normal three found in a natural ester, are manufactured by [[Fischer–Speier esterification|Fischer esterification]]. Tetraesters generally have high stability to oxidation and have found use as engine lubricants. Vegetable oil is being used to produce biodegradable [[hydraulic fluid]]<ref>{{cite web
| url=http:// ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2000/000419.htm
| author=Linda McGraw
| title=Biodegradable Hydraulic Fluid Nears Market
| publisher=USDA
| date=April 19, 2000
| access-date=2006-09-29
| archive-date=2006-09-25
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060925072550/http:// ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2000/000419.htm
| url-status=live
}}</ref> and [[lubricant]].<ref>{{cite web
| url=http:// gwrranci.org/gallery/20060824/
| title=Cass Scenic Railroad, West Virginia
| publisher=GWWCA
| access-date=2011-11-01
| archive-date=2011-10-06
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006190958/http:// gwrranci.org/gallery/20060824/
| url-status=live
}}</ref>

One limiting factor in industrial uses of vegetable oils is that all such oils are susceptible to becoming [[Rancidification|rancid]]. Oils that are more stable, such as [[ben oil]] or [[mineral oil]], are thus preferred for industrial uses. [[Castor oil]] has numerous industrial uses, owing to the presence of a [[hydroxyl]] group on the fatty acid. Castor oil is a precursor to [[Nylon 11]]. Castor oil may also be reacted with [[epichlorohydrin]] to make a glycidyl ether which is used as a diluent and flexibilizer with [[epoxy]] resins.{{cn|date=October 2024}}

===Pet food additive===
Vegetable oil is used in the production of some pet foods. AAFCO<ref>{{Cite web|url=https:// aafco.org/|title=The Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO)|access-date=2018-07-30|archive-date=1999-10-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991012141245/http://aafco.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> defines vegetable oil in this context as the product of vegetable origin obtained by extracting the oil from seeds or fruits which are processed for edible purposes.{{cn|date=October 2024}}

===Fuel===
{{Main article|Vegetable oil fuel}}

Vegetable oils are also used to make [[biodiesel]], which can be used like conventional diesel.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Knothe |first1=Gerhard |url=https://books.google /books?id=8MxcCgAAQBAJ |title=The Biodiesel Handbook |last2=Krahl |first2=Jürgen |last3=Gerpen |first3=Jon Van |date=2015-08-13 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-9835072-6-0 |language=en}}</ref> Some [[vegetable oil blends]] are used in unmodified vehicles but [[straight vegetable oil]], also known as pure plant oil, needs specially prepared vehicles which have a method of heating the oil to reduce its [[viscosity]]. The use of [[vegetable oils as alternative energy]] is growing{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} and the availability of [[Biodiesel by region|biodiesel around the world]] is increasing.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

The [[NNFCC]] estimates that the total net greenhouse gas savings when using vegetable oils in place of fossil fuel-based alternatives for fuel production, range from 18 to 100%.<ref>[[National Non-Food Crops Centre]]. [http:// nnfcc.co.uk/tools/ghg-benefits-from-use-of-vegetable-oils-for-electricity-heat-transport-and-industrial-purposes-nnfcc-10-016 GHG Benefits from Use of Vegetable Oils for Electricity, Heat, Transport, and Industrial Purposes, NNFCC 10-016] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305071127/http:// nnfcc.co.uk/tools/ghg-benefits-from-use-of-vegetable-oils-for-electricity-heat-transport-and-industrial-purposes-nnfcc-10-016 |date=2016-03-05 }}</ref>

==Production==
{{Main|Edible oil refining}}

The production process of vegetable oil involves the removal of oil from plant components, typically seeds. This can be done via mechanical extraction using an [[oil mill]] or chemical extraction using a solvent. The extracted oil can then be purified and, if required, refined or chemically altered.{{cn|date=October 2024}}

===Mechanical extraction===
Oils can be removed via mechanical extraction, termed "crushing" or "pressing". This method is typically used to produce the more traditional oils (e.g., olive, coconut etc.), and it is preferred by most [[health-food]] customers in the United States and in Europe.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}} There are several different types of mechanical extraction.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hossain |first=Amjad |year=2012 |chapter=Kalu |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Kalu |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]] |access-date=2016-05-08 |archive-date=2016-05-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509052654/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Kalu |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Expeller pressing]] extraction is common, though the [[screw press]], [[ram press (food)|ram press]], and ghani (powered [[mortar and pestle]]) are also used. Oilseed presses are commonly used in developing countries, among people for whom other extraction methods would be prohibitively expensive; the ghani is primarily used in India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http:// attra.org/attra-pub/oilseed.html|title=Oilseed Processing for Small-Scale Producers|author=Janet Bachmann|access-date=2006-07-31|archive-date=2006-08-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060824055106/http:// attra.org/attra-pub/oilseed.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The amount of oil extracted using these methods varies widely, as shown in the following table for extracting [[Madhuca longifolia|mowrah butter]] in India:<ref>{{cite web
| work=Minor oil crops
| publisher=FAO
| title=Illipe
| author=B.L. Axtell from research by R.M. Fairman
| year=1992
| url=http:// fao.org/es/faodef/fdef14e.htm
| access-date=2006-11-12
| archive-date=2016-07-02
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160702102734/http:// fao.org/es/faodef/fdef14e.htm
| url-status=dead
}}</ref>

{| class= "wikitable"
!Method!! Percentage extracted
|-
| Ghani<ref>{{cite book |last=Aziz |first=KMA |year=2012 |chapter=Ghani |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Ghani |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]] |access-date=2016-05-08 |archive-date=2016-05-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509061500/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Ghani |url-status=live }} A ghani is a traditional Indian oil press, driven by a horse or ox.</ref> || 20–30%
|-
| Expellers || 34–37%
|-
| Solvent || 40–43%
|}

===Solvent extraction===
The processing of vegetable oil in commercial applications is commonly done by chemical extraction, using solvent extracts, which produces higher yields and is quicker and less expensive. The most common solvent is petroleum-derived [[hexane]]. This technique is used for most of the "newer" industrial oils such as soybean and corn oils. After extraction, the solvent is evaporated out by heating the mixture to about {{convert|300|F|C|order=flip}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Polyunsaturated Fats |url=https://clarksnutrition /index.php/resources/healthnotes?resource=%2Fus%2Fassets%2Ffood-guide%2Fpolyunsaturated-fats%2F~default |website=Clark's Nutrition |access-date=March 13, 2019 |archive-date=January 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119073520/https://clarksnutrition /index.php/resources/healthnotes?resource=%2Fus%2Fassets%2Ffood-guide%2Fpolyunsaturated-fats%2F~default |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Supercritical carbon dioxide]] can be used as a non-toxic alternative to other solvents.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11746-006-5038-6 |title=Pilot-scale supercritical carbon dioxide extraction and fractionation of wheat germ oil |year=2006 |last1=Eisenmenger |first1=Michael |last2=Dunford |first2=Nurhan T. |last3=Eller |first3=Fred |last4=Taylor |first4=Scott |last5=Martinez |first5=Jose |journal=Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society |volume=83 |issue=10 |pages=863–868|s2cid=59940212 }}</ref>

===Hydrogenation===
{{main|Fat hydrogenation}}

Unsaturated vegetable oils can be transformed through partial or complete [[fat hydrogenation|hydrogenation]] into oils of higher melting point, some of which, such as [[vegetable shortening]], will remain solid at room temperature.

Hydrogenating vegetable oil is done by raising a blend of vegetable oil and a metal catalyst, typically nickel, in near-vacuum to very high temperatures, and introducing hydrogen. This causes the carbon atoms of the oil to break double-bonds with other carbons. Each carbon atom becomes single-bonded to an individual hydrogen atom, and the double bond between carbons can no longer exist. A fully hydrogenated oil, also called a [[saturated fat]], has had all of its double bonds converted into single bonds. If a [[Polyunsaturated fatty acid|polyunsaturated]] oil is left incompletely hydrogenated (not all of the double bonds are reduced to single bonds), then it is a "partially hydrogenated oil" (PHO). An oil may be hydrogenated to increase resistance to [[Rancidification|rancidity]] ([[oxidation]]) or to change its physical characteristics. As the degree of saturation is raised by full or partial hydrogenation, the oil's viscosity and melting point increase.

While full hydrogenation produces largely saturated fatty acids, partial hydrogenation results in the transformation of unsaturated cis fatty acids to [[trans fats|unsaturated trans fatty acids]] in the oil mixture due to the heat used in hydrogenation. Partially hydrogenated oils and their trans fats have been linked to an increased risk of mortality from [[coronary heart disease]],<ref name= "TRANSformingApx9" >{{cite web|author=Trans Fat Task Force |title=TRANSforming the Food Supply (Appendix 9iii) |date=June 2006 |url=http:// hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/nutrition/gras-trans-fats/tf-ge/tf-gt_app9iii_e.html |access-date=2007-01-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070225021532/http:// hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/nutrition/gras-trans-fats/tf-ge/tf-gt_app9iii_e.html |archive-date=February 25, 2007 }} (Consultation on the health implications of alternatives to trans fatty acids: Summary of Responses from Experts)</ref> among other increased health risks. These concerns have led to regulations mandating the removal of partially hydrogenated oils from food.<ref>{{cite web |title=Final Determination Regarding Partially Hydrogenated Oils (Removing Trans Fat) |url=https:// fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/final-determination-regarding-partially-hydrogenated-oils-removing-trans-fat |website= fda.gov |date=20 February 2020 |publisher=U.S. Food and Drug Administration |access-date=14 April 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414213923/https:// fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/final-determination-regarding-partially-hydrogenated-oils-removing-trans-fat |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Deodorization===
In the processing of edible oils, the oil is heated under vacuum to near the smoke point or to about {{convert|450|F|C|order=flip}},<ref>{{cite web |last1=Feuge |first1=R. O. |title=Vegetable Oils and Fats for Edible Use |url=https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/IND43894115/PDF |website=usda.gov |access-date=March 13, 2019 |quote=Certain crude oils that contain minor amounts of impurities other than free fatty acids can be refined by a process known as steam refining. It is merely a high-temperature steam distillation under reduced pressure. The crude vegetable oil is heated to about 450°F. and maintained under a pressure of 0.25 inch of mercury or less while steam is passed through it. The steam strips the free fatty acids out of the oil. The proccss is used somewhat in Europe but not often in the United States. |archive-date=June 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220619073528/https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/IND43894115/PDF |url-status=live }}</ref> and water is introduced at the bottom of the oil. The water immediately is converted to steam, which bubbles through the oil, carrying with it any chemicals which are water-soluble. The steam sparging removes impurities that can impart unwanted flavors and odors to the oil. Deodorization is key to the manufacture of vegetable oils. Nearly all soybean, corn, and canola oils found on supermarket shelves go through a deodorization stage that removes trace amounts of odors and flavors, and lightens the color of the oil. However, the process commonly results in higher levels of trans fatty acids and distillation of the oil's natural compounds.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gupta|first=Monoj K.|url=https:// worldcat.org/oclc/974497799|title=Practical guide to vegetable oil processing|date=2017|isbn=978-1-63067-051-1|edition=Second|location=Amsterdam|oclc=974497799}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https:// worldcat.org/oclc/491265615|title=Soybeans: chemistry, production, processing, and utilization|date=2008|publisher=AOCS Press|author1=Lawrence Alan Johnson|author2-link=|author2=Pamela J. White|author3=Richard Galloway|isbn=978-0-12-804352-3|location=Urbana, IL|oclc=491265615|access-date=2021-07-04|archive-date=2023-06-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628174111/https:// worldcat.org/title/491265615|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Chapter 5: Processing and refining edible oils|url=http:// fao.org/3/v4700e/V4700E0a.htm#Potential%20side%20reactions%20during%20high-temperature%20processing|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-04|website=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|archive-date=2022-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709105807/https:// fao.org/3/v4700e/v4700e0a.htm#Potential%20side%20reactions%20during%20high-temperature%20processing}}</ref>

=== Occupational exposure ===
People can breathe in vegetable oil mist in the workplace. The U.S. [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA) has set the legal limit ([[permissible exposure limit]]) for vegetable oil mist exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m<sup>3</sup> total exposure and 5 mg/m<sup>3</sup> respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The U.S. [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] (NIOSH) has set a [[recommended exposure limit]] (REL) of 10 mg/m<sup>3</sup> total exposure and 5 mg/m<sup>3</sup> respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.<ref>{{Cite web|title = CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Vegetable oil mist|url = https:// cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0655.html|website = cdc.gov|access-date = 2015-11-27|archive-date = 2015-12-08|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151208133929/http:// cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0655.html|url-status = live}}</ref>

===Yield===
[[File:World Production Of Main Vegetable Oils By Main Producers (2020).svg|thumb|World production of main vegetable oils by main producers ]]
Typical productivity of some oil crops, measured in [[metric ton|ton]]s (t) of oil produced per [[hectare]] (ha) of land per year (yr). [[Oil palm]] is by far the highest yielding crop, capable of producing about 4 tons of palm oil per hectare per year.
{| class= "wikitable"
|-
! width= "110" | Crop
! width= "60" | Yield<br> (t/ha/yr)
|-
|'''Palm oil''' <ref>[http:// palmoilworld.org/about_malaysian-industry.html Malaysian Palm Oil Industry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020194530/http:// palmoilworld.org/about_malaysian-industry.html |date=2018-10-20 }}, ''palmoilworld.org''</ref>
| align= "right" | 4.0
|-
|'''Coconut oil''' <ref name= "gardeningplaces" >[http:// gardeningplaces /articles/oil-crops-compared1.htm Oil Staple Crops Compared] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118111906/http:// gardeningplaces /articles/oil-crops-compared1.htm |date=2018-11-18 }}, ''gardeningplaces ''</ref>
| align= "right" | 1.4
|-
|'''Canola oil''' <ref name= "aocs_yields" >[http:// aocs.org/Membership/informArticleDetail.cfm?ItemNumber=1102 Global oil yields: Have we got it seriously wrong?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131075003/http:// aocs.org/Membership/informArticleDetail.cfm?ItemNumber=1102 |date=2016-01-31 }}, Denis J. Murphy, August 2009, ''aocs.org''</ref>
| align= "right" | 0.75
|-
|'''Soybean oil''' <ref name= "aocs_yields" />
| align= "right" | 0.45
|-
|'''Sunflower oil''' <ref name= "gardeningplaces" />
| align= "right" | 0.6
|}

==Particular oils==
{{mainlist|List of vegetable oils
}}
The following triglyceride vegetable oils account for almost all worldwide production, by volume. All are used as both cooking oils and as [[Straight vegetable oil|SVO]] or to make biodiesel. According to the USDA, the total world consumption of major vegetable oils in 2007/08 was:<ref name= "USDAOilSeeds2009-01" >{{Cite book
| series=Oilseeds: World Market and Trade
| title=January 2009
| url=http:// fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/2009/January/Oilseedsfull0109.pdf
| volume=FOP 1-09
| date=2009-01-12
| publisher=[[USDA]]
| access-date=2009-01-29
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309135414/http://@fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/2009/January/Oilseedsfull0109.pdf
| archive-date=2013-03-09
| url-status=dead
}}, Table 03: Major Vegetable Oils: World Supply and Distribution at [http:// fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/Current.asp Oilseeds: World Markets and Trade Monthly Circular] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101018161150/http:// fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/Current.asp |date=2010-10-18 }}</ref>
{| class= "sortable wikitable"
! Oil source
! World consumption<br />(million [[metric tons]])
! Notes
|-
| [[Palm oil|Palm]] || align= "center" | 41.31 || The most widely produced tropical oil, also used to make [[biofuel]]
|-
| [[Soybean oil|Soybean]] || align= "center" | 41.28 || One of the most widely consumed cooking oils
|-
| [[Rapeseed oil|Rapeseed]] || align= "center" | 18.24 || One of the most widely used cooking oils, also used as fuel. [[Canola]] is a variety ([[cultivar]]) of rapeseed.
|-
| [[Sunflower oil|Sunflower seed]] || align= "center" | 9.91 || A common cooking oil, also used to make biodiesel
|-
| [[Peanut oil|Peanut]] || align= "center" | 4.82 || Mild-flavored cooking oil
|-
| [[Cottonseed oil|Cottonseed]] || align= "center" | 4.99 || A major food oil, often used in industrial food processing
|-
| [[Palm kernel oil|Palm kernel]] || align= "center" | 4.85 || From the seed of the African palm tree
|-
|[[Coconut oil|Coconut]] || align= "center" | 3.48 || Used in cooking, cosmetics and soaps
|-
| [[Olive oil|Olive]] || align= "center" | 2.84 || Used in cooking, cosmetics, soaps and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps
|}

These figures include industrial and animal feed use. The majority of European rapeseed oil production is used to produce biodiesel, or used directly as fuel in diesel cars which may require modification to heat the oil to reduce its higher [[viscosity]].{{cn|date=October 2024}}

Other significant oils include:

* [[Corn oil]], one of the most common cooking oils, is used for cooking oil, salad dressing, margarine, mayonnaise, prepared goods like spaghetti sauce and baking mixes, and to fry prepared foods like potato chips and French fries.
* [[Grape seed oil]], used in cooking and cosmetics
* [[Hazelnut oil]] and other nut oils
* [[Linseed oil]], from [[flax]] seeds
* [[Rice bran oil]], from rice grains
* [[Safflower oil]], a flavorless and colorless cooking oil
* [[Sesame oil]], used as a cooking oil, and as a massage oil, particularly in India
* [[Açaí palm]] oil, used in culinary and cosmetics
* [[Jambú oil]], is extracted from the flowers, leaves and stem from jambu (''[[Acmella oleracea]]''), contains [[spilanthol]]
* [[Graviola oil]], derived from ''[[Annona muricata]]''
* [[Tucumã oil]], from ''[[Astrocaryum aculeatum]]'' is used to manufacture soap.
* [[Brazil_nut#Oil|Brazil nut oil]], culinary and cosmetics use
* [[Carapa]] oil, pharmaceutical use and anti-mosquito candle
* [[Buriti oil]], from ''[[Mauritia flexuosa]]'', used in cosmetics (skin and hair care)
* [[Passion fruit oil]], derived from ''[[Passiflora edulis]]'', has varied applications in cosmetics manufacturing and for uses as a human or animal food.
* [[Pracaxi oil]], obtained from ''[[Pentaclethra macroloba]]'', cosmetics use
* [[Solarium oil]], derived from chloroplasts, various applications in cooking

===Composition of fats===
{{Vegetable oils, composition}}

==Seed oil==
{{See also|Seed oil misinformation}}
Seed oils are vegetable oils obtained from the [[seed]] ([[endosperm]]) rather than other parts of plants. Most vegetable oils are seed oils. Examples are sunflower, corn, and sesame oils.

[[Seed oil misinformation|Claims that seed oils are unhealthy]] are not supported by scientific evidence.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |last2= |last3= |date=2022-06-22 |title=Scientists debunk claims of seed oil health risks |url=https:// hsph.harvard.edu/news/hsph-in-the-news/scientists-debunk-seed-oil-health-risks/ |access-date=2024-09-27 |website=Harvard School of Public Health |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=There's no reason to avoid seed oils and plenty of reasons to eat them |url=https:// heart.org/en/news/2024/08/20/theres-no-reason-to-avoid-seed-oils-and-plenty-of-reasons-to-eat-them |access-date=2024-10-02 |website= heart.org |language=en}}</ref>
===Pre-pressing===
Oils are extracted first by expeller or cold pressing methods, then solvent expelling the rest of the oils from the leftover matter. This is a method used by larger capacity oil mills. As the energy consumption of the mechanical press increases as more oil is released, it is more efficient to extract the rest of the oil (past around 60%) by solvent extraction.

==Used oil==
{{Main article|Yellow grease}}
A large quantity of used vegetable oil is produced and recycled, mainly from industrial [[deep fryer]]s in potato processing plants, [[snack food]] factories and [[fast food restaurant]]s.

Recycled oil has numerous uses, including use as a [[Vegetable oil fuel|direct fuel]], as well as in the production of [[biodiesel]], [[compound feed|livestock feed]], pet food, soap, detergent, cosmetics, and industrial chemicals.

Since 2002, an increasing number of [[European Union]] countries have prohibited the inclusion of recycled vegetable oil from catering in animal feed. Used cooking oils from food manufacturing, however, as well as fresh or unused cooking oil, continue to be used in their animal feed.<ref>{{cite web |date = 22 May 2018 |url = https:// food.gov.uk/business-guidance/food-and-cooking-oil-waste |title = Food and cooking oil waste |access-date = |website = Food Standards Agency |publisher = GOV.UK |archive-date = 22 December 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221222200632/https:// food.gov.uk/business-guidance/food-and-cooking-oil-waste |url-status = live }}</ref>

==Shelf life==
Due to their susceptibility to oxidation from the exposure to oxygen, heat and light, resulting in the formation of [[redox|oxidation]] products, such as [[peroxide]]s and [[hydroperoxide]]s, plant oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids have a limited shelf-life.<ref>{{cite journal
| title=Lipid peroxidation in culinary oils subjected to thermal stress
| author=H. Ramachandra Prabhu
| journal=Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry
| year=2000
| volume=15
| issue=1
| pages=1–5
| doi=10.1007/BF02873539
| pmid=23105229
| pmc=3453543
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=26782307|year=2016|last1=Tańska|first1=M|title=Commercial Cold Pressed Flaxseed Oils Quality and Oxidative Stability at the Beginning and the End of Their Shelf Life|journal=Journal of Oleo Science|volume=65|issue=2|pages=111–21|last2=Roszkowska|first2=B|last3=Skrajda|first3=M|last4=Dąbrowski|first4=G|doi=10.5650/jos.ess15243|url=https:// jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jos/65/2/65_ess15243/_pdf/-char/en|doi-access=free|access-date=2018-03-19|archive-date=2018-03-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319214507/https:// jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jos/65/2/65_ess15243/_pdf/-char/en|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Product labeling==
In Canada, palm oil is one of five vegetable oils, along with palm kernel oil, coconut oil, peanut oil, and cocoa butter, which must be specifically named in the list of ingredients for a food product.<ref name= "CFIA1" >{{citation
| title=Guide to Food Labelling and Advertising
| chapter=Basic Labelling Requirements
| date=18 February 2014
| publisher=Canadian Food Inspection Agency
| chapter-url=http:// inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/food-labelling-for-industry/fats-and-oils/eng/1392751693435/1392751782638?chap=2
| access-date=2015-04-08
| archive-date=2015-04-06
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406033242/http:// inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/food-labelling-for-industry/fats-and-oils/eng/1392751693435/1392751782638?chap=2
| url-status=dead
}}</ref> Also, oils in Canadian food products which have been modified or hydrogenated must contain the word "modified" or "hydrogenated" when listed as an ingredient.<ref name= "CFIA2" >{{citation
| title=Labelling Requirements for Fats and Oils
| chapter=Common Name - Fats and Oils
| publisher=Canadian Food Inspection Agency
| chapter-url=http:// alimentheque /divers/GuideFoodLabellingAdvertising_CFIA_dec2011.pdf
| access-date=2015-04-08
| archive-date=2014-12-22
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222005439/http:// alimentheque /divers/GuideFoodLabellingAdvertising_CFIA_dec2011.pdf
| url-status=live
}}</ref> A mix of oils other than the aforementioned exceptions may simply be listed as "vegetable oil" in Canada; however, if the food product is a cooking oil, salad oil or table oil, the type of oil must be specified and listing "vegetable oil" as an ingredient is not acceptable.<ref name= "CFIA1" />

From December 2014, all food products produced in the [[European Union]] were legally required to indicate the specific vegetable oil used in their manufacture, following the introduction of the Food Information to Consumers Regulation.<ref>{{citation
| url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2011:304:0018:0063:EN:PDF
| journal=Official Journal of the European Union
| date=2011-11-21
| title=Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council
| access-date=2013-11-26
| archive-date=2017-07-26
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170726215901/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ%3AL%3A2011%3A304%3A0018%3A0063%3AEN%3APDF
| url-status=live
}}</ref>

==See also==
{{colbegin|colwidth=15em}}
* [[Algaculture]]
* [[Cholesterol]]
* [[Decorticator]]
* [[Deodorizer]]
* [[Essential oils]]
* [[Fatty acid]]
* [[Fatty acid methyl ester]]
* [[Food extrusion]]
* [[Fragrance oil]]
* [[Lipid]]
* [[List of macerated oils]]
* [[List of vegetable oils]]
* [[Neem]]
* [[Non-food crop]]s
* [[Oleochemistry]]
* [[Seed oil misinformation]]
* [[Soap]]
* [[Vernonia oil]]
* [[Vegetable oil recycling]]
{{colend}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Sources ==
{{Free-content attribution
| title = World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023
| author = FAO
| publisher = FAO
| documentURL = https:// fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en
| license statement URL = https://commons.wikimedia.org/whttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_Food_and_Agriculture_-_Statistical_Yearbook_2023.pdf
| license = CC BY-SA IGO 3.0
}}

==Further reading==
{{Commons category|Vegetable oils}}
* {{cite book
| author=Gupta, Monoj K.
| year=2007
| title=Practical guide for vegetable oil processing
| publisher=AOCS Press, Urbana, Illinois
| isbn=978-1-893997-90-5
}}
* {{cite book
| editor=Jee, Michael
| year=2002
| title=Oils and Fats Authentication
| publisher=Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, England
| isbn=1-84127-330-9
}}
* {{cite book
| author=Salunkhe, D.K., Chavan, J.K., Adsule, R.N. and Kadam, S.S.
| year=1992
| title=World Oilseeds – Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization
| publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York
| isbn=0-442-00112-6
| url-access=registration
| url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780442001124
}}
{{Fats and oils}}
{{Palm oil}}
{{Non-timber forest products}}
{{Industries}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vegetable oil}}
[[Category:Vegetable oils| ]]
[[Category:Plant products]]