Arabic script

For the Arabic script as it is used specifically to write Arabic, seeArabic Alpha bet.

Arabic script
Script type	Abjad primarily,Alpha bet
Time period	4th century CE to the present
Direction	Right-to-left script
Official script	20 sovereign states Afghanistan Algeria Bahrain Egypt Iran Iraq Palestine Jordan Kuwait Lebanon Mauritania Morocco Libya Oman Qatar Saudi Arabia Sudan Syria Tunisia United Arab Emirates Yemen Co-official script in: 9 sovereign states Brunei Comoros Chad Djibouti Eritrea Pakistan Somalia Official script at regional level in: 2 sovereign states India China United Nations
Languages	See below
Related scripts
Parent systems	Egyptian hieroglyphs Proto-Sinaitic Phoenician Aramaic Nabataean Arabic script
Child systems	N'Ko Thaana Hanifi script Persian Alpha bet
ISO 15924
ISO 15924	Arab(160),​Arabic
Unicode
Unicode alias	Arabic
Unicode range	U+0600–U+06FFArabic U+0750–U+077FArabic Supplement U+08A0–U+08FFArabic Extended-A U+0870–U+089FArabic Extended-B U+10EC0–U+10EFFArabic Extended-C U+FB50–U+FDFFArabic Pres. Forms-A U+FE70–U+FEFFArabic Pres. Forms-B U+1EE00–U+1EEFFArabic Mathematical... U+1EC70–U+1ECBFIndic Siyaq Numbers U+1ED00–U+1ED4FOttoman Siyaq Numbers U+10E60–U+10E7FRumi Numeral Symbols

Worldwide use of the Arabic and Perso-Arabic script
Arabic Alpha bet world distribution
Countries where the Arabic script is:
	→	the sole official script
	→	official alongside other scripts
	→	official at a provincial level (China, India, Tanzania) or a recognized second script of the official language (Malaysia, Tajikistan)

TheArabic scriptis thewriting systemused forArabicand several other languages of Asia and Africa. It is the second-most widely usedAlpha beticwriting system in the world (after theLatin script),the second-most widely usedwriting systemin the world by number of countries using it, and the third-most by number of users (after the Latin andChinese scripts).

The script was first used to write texts in Arabic, most notably theQuran,the holy book ofIslam.Withthe religion's spread,it came to be used as the primary script for many language families, leading to the addition of new letters and other symbols. Such languages still using it are:Persian(FarsiandDari),Malay(Jawi),Cham(Akhar Srak),Uyghur,Kurdish,Punjabi(Shahmukhi),Sindhi,Balti,Balochi,Pashto,Luri,Urdu,Kashmiri,Rohingya,Somali,Mandinka,andMooré,among others.Until the 16th century, it was also used for someSpanishtexts, and—prior to thescript reform in 1928—it was the writing system ofTurkish.

The script is written fromright to leftin acursivestyle, in which most of the letters are written in slightly different forms according to whether they stand alone or are joined to a following or preceding letter. The script does not havecapital letters.In most cases, the letters transcribeconsonants,or consonants and a few vowels, so most Arabic Alpha bets areabjads,with the versions used for some languages, such asKurdish dialect of Sorani,Uyghur,Mandarin,andBosniak,beingAlpha bets.It is the basis for the tradition ofArabic calligraphy.

History

Main article:History of the Arabic Alpha bet

The Arabic Alpha bet is derived either from theNabataean Alpha betor (less widely believed) directly from theSyriac Alpha bet,which are both derived from theAramaic Alpha bet(which also gave rise to theHebrew Alpha bet), which, in turn, descended from thePhoenician Alpha bet.In addition to the Aramaic script (and, therefore, the Arabic and Hebrew scripts), the Phoenician script also gave rise to theGreek Alpha bet(and, therefore, both theCyrillic Alpha betand theLatin Alpha betused in America and most European countries.).

Origins

In the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, northern Arab tribes emigrated and founded a kingdom centred aroundPetra,Jordan.These people (now namedNabataeansfrom the name of one of the tribes, Nabatu) spokeNabataean Arabic,a dialect of theArabiclanguage. In the 2nd or 1st centuries BCE,the first known records of the Nabataean Alpha bet were written in theAramaic language(which was the language of communication and trade), but included some Arabic language features: the Nabataeans did not write the language which they spoke. They wrote in a form of the Aramaic Alpha bet, which continued to evolve; it separated into two forms: one intended forinscriptions(known as "monumental Nabataean" ) and the other, more cursive and hurriedly written and with joined letters, for writing onpapyrus.This cursive form influenced the monumental form more and more and gradually changed into the Arabic Alpha bet.

Overview

the Arabic Alpha bet

خ‎	ح‎	ج‎	ث‎	ت‎	ب‎	ا‎
khā’	ḥā’	jīm	tha’	tā’	bā’	alif
ص‎	ش‎	س‎	ز‎	ر‎	ذ‎	د‎
ṣād	shīn	sīn	zāy/ zayn	rā’	dhāl	dāl
ق‎	ف‎	غ‎	ع‎	ظ‎	ط‎	ض‎
qāf	fā’	ghayn	‘ayn	ẓā’	ṭā’	ḍād
ي‎	و‎	ه‎	ن‎	م‎	ل‎	ك‎
yā’	wāw	hā’	nūn	mīm	lām	kāf
أ	آ	إ	ئ	ؠ	ء	ࢬ
alif hamza↑	alif madda	alif hamza↓	yā’ hamza↑	kashmiri yā’	hamza	rohingya yā’
ى	ٱ	ی	ە	ً	ٌ	ٍ
alif maksura	alif wasla	farsi yā’	ae	fathatan	dammatan	kasratan
َ	ُ	ِ	ّ	ْ	ٓ	ۤ
fatha	damma	kasra	shadda	sukun	maddah	madda
ں	ٹ	ٺ	ٻ	پ	ٿ	ڃ
nūn ghunna	ttā’	ttāhā’	bāā’	pā’	tāhā’	nyā’
ڄ	چ	ڇ	ڈ	ڌ	ڍ	ڎ
dyā’	tchā’	tchahā’	ddāl	dāhāl	ddāhāl	duul
ڑ	ژ	ڤ	ڦ	ک	ڭ	گ
rrā’	jā’	vā’	pāḥā’	kāḥā’	ng	gāf
ڳ	ڻ	ھ	ہ	ة	ۃ	ۅ
gueh	rnūn	hā’ doachashmee	hā’ goal	tā’ marbuta	tā’ marbuta goal	kirghiz oe
ۆ	ۇ	ۈ	ۉ	ۋ	ې	ے
oe	u	yu	kirghiz yu	ve	e	yā’ barree
(see below for other Alpha bets)

The Arabic script has been adapted for use in a wide variety of languages aside from Arabic, includingPersian,MalayandUrdu,which are notSemitic.Such adaptations may feature altered or new characters to representphonemesthat do not appear in Arabicphonology.For example, the Arabic language lacks avoiceless bilabial plosive(the[p]sound), therefore many languages add their own letter to represent[p]in the script, though the specific letter used varies from language to language. These modifications tend to fall into groups:IndianandTurkic languageswritten in the Arabic script tend to use thePersian modified letters,whereas thelanguages of Indonesiatend to imitate those ofJawi.The modified version of the Arabic script originally devised for use with Persian is known as thePerso-Arabic scriptby scholars.

When the Arabic script is used to writeSerbo-Croatian,Sorani,Kashmiri,Mandarin Chinese,orUyghur,vowels are mandatory. The Arabic script can, therefore, be used as a trueAlpha betas well as anabjad,although it is often strongly, if erroneously, connected to the latter due to it being originally used only for Arabic.

Use of the Arabic script inWest Africanlanguages, especially in theSahel,developed with the spread ofIslam.To a certain degree the style and usage tends to follow those of theMaghreb(for instance the position of the dots in the lettersfāʼandqāf).Additionaldiacriticshave come into use to facilitate the writing of sounds not represented in the Arabic language. The termʻAjamī,which comes from the Arabic root for "foreign", has been applied to Arabic-based orthographies of African languages.

Wikipediain Arabic script of five languages

Table of writing styles

Script or style	Alphabet(s)	Language(s)	Region	Derived from	Comment
Naskh	Arabic, Pashto, & others	Arabic, Pashto, Sindhi, & others	Every region where Arabic scripts are used		Sometimes refers to a veryspecific calligraphic style,but sometimes used to refer more broadly to almost every font that is notKuficorNastaliq.
Nastaliq	Urdu, Shahmukhi, Persian, & others	Urdu, Punjabi, Persian, Kashmiri & others	Southern and Western Asia	Taliq	Used for almost all modern Urdu and Punjabi text, but only occasionally used for Persian. (The term "Nastaliq" is sometimes used by Urdu-speakers to refer to all Perso-Arabic scripts.)
Taliq	Persian	Persian			A predecessor ofNastaliq.
Kufic	Arabic	Arabic	Middle East and parts of North Africa
Rasm	RestrictedArabic Alpha bet	Arabic	Mainly historical		Omits all diacritics includingi'jam.Digital replication usually requires some special characters. See:ٮڡٯ‎ (links to Wiktionary).

Table of Alpha bets

Alphabet	Letters	Additional Characters	Script or Style	Languages	Region	Derived from: (or related to)	Note
Arabic	28	^(see above)	Naskh,Kufi,Rasm,& others	Arabic	North Africa, West Asia	Aramaic, Syriac, Nabataean
Ajami script	33	ٻتٜتٰٜ‎	Naskh	Hausa,Yoruba,Swahili	West Africa	Arabic	Abjad | documented use likely between the 15th to 18th century for Hausa, Mande, Pulaar, Swahili, Wolof, and Yoruba Languages
Aljamiado	28		Maghrebi, Andalusi variant;Kufic	Old Spanish,Andalusi Romance,Ladino,Aragonese,Valencian,Old Galician-Portuguese	Southwest Europe	Arabic	8th–13th centuries for Andalusi Romance, 14th–16th centuries for the other languages
Arebica	30	ڄەاٖىيڵںٛۉۆ	Naskh	Serbo-Croatian	Southeastern Europe	Perso-Arabic	Latest stage has full vowel marking
Arwi Alpha bet	41	ڊڍڔصٜۻࢳڣࢴڹݧ‎	Naskh	Tamil	Southern India, Sri Lanka	Perso-Arabic
Belarusian Arabic Alpha bet	32	ࢮࢯ	Naskh	Belarusian	Eastern Europe	Perso-Arabic	15th / 16th century
Balochi Standard Alphabet(s)	29	ٹڈۏݔے	NaskhandNastaliq	Balochi	South-West Asia	Perso-Arabic,also borrows multiple glyphs fromUrdu	This standardization is based on the previous orthography. For more information, seeBalochi writing.
Berber Arabic Alpha bet(s)	33	چژڞݣء		VariousBerber languages	North Africa	Arabic
Burushaski	53	ݳݴݼڅڎݽڞݣݸݹݶݷݺݻ (see note)	Nastaliq	Burushaski	South-West Asia (Pakistan)	Urdu	Also uses the additional letters shown for Urdu.(see below)Sometimes written with just the Urdu Alpha bet, or with theLatin Alpha bet.
Chagatai Alpha bet	32	ݣ	NastaliqandNaskh	Chagatai	Central Asia	Perso-Arabic	ݣ is interchangeable with نگ and ڭ.
Dobrujan Tatar	32		Naskh	Dobrujan Tatar	Southeastern Europe	Chagatai
Galal	32		Naskh	Somali	Horn of Africa	Arabic
Jawi	36	ڠڤݢڽۏى‎	Naskh	Malay	Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and part of Borneo	Perso-Arabic	Since 1303 AD (Trengganu Stone)
Kashmiri	44	ۆۄؠێ	Nastaliq	Kashmiri	South Asia	Urdu	This orthography is fully voweled. 3 out of the 4 (ۆ, ۄ, ێ) additional glyphs are actually vowels. Not all vowels are listed here since they are not separate letters. For further information, seeKashmiri writing.
Kazakh Arabic Alpha bet	35	ٵٶۇٷۋۆەھىٸي	Naskh	Kazakh	Central Asia, China	Chagatai	In use since 11th century, reformed in the early 20th century, now official only in China
Khowar	45	ݯݮڅځݱݰڵ	Nastaliq	Khowar	South Asia	Urdu,however, borrows multiple glyphs fromPashto
Kyrgyz Arabic Alpha bet	33	ۅۇۉۋەىي	Naskh	Kyrgyz	Central Asia	Chagatai	In use since 11th century, reformed in the early 20th century, now official only in China
Pashto	45	ټڅځډړږښګڼۀيېۍئ	Naskhand occasionally,Nastaliq	Pashto	South-West Asia,AfghanistanandPakistan	Perso-Arabic	ګ is interchangeable with گ. Also, the glyphs ی and ې are often replaced with ے in Pakistan.
Pegon script	35	ڎڟڠڤڮۑ‎	Naskh	Javanese,Sundanese	South-East Asia (Indonesia)	Perso-Arabic
Persian	32	پچژگ	NaskhandNastaliq	Persian(Farsi)	West Asia (Iran etc. )	Arabic	Also known as Perso-Arabic.
Shahmukhi	41	ݪݨ	Nastaliq	Punjabi	South Asia (Pakistan)	Perso-Arabic
Saraiki	45	ٻڄݙڳ	Nastaliq	Saraiki	South Asia (Pakistan)	Urdu
Sindhi	52	ڪڳڱگک پڀٻٽٿٺ ڻڦڇچڄڃ ھڙڌڏڎڍڊ	Naskh	Sindhi	South Asia (Pakistan)	Perso-Arabic
Sorabe	28		Naskh	Malagasy	Madagascar	Arabic
Soranî	33	ڕڤڵۆێ	Naskh	Kurdish languages	Middle-East	Perso-Arabic	Vowels are mandatory, i.e. Alpha bet
Swahili Arabic script	28		Naskh	Swahili	Western and Southern Africa	Arabic
İske imlâ	35	ۋ	Naskh	Tatar	Volga region	Chagatai	Used prior to 1920.
Ottoman Turkish	32	ﭖﭺﮊﮒﯓئەی		Ottoman Turkish	Ottoman Empire	Chagatai	Official until 1928
Urdu	39+ (see notes)	ٹڈڑںہھے (see notes)	Nastaliq	Urdu	South Asia	Perso-Arabic	58letters including digraphs representingaspirated consonants. بھپھتھٹھجھچھدھڈھکھگھ
Uyghur	32	ئائەھئوئۇئۆئۈۋئېئى	Naskh	Uyghur	China, Central Asia	Chagatai	Reform of older Arabic-script Uyghur orthography that was used prior to the 1950s. Vowels are mandatory, i.e. Alpha bet
Wolofal	33	ݖگݧݝݒ‎	Naskh	Wolof	West Africa	Arabic,however, borrows at least one glyph fromPerso-Arabic
Xiao'erjing	36	ٿس﮲ڞي‎	Naskh	Sinitic languages	China, Central Asia	Chagatai	Used to write Chinese languages by Muslims living in China such as the Hui people.
Yaña imlâ	29	ئائەئیئوئۇئھ	Naskh	Tatar	Volga region	İske imlâ Alpha bet	1920–1927 replaced with Cyrillic

Current use

Today Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and China are the main non-Arabic speaking states using the Arabic Alpha bet to write one or more official national languages, includingAzerbaijani,Baluchi,Brahui,Persian,Pashto,Central Kurdish,Urdu,Sindhi,Kashmiri,PunjabiandUyghur.

An Arabic Alpha bet is currently used for the following languages:

Middle East and Central Asia

See also:Arabic Alpha bet

• Arabic
• Garshuni(or Karshuni) originated in the 7th century, when Arabic became the dominant spoken language in theFertile Crescent,but Arabic script was not yet fully developed or widely read, and so theSyriac Alpha betwas used. There is evidence that writing Arabic in this other set of letters (known as Garshuni) influenced the style of modern Arabic script. After this initial period, Garshuni writing has continued to the present day among someSyriacChristian communities in the Arabic-speaking regions of theLevantandMesopotamia.
• Kazakhin Kazakhstan, China,IranandAfghanistan
• Kurdishin NorthernIraqand NorthwestIran.(InTurkeyandSyriatheLatin scriptis used for Kurdish)
• Kyrgyzby its 150,000 speakers in theXin gian g Uyghur Autonomous Regionin northwesternChina,Pakistan,KyrgyzstanandAfghanistan
• Turkmenin Turkmenistan,Afghanistan and Iran
• Uzbekin Uzbekistanand Afghanistan
• PersianinIranian PersianandDariin Afghanistan. It had former use in Tajikistan but is no longer used inStandard Tajik
• Baluchiin Iran, in Pakistan's Balochistan region, Afghanistan and Oman
• Southwestern Iranian languagesasLori dialectsandBakhtiari language
• Pashtoin Afghanistan and Pakistan, and Tajikistan
• Uyghurchanged to Latin script in 1969 and back to a simplified, fully voweled Arabic script in 1983
• Judeo-Arabic languages
  • Judeo-Tunisian Arabic

East Asia

• TheChinese languageis written by someHuiin the Arabic-derivedXiao'erjingAlpha bet (see alsoSini (script))
• The TurkicSalar languageis written by someSalarin the Arabic Alpha bet
• Uyghur Alpha bet

South Asia

• BalochiinPakistanandIran
• DariinAfghanistan
• KashmiriinIndiaandPakistan(also written inSharadaandDevanagarialthough Kashmiri is more commonly written in Perso-Arabic Script)
• Pashtoin Afghanistan and Pakistan
• Khowarin Northern Pakistan, also uses the Latin script
• Punjabi(Shahmukhi) in Pakistan, also written in theBrahmicscript known asGurmukhiin India
• Saraiki,written with a modified Arabic script – that has 45 letters
• Sindhi,a British commissioner inSindhon August 29, 1857, ordered to change Arabic script,also written inDevanagariin India
• Aer language
• Bhadrawahi language
• Ladakhi(India), although it is more commonly written using theTibetan script
• Balti(aSino-Tibetan language), also rarely written in the Tibetan script
• Brahui languagein Pakistan and Afghanistan
• Burushaskior Burusho language, a language isolated to Pakistan.
• Urduin Pakistan (and historically several otherHindustani languages). Urdu is one of several official languages in the states ofJammu and Kashmir,Delhi,Uttar Pradesh,Bihar,Jharkhand,West BengalandTelangana.
• Dogri,spoken by about five million people in India and Pakistan, chiefly in the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir and inHimachal Pradesh,but also in northern Punjab, although Dogri is more commonly written in Devanagari
• Arwi language(a mixture of Arabic and Tamil) uses the Arabic script together with the addition of 13 letters. It is mainly used inSri Lankaand the South Indian state ofTamil Nadufor religious purposes.Arwi languageis the language of Tamil Muslims
• Arabi MalayalamisMalayalamwritten in the Arabic script. The script has particular letters to represent the peculiar sounds of Malayalam. This script is mainly used inmadrasasof the South Indian state ofKeralaand ofLakshadweep.
• Rohingya language(Ruáingga) is a language spoken by the Rohingya people ofRakhine State, formerly known as Arakan(Rakhine),Burma(Myanmar). It is similar toChittagonian languagein neighboring Bangladeshand sometimes written using the Roman script, or an Arabic-derived script known asHanifi
• Ishkashimi language(Ishkashimi) inAfghanistan

Southeast Asia

• Malayin the Arabic script known asJawi.In some cases it can be seen in the signboards of shops and market stalls. Particularly in Brunei, Jawi is used in terms of writing or reading for Islamic religious educational programs in primary school, secondary school, college, or even higher educational institutes such as universities. In addition, some television programming uses Jawi, such as announcements, advertisements, news, social programs or Islamic programs
  • co-official inBrunei
  • Malaysiabut co-official inKelantanandKedah,Islamic states in Malaysia
  • Indonesia,Jawi script is co-used withLatinin provinces ofAceh,Riau,Riau IslandsandJambi.TheJavanese,MadureseandSundanesealso use another Arabic variant, thePegonin Islamic writings andpesantrencommunity.
  • Southern Thailand
  • Predominantly Muslim areas of thePhilippines(especiallyMaguindanaonandTausug)
  • Ida'an language(also Idahan) a Malayo-Polynesian language spoken by the Ida'an people ofSabah,Malaysia
• Cham languagein Cambodia besidesWestern Cham script.

Europe

• Dobrujan TatarinRomaniaandBulgaria

Africa

• North Africa
  • Arabic
  • Berber languageshave often been written inan adaptation of the Arabic Alpha bet.The use of the Arabic Alpha bet, as well as the competingLatinandTifinaghscripts, has political connotations
  • Tuareg language,(sometimes called Tamasheq) which is also a Berber language
  • Coptic languageof Egyptians as Coptic text written in Arabic letters
• Northeast Africa
  • Bedawi or Beja,mainly in northeasternSudan
  • Wadaad's writing,used inSomalia
  • Nubian languages
    • Dongolawi languageor Andaandi language of Nubia, in the Nile Vale of northern Sudan
    • Nobiin language,the largest Nubian language (previously known by the geographic terms Mahas and Fadicca/Fiadicca) is not yet standardized, being written variously in bothLatinizedand Arabic scripts; also, there have been recent efforts to revive the Old Nubian Alpha bet.
  • Fur languageof Darfur, Sudan
• Southeast Africa
  • Comorian,in theComoros,currently side by side with theLatin Alpha bet(neither is official)
  • Swahili,was originally written in Arabic Alpha bet, Swahili orthography is now based on the Latin Alpha bet that was introduced by Christian missionaries and colonial administrators
• West Africa
  • Zarma languageof theSonghay family.It is the language of the southwestern lobe of the West African nation of Niger, and it is the second leading language of Niger, after Hausa, which is spoken in south central Niger
  • Tadaksahakis a Songhay language spoken by the pastoralist Idaksahak of the Ménaka area ofMali
  • Hausa languageuses an adaptation of the Arabic script known asAjami,for many purposes, especially religious, but including newspapers, mass mobilization posters and public information
  • Dyula languageis aMandé languagespoken in Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire and Mali.
  • Jola-Fonyi languageof theCasamanceregion ofSenegal
  • Balanta languagea Bak language of west Africa spoken by the Balanta people andBalanta-Ganjadialect in Senegal
  • Mandinka,widely but unofficially (known as Ajami), (another non-Latin script used is theN'Ko script)
  • Fula,especially the Pular of Guinea (known as Ajami)
  • Wolof(atzaouiaschools), known asWolofal.
  • Yoruba,earliest attested history of use since 17th century, however earliest verifiable history of use dates to the 19th century. Yoruba Ajami used in Muslim praise verse, poetry, personal and esoteric use
• Arabic script outside Africa
  • In writings of African American slaves
    • Writings of byOmar Ibn Said(1770–1864) of Senegal
    • TheBilali Documentalso known as Bilali Muhammad Document is a handwritten, Arabic manuscripton West African Islamic law. It was written by Bilali Mohammet in the 19th century. The document is currently housed in the library at the University of Georgia
    • Letter written byAyuba Suleiman Diallo(1701–1773)
    • Arabic Text From 1768
    • Letter written byAbdul Rahman Ibrahima Sori(1762–1829)

Former use

With the establishment ofMuslim rulein thesubcontinent,one or more forms of the Arabic script were incorporated among the assortment of scripts used for writing native languages.In the 20th century, the Arabic script was generally replaced by theLatin Alpha betin theBalkans,parts ofSub-Saharan Africa,andSoutheast Asia,while in theSoviet Union,after a brief period ofLatinisation,use ofCyrillicwas mandated.Turkeychanged to the Latin Alpha bet in 1928 as part of an internal Westernizing revolution. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, many of the Turkic languages of the ex-USSR attempted to follow Turkey's lead and convert to a Turkish-style Latin Alpha bet. However, renewed use of the Arabic Alpha bet has occurred to a limited extent inTajikistan,whose language's close resemblance toPersianallows direct use of publications from Afghanistan and Iran.

Africa

• Afrikaans(as it was first written among the "Cape Malays",seeArabic Afrikaans)
• Berberin North Africa, particularlyShilhainMorocco(still being considered, along withTifinaghand Latin, forCentral Atlas Tamazight)
• Frenchby theArabsandBerbersin Algeria and other parts of North Africa during the French colonial period
• Harari,by theHarari peopleof theHarari RegioninEthiopia.Now uses theGeʻezandLatin Alpha bets
• For the West African languages—Hausa,Fula,Mandinka,Wolofand others—the Latin Alpha bet has officially replaced Arabic transcriptions for use in literacy and education
• KinyarwandainRwanda
• KirundiinBurundi
• MalagasyinMadagascar(script known asSorabe)
• Nubian
• ShonainZimbabwe
• Somali(seewadaad'sArabic) has mostly used theLatin Alpha betsince 1972
• Songhayin West Africa, particularly inTimbuktu
• Swahili(has used theLatin Alpha betsince the 19th century)
• Yorubain West Africa

Europe

• AlbaniancalledElifbaja shqip
• Aljamiado(Mozarabic,Berber,Aragonese,Portuguese,Ladino,andSpanish,during and residually after the Muslim rule in the Iberian peninsula)
• Belarusian(among ethnicTatars;seeBelarusian Arabic Alpha bet)
• Bosnian(only for literary purposes; currently written in theLatin Alpha bet;Text example:مۉلٖىمۉ سه تهبٖى بۉژه‎ =Molimo se tebi, Bože(We pray to you, O God); seeArebica)
• Crimean Tatar
• Greekin certain areas inGreeceandAnatolia.In particular,Cappadocian Greekwritten inPerso-Arabic
• Polish(among ethnicLipka Tatars)

Central Asia and Caucasus

• Adyghe languagealso known as West Circassian, is an official languages of the Republic ofAdygeain the Russian Federation. It used Arabic Alpha bet before 1927
• Avaras well as other languages ofDaghestan:Nogai,Kumyk,Lezgian,LakandDargwa
• AzeriinAzerbaijan(now written in theLatin Alpha betandCyrillic scriptinAzerbaijan)
• Bashkir(officially for some years from theOctober Revolutionof 1917 until 1928, changed to Latin, now uses the Cyrillic script)
• ChaghatayacrossCentral Asia
• Chechen(sporadically from the adoption of Islam; officially from 1917 until 1928)
• Circassianand some other members of theAbkhaz–Adyghe familyin the westernCaucasusand sporadically – in the countries of Middle East, like Syria
• Ingush
• Karachay-Balkarin the central Caucasus
• Karakalpak
• KazakhinKazakhstan(until the 1930s, changed to Latin, currently using Cyrillic, phasing in Latin)
• KyrgyzinKyrgyzstan(until the 1930s, changed to Latin, now uses the Cyrillic script)
• Mandarin ChineseandDungan,among theHui people(script known asXiao'erjing)
• Ottoman Turkish
• Tatin South-Eastern Caucasus
• Tatarbefore 1928 (changed to LatinYañalif), reformed in the 1880s (İske imlâ), 1918 (Yaña imlâ– with the omission of some letters)
• TurkmeninTurkmenistan(changed to Latin in 1929, then to the Cyrillic script, then back to Latin in 1991)
• UzbekinUzbekistan(changed to Latin, then to the Cyrillic script, then back to Latin in 1991)
• SomeNortheast Caucasian languagesof the Muslim peoples of theUSSRbetween 1918 and 1928 (many also earlier), includingChechen,Lak,etc. After 1928, their script became Latin, then laterCyrillic

South and Southeast Asia

• AcehneseinSumatra,Indonesia
• AssameseinAssam,India
• BanjareseinKalimantan,Indonesia
• BengaliinBengal,Arabic scripts have been used historically in places likeChittagongandWest Bengalamong other places. SeeDobhashifor further information.
• Maguindanaonin thePhilippines
• MalayinMalaysia,SingaporeandIndonesia.Although Malay speakers inBruneiandSouthern Thailandstill use the script on a daily basis
• Minangkabauin Sumatra, Indonesia
• Pegon scriptofJavanese,MadureseandSundanesein Indonesia, used only in Islamic schools and institutions
• Tausugin thePhilippines,Malaysia,andIndonesiait can be used in Islamic schools inthe Philippines
• Yakanpracticed in Islamic schools inBasilan

Middle East

• Hebrewwas written in Arabic letters in a number of places in the past
• Northern Kurdishin Turkey and Syria was written in Arabic script until 1932, when a modifiedKurdish Latin Alpha betwas introduced byJaladat Ali Badirkhanin Syria
• Turkishin theOttoman Empirewas written in Arabic script untilMustafa Kemal Atatürkdeclared the change toLatin scriptin 1928. This form of Turkish is now known asOttoman Turkishand is held by many to be a different language, due to its much higher percentage of Persian and Arabicloanwords(Ottoman Turkish Alpha bet)

Unicode

Main article:Arabic script in Unicode

As of Unicode 15.1, the following ranges encode Arabic characters:

• Arabic(0600–06FF)
• Arabic Supplement(0750–077F)
• Arabic Extended-A(08A0–08FF)
• Arabic Extended-B(0870–089F)
• Arabic Extended-C(10EC0–10EFF)
• Arabic Presentation Forms-A(FB50–FDFF)
• Arabic Presentation Forms-B(FE70–FEFF)
• Arabic Mathematical Alphabetic Symbols(1EE00–1EEFF)
• Rumi Numeral Symbols(10E60–10E7F)
• Indic Siyaq Numbers(1EC70–1ECBF)
• Ottoman Siyaq Numbers(1ED00–1ED4F)

Additional letters used in other languages

Assignment ofphonemestographemes

∅ = phoneme absent from language

Language family	Austron.		Dravid	Turkic				Indic			Iranian				Germanic
Language/script	Jawi	Pegon	Arwi	Azeri	Ottoman	Tatar	Uyghur	Sindhi	Punjabi	Urdu	Persian	Balochi	Pashto	Kurdish	Afrikaans
/t͡ʃ/	چ‎
/ʒ/	∅			ژ‎
/p/	ڤ‎		ڣ‎	پ‎
/g/	ݢ‎	ؼ‎	ࢴ‎	ق‎	گ‎
/v/	ۏ‎		و‎			ۋ‎		و‎				∅		ڤ‎
/ŋ/	ڠ‎		ࢳ‎	∅	ڭ‎			ڱ‎	ن‎		∅				ڠ‎
/ɲ/	ڽ‎	ۑ‎	ݧ‎	∅				ڃ‎	ن‎		∅
/ɳ/	∅		ڹ‎	∅				ڻ‎	ݨ‎	ن‎	∅		ڼ‎	∅

Table of additional letters in other languages

Letter orDigraph				Use & Pronunciation	Unicode	i'jam& other additions				Shape	Similar Arabic Letter(s)
					U+			above	below
پ‎	پـ ـپـ ـپ‎			Pe,used to represent the phoneme/p/inPersian,Pashto,Punjabi,Khowar,Sindhi,Urdu,Kurdish,Kashmiri;it can be used in Arabic to describe the phoneme/p/otherwise it is normalized to/b/ب e.g. پول Paul also written بول	U+067E	﮹‎		none	3 dots	ٮ‎	ب‎
ݐ‎	ݐـ ـݐـ ـݐ‎			used to represent the equivalent of the Latin letterƳ(palatalizedglottal stop/ʔʲ/) in some African languages such asFulfulde.	U+0750	﮳﮳﮳‎		none	3 dots (horizontal)	ٮ‎	ب‎
ٻ‎	ٻـ ـٻـ ـٻ‎			B̤ē,used to represent avoiced bilabial implosive/ɓ/inHausa,SindhiandSaraiki.	U+067B	﮾‎		none	2 dots (vertically)	ٮ‎	ب‎
ڀ‎	ڀـ ـڀـ ـڀ‎			represents an aspiratedvoiced bilabial plosive/bʱ/inSindhi.	U+0680	﮻‎		none	4 dots	ٮ‎	ب‎
ٺ‎	ٺـ ـٺـ ـٺ‎			Ṭhē,represents the aspiratedvoiceless retroflex plosive/ʈʰ/inSindhi.	U+067A	﮽‎		2 dots (vertically)	none	ٮ‎	ت‎
ټ‎	ټـ ـټـ ـټ‎			Ṭē,used to represent the phoneme/ʈ/inPashto.	U+067C	﮿‎	﮴‎	2 dots	ring	ٮ‎	ت‎
ٽ‎	ٽـ ـٽـ ـٽ‎			Ṭe,used to represent the phoneme (avoiceless retroflex plosive/ʈ/) inSindhi	U+067D	﮸‎		3 dots (inverted)	none	ٮ‎	ت‎
ﭦ‎	ٹـ ـٹـ ـٹ‎			Ṭe,used to represent Ṭ (avoiceless retroflex plosive/ʈ/) inPunjabi,Kashmiri,Urdu.	U+0679	◌ؕ‎		small ط‎	none	ٮ‎	ت‎
ٿ‎	ٿـ ـٿـ ـٿ‎			Teheh,used in Sindhi and Rajasthani (when written in Sindhi Alpha bet); used to represent the phoneme/t͡ɕʰ/(pinyinq) in ChineseXiao'erjing.	U+067F	﮺‎		4 dots	none	ٮ‎	ت‎
ڄ‎	ڄـ ـڄـ ـڄ‎			represents the "c"voiceless dental affricate/t͡s/phoneme inBosnian	U+0684	﮾‎		none	2 dots (vertically)	ح‎	ج‎
ڃ‎	ڃـ ـڃـ ـڃ‎			represents the "ć"voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate/t͡ɕ/phoneme inBosnian.	U+0683	﮵‎		none	2 dots	ح‎	ح ج‎
چ‎	چـ ـچـ ـچ‎			Che,used to represent/t͡ʃ/( "ch" ). It is used inPersian,Pashto,Punjabi,Urdu,KashmiriandKurdish./ʒ/in Egypt.	U+0686	﮹‎		none	3 dots	ح‎	ج‎
څ‎	څـ ـڅـ ـڅ‎			Ce,used to represent the phoneme/t͡s/inPashto.	U+0685	﮶‎		3 dots	none	ح‎	ج خ ح‎
ݗ‎	ݗـ ـݗـ ـݗ‎			represents the "đ"voiced alveolo-palatal affricate/d͡ʑ/phoneme inBosnian.	U+0757	﮴‎		2 dots	none	ح‎	ح‎
ځ‎	ځـ ـځـ ـځ‎			Źim,used to represent the phoneme/d͡z/inPashto.	U+0681	◌ٔ‎		Hamza	none	ح‎	ج خ ح‎
ݙ‎	ݙ ـݙ‎			used inSaraikito represent aVoiced alveolar implosive/ɗ̢/.	U+0759	﯀‎	﮾‎	small ط‎	2 dots (vertically)	د‎	د‎
ڊ‎	ڊ ـڊ‎			used inSaraikito represent avoiced retroflex implosive/ᶑ/.	U+068A	﮳‎		none	1 dot	د‎	د‎
ڈ‎	ڈ ـڈ‎			Ḍal,used to represent a Ḍ (avoiced retroflex plosive/ɖ/) inPunjabi,KashmiriandUrdu.	U+0688	◌ؕ‎		smallط‎	none	د‎	د‎
ڌ‎	ڌ ـڌ‎			Dhal,used to represent the phoneme/d̪ʱ/inSindhi	U+068C	﮴‎		2 dots	none	د‎	د‎
ډ‎	ډ ـډ‎			Ḍal,used to represent the phoneme/ɖ/inPashto.	U+0689	﮿‎		none	ring	د‎	د‎
ڑ‎	ڑ ـڑ‎			Ṛe,represents aretroflex flap/ɽ/inPunjabiandUrdu.	U+0691	◌ؕ‎		smallط‎	none	ر‎	ر‎
ړ‎	ړ ـړ‎			Ṛe,used to represent aretroflex lateral flapinPashto.	U+0693	﮿‎		none	ring	ر‎	ر‎
ݫ‎	ݫ ـݫ‎			used inOrmurito represent avoiced alveolo-palatal fricative/ʑ/,as well as inTorwali.	U+076B	﮽‎		2 dots (vertically)	none	ر‎	ر‎
ژ‎	ژ ـژ‎			Že / zhe,used to represent thevoiced postalveolar fricative/ʒ/in,Persian,Pashto,Kurdish,Urdu,PunjabiandUyghur.	U+0698	﮶‎		3 dots	none	ر‎	ز‎
ږ‎	ږ ـږ‎			Ǵe / ẓ̌e,used to represent the phoneme/ʐ//ɡ//ʝ/inPashto.	U+0696	﮲‎	﮳‎	1 dot	1 dot	ر‎	ز‎
ڕ‎	ڕ ـڕ‎			used inKurdishto represent rr/r/inSoranî dialect.	U+0695	ٚ‎		none	V pointing down	ر‎	ر‎
ݭ‎	ݭـ ـݭـ ـݭ‎			used inKalamito represent avoiceless retroflex fricative/ʂ/,and inOrmurito represent a voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative /ɕ/.	U+076D	﮽‎		2 dotsvertically	none	س‎	س‎
ݜ‎	ݜـ ـݜـ ـݜ‎			used inShinato represent avoiceless retroflex fricative/ʂ/.	U+075C	﮺‎		4 dots	none	س‎	ش س‎
ښ‎	ښـ ـښـ ـښ‎			X̌īn / ṣ̌īn,used to represent the phoneme/x//ʂ//ç/inPashto.	U+069A	﮲‎	﮳‎	1 dot	1 dot	س‎	ش س‎
ڜ‎	ڜـ ـڜـ ـڜ‎			Unofficially used to represent Spanish words with/t͡ʃ/in Morocco.	U+069C	﮶‎	﮹‎	3 dots	3 dots	س‎	ش س‎
ڨ‎	ڨـ ـڨـ ـڨ‎			Ga,used to represent thevoiced velar plosive/ɡ/inAlgerianandTunisian.	U+06A8	﮶‎		3 dots	none	ٯ‎	ق‎
گ‎	گـ ـگـ ـگ‎			Gaf,represents avoiced velar plosive/ɡ/inPersian,Pashto,Punjabi,Kyrgyz,Kazakh,Kurdish,Uyghur,Mesopotamian Arabic,UrduandOttoman Turkish.	U+06AF	line		horizontal line	none	گ‎	ك‎
ګ‎	ګـ ـګـ ـګ‎			Gaf,used to represent the phoneme/ɡ/inPashto.	U+06AB	﮿‎		ring	none	ک‎	ك‎
ݢ‎	ݢـ ـݢـ ـݢ‎			Gaf,represents avoiced velar plosive/ɡ/in theJawi scriptofMalay.	U+0762	﮲‎		1 dot	none	ک‎	ك‎
ڬ‎	ڬـ ـڬـ ـڬ‎				U+06AC	﮲‎		1 dot	none	ك‎	ك‎
ؼ‎	ؼـ ـؼـ ـؼ‎			Gaf,represents avoiced velar plosive/ɡ/in thePegon scriptofIndonesian.	U+08B4	﮳‎		none	3 dots	ک‎	ك‎
ڭ‎	ڭـ ـڭـ ـڭ‎			Ng,used to represent the/ŋ/phone inOttoman Turkish,Kazakh,Kyrgyz,andUyghur,and to unofficially represent the/ɡ/inMoroccoand in many dialects ofAlgerian.	U+06AD	﮶‎		3 dots	none	ك‎	ك‎
أي‎	أيـ ـأيـ ـأي‎			Ee,used to represent the phoneme/eː/inSomali.	U+0623U+064A	◌ٔ‎	﮵‎	Hamza	2 dots	اى‎	أ‎+ي‎
ئ‎	ئـ ـئـ ـئ‎			E,used to represent the phoneme/e/inSomali.	U+0626	◌ٔ‎		Hamza	none	ى‎	ي ی‎
ىٓ‎	ىٓـ ـىٓـ ـىٓ‎			Ii,used to represent the phoneme/iː/inSomaliandSaraiki.	U+0649U+0653	◌ٓ‎		Madda	none	ى‎	ي‎
ؤ‎	ؤ ـؤ‎			O,used to represent the phoneme/o/inSomali.	U+0624	◌ٔ‎		Hamza	none	و‎	ؤ‎
ۅ‎	ۅ ـۅ‎			Ö,used to represent the phoneme/ø/inKyrgyz.	U+0624	◌̵‎		Strikethrough	none	و‎	و‎
ې‎	ېـ ـېـ ـې‎			Pasta Ye,used to represent the phoneme/e/inPashtoandUyghur.	U+06D0	﮾‎		none	2 dotsvertical	ى‎	ي‎
ی‎	یـ ـیـ ـی‎			Nārīna Ye,used to represent the phoneme [ɑj] and phoneme/j/inPashto.	U+06CC	﮵‎		2 dots (start + mid)	none	ى‎	ي‎
ۍ‎	ـۍ‎	end only		X̌əźīna ye Ye,used to represent the phoneme [əi] inPashto.	U+06CD	line		horizontal line	none	ى‎	ي‎
ئ‎	ئـ ـئـ ـئ‎			Fāiliya Ye,used to represent the phoneme [əi] and/j/inPashto,Punjabi,SaraikiandUrdu	U+0626	◌ٔ‎		Hamza	none	ى‎	ي ى‎
أو‎	أو ـأو‎			Oo,used to represent the phoneme/oː/inSomali.	U+0623U+0648	◌ٔ‎		Hamza	none	او‎	أ‎+و‎
ﻭٓ‎	ﻭٓ ـﻭٓ‎			Uu,used to represent the phoneme/uː/inSomali.	ﻭ‎ +◌ٓ‎U+0648U+0653	◌ٓ‎		Madda	none	و‎	ﻭ‎+◌ٓ‎
ڳ‎	ڳـ ـڳـ ـڳ‎			represents avoiced velar implosive/ɠ/inSindhiandSaraiki	U+06B1	﮾‎		horizontal line	2 dots	گ‎	ك‎
ڱ‎	ڱـ ـڱـ ـڱ‎			represents theVelar nasal/ŋ/phoneme inSindhi.	U+06B1	﮴‎		2 dots +horizontal line	none	گ‎	ك‎
ک‎	کـ ـکـ ـک‎			Khē,represents/kʰ/inSindhi.	U+06A9	none		none	none	ک‎	ك‎
ڪ‎	ڪـ ـڪـ ـڪ‎			"Swash kāf" is a stylistic variant ofك‎ in Arabic, but represents un-aspirated/k/inSindhi.	U+06AA	none		none	none	ڪ‎	ك‎orڪ‎
ݣ‎	ݣـ ـݣـ ـݣ‎			used to represent the phoneme/ŋ/(pinyinng) inChinese.	U+0763	﮹‎		none	3 dots	ک‎	ك‎
ڼ‎	ڼـ ـڼـ ـڼ‎			represents theretroflex nasal/ɳ/phoneme inPashto.	U+06BC	﮲‎	﮿‎	1 dot	ring	ں‎	ن‎
ڻ‎	ڻـ ـڻـ ـڻ‎			represents theretroflex nasal/ɳ/phoneme inSindhi.	U+06BB	◌ؕ‎		smallط‎	none	ں‎	ن‎
ݨ‎	ݨـ ـݨـ ـݨ‎			used inPunjabito represent/ɳ/andSaraikito represent/ɲ/.	U+0768	﮲‎	﯀‎	1 dot + smallط‎	none	ں‎	ن‎
ڽ‎	ڽـ ـڽـ ـڽ‎			Nya/ɲ/in theJawi script.	U+06BD	﮶‎		3 dots	none	ں‎	ن‎
ۑ‎	ۑـ ـۑـ ـۑ‎			Nya/ɲ/in thePegon script.	U+06D1	﮹‎		none	3 dots	ى‎	ى‎
ڠ‎	ڠـ ـڠـ ـڠ‎			Nga/ŋ/in theJawi scriptandPegon script.	U+06A0	﮶‎		3 dots	none	ع‎	غ‎
ݪ‎	ݪـ ـݪـ ـݪ‎			used inMarwarito represent aretroflex lateral flap/ɺ̢/,and inKalamito represent avoiceless lateral fricative/ɬ/.	U+076A	line		horizontal line	none	ل‎	ل‎
ࣇ	ࣇ‍ ‍ࣇ‍ ‍ࣇ			ࣇ‎– or alternately typeset asلؕ‎ – is used inPunjabito representvoiced retroflex lateral approximant/ɭ/	U+08C7	◌ؕ‎		smallط‎	none	ل‎	ل‎
لؕ‎	لؕـ ـلؕـ ـلؕ‎				U+0644U+0615
ڥ‎	ڥـ ـڥـ ـڥ‎			Vi,used inAlgerian ArabicandTunisian Arabicwhen written in Arabic script to represent the sound/v/(unofficial).	U+06A5	﮹‎		none	3 dots	ڡ‎	ف‎
ڤ‎	ڤـ ـڤـ ـڤ‎			Ve,used in by someArabicspeakers to represent the phoneme /v/ in loanwords, and in theKurdish languagewhen written in Arabic script to represent the sound/v/.Also used aspa/p/in theJawi scriptandPegon script.	U+06A4	﮶‎		3 dots	none	ڡ‎	ف‎
ۏ‎	ۏ ـۏ‎			Vain theJawi script.	U+06CF	﮲‎		1 dot	none	و‎	و‎
ۋ‎	ۋ ـۋ‎			represents avoiced labiodental fricative/v/inKyrgyz,Uyghur,and Old Tatar; and/w,ʊw,ʉw/inKazakh;also formerly used inNogai.	U+06CB	﮶‎		3 dots	none	و‎	و‎
ۆ‎	ۆ ـۆ‎			represents "O"/o/inKurdish,and inUyghurit represents the sound similar to the Frencheuandœu/ø/sound. It represents the "у"close back rounded vowel/u/phoneme inBosnian.	U+06C6	◌ٚ‎		V pointing down	none	و‎	و‎
ۇ‎	ۇ ـۇ‎			U,used to represents theClose back rounded vowel/u/phoneme inAzerbaijani,Kazakh,KyrgyzandUyghur.	U+06C7	◌ُ‎		Damma	none	و‎	و‎
ێ‎	ێـ ـێـ ـێ‎			represents Ê or É/e/inKurdish.	U+06CE	◌ٚ‎		V pointing down	2 dots (start + mid)	ى‎	ي‎
ھ‎ ھ	ھـ ـھـ ـھ‎ ھھھ			Do-chashmi he(two-eyed hāʼ), used in digraphs for aspiration/ʰ/and breathy voice/ʱ/inPunjabiandUrdu.Also used to represent/h/inKazakh,SoraniandUyghur.	U+06BE	none		none	none	ھ‎	ه‎
ە‎	ە ـە‎			Ae,used represent/æ/and/ɛ/inKazakh,SoraniandUyghur.	U+06D5	none		none	none	ھ‎	إ‎
ے‎	ـے‎	end only		Baṛī ye('bigyāʼ'), is a stylistic variant of ي in Arabic, but represents "ai" or "e"/ɛː/,/eː/inUrduandPunjabi.	U+06D2	none		none	none	ے‎	ي‎
ڞ‎	ڞـ ـڞـ ـڞ‎			used to represent the phoneme/tsʰ/(pinyinc) inChinese.	U+069E	﮶‎		3 dots	none	ص‎	ص ض‎
ط‎	طـ ـطـ ـط‎			used to represent the phoneme/t͡s/(pinyinz) inChinese.	U+0637					ط‎	ط‎
ۉ‎	ۉ ـۉ‎			represents the "o"open-mid back rounded vowel/ɔ/phoneme inBosnian.Also used to represent /ø/ inKyrgyz.	U+06C9	◌ٛ‎		V pointing up	none	و‎	و‎
ݩ‎	ݩـ ـݩـ ـݩ‎			represents the "nj"palatal nasal/ɲ/phoneme inBosnian.	U+0769	﮲‎	◌ٚ‎	1 dot V pointing down	none	ں‎	ن‎
ڵ‎	ڵـ ـڵـ ـڵ‎			used inKurdishto represent ll/ɫ/inSoranî dialect.	U+06B5	◌ٚ‎		V pointing down	none	ل‎	ل‎
ڵ‎	ڵـ ـڵـ ـڵ‎			represents the "lj"palatal lateral approximant/ʎ/phoneme inBosnian.	U+06B5	◌ٚ‎		V pointing down	none	ل‎	ل‎
اٖى‎	اٖىـ ـاٖىـ ـاٖى‎			represents the "i"close front unrounded vowel/i/phoneme inBosnian.	U+0627U+0656U+0649	◌ٖ‎		Alef	none	اى‎	اٖ‎+ى‎

Letter construction

Most languages that use Alpha bets based on the Arabic Alpha bet use the same base shapes. Most additional letters in languages that use Alpha bets based on the Arabic Alpha bet are built by adding (or removing) diacritics to existing Arabic letters. Some stylistic variants in Arabic have distinct meanings in other languages. For example, variant forms ofkāfك ک ڪ‎ are used in some languages and sometimes have specific usages. In Urdu and some neighbouring languages, the letter Hā has diverged into two formsھ‎dō-čašmī hēandہ ہـ ـہـ ـہ‎gōl hē,while a variant form ofي‎yāreferred to asbaṛī yēے‎ is used at the end of some words.

Table of letter components

Further information:List of Arabic letter components

See also

• Arabic (Unicode block)
• Eastern Arabic numerals(digit shapes commonly used with Arabic script)
• History of the Arabic Alpha bet
• Transliteration of Arabic
• Xiao'erjing

External links

• Unicode collation charts—including Arabic letters, sorted by shape
• "Why the right side of your brain doesn't like Arabic"
• Arabic fonts by SIL's Non-Roman Script Initiative
• Alexis Neme and Sébastien Paumier (2019),"Restoring Arabic vowels through omission-tolerant dictionary lookup",Lang Resources & Evaluation,Vol. 53, pp. 1–65.arXiv:1905.04051;doi:10.1007/s10579-019-09464-6
• "Preliminary proposal to encode Arabic Crown Letters"(PDF).Unicode.
• "Proposal to encode Arabic Crown Letters"(PDF).Unicode.