1928 United States presidential election in Michigan
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All 15Michiganvotes to theElectoral College | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Hoover 40-50% 50-60% 60-70% 70-80% 80-90%
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Elections in Michigan |
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The1928 United States presidential election in Michigantook place on November 6, 1928, as part of the1928 United States presidential election.Voters chose 15[1]representatives, or electors, to theElectoral College,who voted forpresidentandvice president.
Ever since thePanic of 1893and thePopulist movement,Michiganhad been rigidly one-party polity dominated by the Republican Party.[2]In the 1894 elections, the Democratic Party lost all but one seat in the Michigan legislature,[3]and over the four ensuing decades the party would never make major gains there.[2]
The dominance of the culture ofthe Lower Peninsulaby anti-slaveryYankees[4]would be augmented by the turn of formerly Democratic-leaning German Catholics away from that party as a result of the remodelled party’s agrarian andfree silversympathies, which became rigidly opposed by both the upper class and workers who followed them,[5]whilethe Populist movementeliminated Democratic ties with the business and commerce of Michigan and other Northern states.[6]By the 1920s, the only significant financial backer of the state Democratic Party was billionaireWilliam Comstock.[7]
Unlike the other states of theUpper Midwest,the Yankee influence on the culture of the Lower Peninsula was so strong that left-wing third parties did not provide significant opposition to the Republicans, nor was there more than a moderate degree of coordinated factionalism within the hegemonicMichigan Republican Party.[8]
In 1918 a major reaction against incumbent PresidentWoodrow Wilsonthroughout the Midwest, due to supposed preferential treatment of Southern farmers.[9]Republicans would hold every seat inthe State Senatefor over a decade after the fall election,[10]as they had between 1895 and 1897 and between 1905 and 1911, and every seat in both houses of the state legislature between 1921 and 1923 and again from 1925 to 1927.
Despite the one-party dominance of the state’s legislature,Woodbridge Nathan Ferriswould be elected to the Senate in 1922 as the first Democrat to represent Michigan since 1858 afterNewberry v. United Statesruled that party primaries were not subject to theFederal Corrupt Practices Act,[a]so that enough Republicans who had opposedTruman Newberryinthe fraudulent 1918 primarybacked Ferris for him to win by two percentage points.[11]In 1924, unlike every otherUpper Midwestern state,ProgressivecandidateRobert M. La Folletteperformed only moderately in heavilyYankee[12]andPolishLower Michigan.[13]Even in the moreScandinavianandanti-clericalUpper Peninsula,[14]where La Follette support in Michigan was centred, the Wisconsin Senator failed to match his performance in the other Upper Midwest states. Consequently, the inevitable nomination with all other Democrats sitting the election out[15]of La Follette endorsee New York CityCatholicAl Smith[16]did not make for a significant reaction in Michigan.
Results[edit]
Party | Candidate | Votes | % | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Republican | Herbert Hoover | 965,396 | 70.36% | |
Democratic | Al Smith | 396,762 | 28.92% | |
Socialist | Norman Thomas | 3,516 | 0.26% | |
Workers | William Z. Foster | 2,881 | 0.21% | |
Prohibition | William F. Varney | 2,728 | 0.20% | |
Socialist Labor | Verne L. Reynolds | 799 | 0.06% | |
Total votes | 1,372,082 | 100% |
Results by county[edit]
County | Herbert Hoover Republican |
Alfred E. Smith Democratic |
Norman Thomas Socialist |
William Z. Foster Workers |
William F. Varney Prohibition |
Verne L. Reynolds Socialist Labor |
Margin | Total votes cast | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
# | % | # | % | # | % | # | % | # | % | # | % | # | % | ||
Alcona | 1,149 | 78.81% | 302 | 20.71% | 2 | 0.14% | 4 | 0.27% | 1 | 0.07% | 0 | 0.00% | 847 | 58.09% | 1,458 |
Alger | 1,716 | 59.05% | 1,053 | 36.24% | 24 | 0.83% | 105 | 3.61% | 4 | 0.14% | 4 | 0.14% | 663 | 22.81% | 2,906 |
Allegan | 10,792 | 81.65% | 2,358 | 17.84% | 19 | 0.14% | 4 | 0.03% | 40 | 0.30% | 4 | 0.03% | 8,434 | 63.81% | 13,217 |
Alpena | 3,467 | 63.43% | 1,984 | 36.30% | 7 | 0.13% | 1 | 0.02% | 6 | 0.11% | 1 | 0.02% | 1,483 | 27.13% | 5,466 |
Antrim | 2,756 | 84.46% | 484 | 14.83% | 10 | 0.31% | 2 | 0.06% | 11 | 0.34% | 0 | 0.00% | 2,272 | 69.63% | 3,263 |
Arenac | 1,612 | 67.87% | 749 | 31.54% | 8 | 0.34% | 2 | 0.08% | 3 | 0.13% | 1 | 0.04% | 863 | 36.34% | 2,375 |
Baraga | 2,203 | 65.27% | 1,046 | 30.99% | 3 | 0.09% | 119 | 3.53% | 4 | 0.12% | 0 | 0.00% | 1,157 | 34.28% | 3,375 |
Barry | 6,044 | 79.94% | 1,459 | 19.30% | 14 | 0.19% | 2 | 0.03% | 42 | 0.56% | 0 | 0.00% | 4,585 | 60.64% | 7,561 |
Bay | 12,467 | 56.88% | 9,395 | 42.87% | 19 | 0.09% | 5 | 0.02% | 26 | 0.12% | 5 | 0.02% | 3,072 | 14.02% | 21,917 |
Benzie | 1,849 | 84.28% | 321 | 14.63% | 16 | 0.73% | 3 | 0.14% | 5 | 0.23% | 0 | 0.00% | 1,528 | 69.64% | 2,194 |
Berrien | 19,064 | 68.60% | 8,555 | 30.78% | 68 | 0.24% | 20 | 0.07% | 77 | 0.28% | 7 | 0.03% | 10,509 | 37.81% | 27,791 |
Branch | 6,818 | 74.51% | 2,266 | 24.77% | 19 | 0.21% | 1 | 0.01% | 44 | 0.48% | 2 | 0.02% | 4,552 | 49.75% | 9,150 |
Calhoun | 24,379 | 80.40% | 5,769 | 19.03% | 69 | 0.23% | 14 | 0.05% | 72 | 0.24% | 18 | 0.06% | 18,610 | 61.38% | 30,321 |
Cass | 5,720 | 70.24% | 2,346 | 28.81% | 34 | 0.42% | 4 | 0.05% | 33 | 0.41% | 6 | 0.07% | 3,374 | 41.43% | 8,143 |
Charlevoix | 3,489 | 79.97% | 842 | 19.30% | 25 | 0.57% | 1 | 0.02% | 5 | 0.11% | 1 | 0.02% | 2,647 | 60.67% | 4,363 |
Cheboygan | 2,743 | 60.34% | 1,784 | 39.24% | 5 | 0.11% | 2 | 0.04% | 11 | 0.24% | 1 | 0.02% | 959 | 21.10% | 4,546 |
Chippewa | 5,326 | 68.68% | 2,355 | 30.37% | 8 | 0.10% | 54 | 0.70% | 9 | 0.12% | 3 | 0.04% | 2,971 | 38.31% | 7,755 |
Clare | 1,920 | 82.62% | 381 | 16.39% | 9 | 0.39% | 3 | 0.13% | 7 | 0.30% | 4 | 0.17% | 1,539 | 66.22% | 2,324 |
Clinton | 6,161 | 75.04% | 2,013 | 24.52% | 8 | 0.10% | 26 | 0.32% | 2 | 0.02% | 0 | 0.00% | 4,148 | 50.52% | 8,210 |
Crawford | 776 | 76.30% | 237 | 23.30% | 2 | 0.20% | 2 | 0.20% | 0 | 0.00% | 0 | 0.00% | 539 | 53.00% | 1,017 |
Delta | 5,420 | 49.59% | 5,419 | 49.58% | 44 | 0.40% | 16 | 0.15% | 22 | 0.20% | 9 | 0.08% | 1 | 0.01% | 10,930 |
Dickinson | 5,840 | 55.57% | 4,626 | 44.02% | 26 | 0.25% | 6 | 0.06% | 6 | 0.06% | 5 | 0.05% | 1,214 | 11.55% | 10,509 |
Eaton | 8,493 | 78.38% | 2,285 | 21.09% | 20 | 0.18% | 1 | 0.01% | 36 | 0.33% | 1 | 0.01% | 6,208 | 57.29% | 10,836 |
Emmet | 3,679 | 75.36% | 1,166 | 23.88% | 21 | 0.43% | 1 | 0.02% | 12 | 0.25% | 3 | 0.06% | 2,513 | 51.47% | 4,882 |
Genesee | 42,743 | 79.37% | 10,910 | 20.26% | 83 | 0.15% | 22 | 0.04% | 71 | 0.13% | 24 | 0.04% | 31,833 | 59.11% | 53,853 |
Gladwin | 1,795 | 83.76% | 341 | 15.91% | 3 | 0.14% | 4 | 0.19% | 0 | 0.00% | 0 | 0.00% | 1,454 | 67.85% | 2,143 |
Gogebic | 6,061 | 64.74% | 3,134 | 33.48% | 24 | 0.26% | 118 | 1.26% | 18 | 0.19% | 7 | 0.07% | 2,927 | 31.26% | 9,362 |
Grand Traverse | 4,429 | 74.56% | 1,489 | 25.07% | 5 | 0.08% | 1 | 0.02% | 16 | 0.27% | 0 | 0.00% | 2,940 | 49.49% | 5,940 |
Gratiot | 8,823 | 82.14% | 1,854 | 17.26% | 18 | 0.17% | 46 | 0.43% | 0 | 0.00% | 0 | 0.00% | 6,969 | 64.88% | 10,741 |
Hillsdale | 8,282 | 80.99% | 1,893 | 18.51% | 5 | 0.05% | 2 | 0.02% | 43 | 0.42% | 1 | 0.01% | 6,389 | 62.48% | 10,226 |
Houghton | 11,240 | 62.30% | 6,573 | 36.43% | 20 | 0.11% | 171 | 0.95% | 25 | 0.14% | 13 | 0.07% | 4,667 | 25.87% | 18,042 |
Huron | 7,046 | 64.79% | 3,797 | 34.91% | 4 | 0.04% | 1 | 0.01% | 26 | 0.24% | 1 | 0.01% | 3,249 | 29.88% | 10,875 |
Ingham | 29,383 | 78.90% | 7,654 | 20.55% | 85 | 0.23% | 16 | 0.04% | 93 | 0.25% | 12 | 0.03% | 21,729 | 58.34% | 37,243 |
Ionia | 9,471 | 74.91% | 3,089 | 24.43% | 22 | 0.17% | 2 | 0.02% | 57 | 0.45% | 2 | 0.02% | 6,382 | 50.48% | 12,643 |
Iosco | 1,873 | 76.79% | 552 | 22.63% | 4 | 0.16% | 3 | 0.12% | 7 | 0.29% | 0 | 0.00% | 1,321 | 54.16% | 2,439 |
Iron | 4,103 | 63.96% | 2,262 | 35.26% | 4 | 0.06% | 32 | 0.50% | 8 | 0.12% | 6 | 0.09% | 1,841 | 28.70% | 6,415 |
Isabella | 4,926 | 73.13% | 1,762 | 26.16% | 13 | 0.19% | 1 | 0.01% | 34 | 0.50% | 0 | 0.00% | 3,164 | 46.97% | 6,736 |
Jackson | 25,080 | 76.71% | 7,462 | 22.82% | 38 | 0.12% | 10 | 0.03% | 95 | 0.29% | 8 | 0.02% | 17,618 | 53.89% | 32,693 |
Kalamazoo | 23,626 | 79.20% | 5,946 | 19.93% | 158 | 0.53% | 6 | 0.02% | 81 | 0.27% | 13 | 0.04% | 17,680 | 59.27% | 29,830 |
Kalkaska | 988 | 84.59% | 160 | 13.70% | 13 | 1.11% | 5 | 0.43% | 2 | 0.17% | 0 | 0.00% | 828 | 70.89% | 1,168 |
Kent | 56,573 | 75.12% | 18,229 | 24.21% | 154 | 0.20% | 119 | 0.16% | 211 | 0.28% | 24 | 0.03% | 38,344 | 50.91% | 75,310 |
Keweenaw | 1,305 | 76.58% | 360 | 21.13% | 28 | 1.64% | 11 | 0.65% | 0 | 0.00% | 0 | 0.00% | 945 | 55.46% | 1,704 |
Lake | 1,147 | 73.06% | 409 | 26.05% | 9 | 0.57% | 1 | 0.06% | 4 | 0.25% | 0 | 0.00% | 738 | 47.01% | 1,570 |
Lapeer | 6,514 | 82.80% | 1,312 | 16.68% | 9 | 0.11% | 2 | 0.03% | 29 | 0.37% | 1 | 0.01% | 5,202 | 66.12% | 7,867 |
Leelanau | 1,521 | 62.41% | 903 | 37.05% | 3 | 0.12% | 10 | 0.41% | 0 | 0.00% | 0 | 0.00% | 618 | 25.36% | 2,437 |
Lenawee | 14,794 | 76.94% | 4,321 | 22.47% | 16 | 0.08% | 2 | 0.01% | 88 | 0.46% | 6 | 0.03% | 10,473 | 54.47% | 19,227 |
Livingston | 5,642 | 72.88% | 2,075 | 26.81% | 4 | 0.05% | 20 | 0.26% | 0 | 0.00% | 0 | 0.00% | 3,567 | 46.08% | 7,741 |
Luce | 1,466 | 80.24% | 350 | 19.16% | 1 | 0.05% | 6 | 0.33% | 4 | 0.22% | 0 | 0.00% | 1,116 | 61.08% | 1,827 |
Mackinac | 1,879 | 57.94% | 1,355 | 41.78% | 2 | 0.06% | 1 | 0.03% | 5 | 0.15% | 1 | 0.03% | 524 | 16.16% | 3,243 |
Macomb | 12,845 | 63.28% | 7,363 | 36.27% | 28 | 0.14% | 18 | 0.09% | 39 | 0.19% | 6 | 0.03% | 5,482 | 27.01% | 20,299 |
Manistee | 4,129 | 60.73% | 2,624 | 38.59% | 8 | 0.12% | 23 | 0.34% | 13 | 0.19% | 2 | 0.03% | 1,505 | 22.14% | 6,799 |
Marquette | 10,879 | 68.81% | 4,716 | 29.83% | 36 | 0.23% | 143 | 0.90% | 27 | 0.17% | 10 | 0.06% | 6,163 | 38.98% | 15,811 |
Mason | 4,318 | 72.74% | 1,567 | 26.40% | 23 | 0.39% | 7 | 0.12% | 10 | 0.17% | 11 | 0.19% | 2,751 | 46.34% | 5,936 |
Mecosta | 4,422 | 80.94% | 1,004 | 18.38% | 15 | 0.27% | 3 | 0.05% | 17 | 0.31% | 2 | 0.04% | 3,418 | 62.57% | 5,463 |
Menominee | 4,255 | 50.02% | 4,198 | 49.35% | 32 | 0.38% | 8 | 0.09% | 11 | 0.13% | 3 | 0.04% | 57 | 0.67% | 8,507 |
Midland | 4,555 | 82.25% | 964 | 17.41% | 4 | 0.07% | 12 | 0.22% | 3 | 0.05% | 0 | 0.00% | 3,591 | 64.84% | 5,538 |
Missaukee | 1,756 | 87.19% | 247 | 12.26% | 3 | 0.15% | 8 | 0.40% | 0 | 0.00% | 0 | 0.00% | 1,509 | 74.93% | 2,014 |
Monroe | 10,202 | 58.27% | 7,242 | 41.37% | 15 | 0.09% | 9 | 0.05% | 37 | 0.21% | 2 | 0.01% | 2,960 | 16.91% | 17,507 |
Montcalm | 7,691 | 82.54% | 1,572 | 16.87% | 14 | 0.15% | 40 | 0.43% | 1 | 0.01% | 0 | 0.00% | 6,119 | 65.67% | 9,318 |
Montmorency | 787 | 73.97% | 270 | 25.38% | 5 | 0.47% | 2 | 0.19% | 0 | 0.00% | 0 | 0.00% | 517 | 48.59% | 1,064 |
Muskegon | 16,997 | 76.28% | 5,158 | 23.15% | 55 | 0.25% | 29 | 0.13% | 37 | 0.17% | 5 | 0.02% | 11,839 | 53.13% | 22,281 |
Newaygo | 4,552 | 83.29% | 888 | 16.25% | 2 | 0.04% | 2 | 0.04% | 19 | 0.35% | 2 | 0.04% | 3,664 | 67.04% | 5,465 |
Oakland | 45,343 | 81.53% | 10,011 | 18.00% | 140 | 0.25% | 58 | 0.10% | 43 | 0.08% | 23 | 0.04% | 35,332 | 63.53% | 55,618 |
Oceana | 3,555 | 79.55% | 871 | 19.49% | 18 | 0.40% | 1 | 0.02% | 21 | 0.47% | 3 | 0.07% | 2,684 | 60.06% | 4,469 |
Ogemaw | 1,630 | 73.39% | 579 | 26.07% | 4 | 0.18% | 2 | 0.09% | 6 | 0.27% | 0 | 0.00% | 1,051 | 47.32% | 2,221 |
Ontonagon | 2,394 | 59.66% | 1,353 | 33.72% | 10 | 0.25% | 240 | 5.98% | 6 | 0.15% | 10 | 0.25% | 1,041 | 25.94% | 4,013 |
Osceola | 3,923 | 86.66% | 582 | 12.86% | 3 | 0.07% | 17 | 0.38% | 2 | 0.04% | 0 | 0.00% | 3,341 | 73.80% | 4,527 |
Oscoda | 476 | 86.39% | 73 | 13.25% | 2 | 0.36% | 0 | 0.00% | 0 | 0.00% | 0 | 0.00% | 403 | 73.14% | 551 |
Otsego | 1,049 | 68.52% | 476 | 31.09% | 3 | 0.20% | 3 | 0.20% | 0 | 0.00% | 0 | 0.00% | 573 | 37.43% | 1,531 |
Ottawa | 15,417 | 85.48% | 2,524 | 14.00% | 28 | 0.16% | 6 | 0.03% | 56 | 0.31% | 4 | 0.02% | 12,893 | 71.49% | 18,035 |
Presque Isle | 1,992 | 65.50% | 1,029 | 33.84% | 6 | 0.20% | 3 | 0.10% | 8 | 0.26% | 3 | 0.10% | 963 | 31.67% | 3,041 |
Roscommon | 780 | 76.25% | 236 | 23.07% | 4 | 0.39% | 3 | 0.29% | 0 | 0.00% | 0 | 0.00% | 544 | 53.18% | 1,023 |
Saginaw | 22,467 | 65.61% | 11,555 | 33.75% | 61 | 0.18% | 21 | 0.06% | 120 | 0.35% | 18 | 0.05% | 10,912 | 31.87% | 34,242 |
Sanilac | 7,888 | 81.59% | 1,736 | 17.96% | 10 | 0.10% | 14 | 0.14% | 16 | 0.17% | 4 | 0.04% | 6,152 | 63.63% | 9,668 |
Schoolcraft | 1,826 | 66.81% | 877 | 32.09% | 20 | 0.73% | 1 | 0.04% | 8 | 0.29% | 1 | 0.04% | 949 | 34.72% | 2,733 |
Shiawassee | 9,851 | 79.40% | 2,496 | 20.12% | 13 | 0.10% | 3 | 0.02% | 41 | 0.33% | 3 | 0.02% | 7,355 | 59.28% | 12,407 |
St. Clair | 18,177 | 71.57% | 7,151 | 28.15% | 15 | 0.06% | 5 | 0.02% | 41 | 0.16% | 10 | 0.04% | 11,026 | 43.41% | 25,399 |
St. Joseph | 8,781 | 76.05% | 2,698 | 23.37% | 26 | 0.23% | 3 | 0.03% | 34 | 0.29% | 4 | 0.03% | 6,083 | 52.68% | 11,546 |
Tuscola | 8,188 | 84.39% | 1,464 | 15.09% | 10 | 0.10% | 41 | 0.42% | 0 | 0.00% | 0 | 0.00% | 6,724 | 69.30% | 9,703 |
Van Buren | 9,325 | 77.39% | 2,643 | 21.93% | 34 | 0.28% | 3 | 0.02% | 40 | 0.33% | 5 | 0.04% | 6,682 | 55.45% | 12,050 |
Washtenaw | 19,676 | 78.41% | 5,308 | 21.15% | 51 | 0.20% | 9 | 0.04% | 47 | 0.19% | 2 | 0.01% | 14,368 | 57.26% | 25,093 |
Wayne | 265,852 | 62.30% | 157,047 | 36.80% | 1,629 | 0.38% | 1,369 | 0.32% | 369 | 0.09% | 452 | 0.11% | 108,805 | 25.50% | 426,718 |
Wexford | 4,825 | 84.53% | 853 | 14.94% | 12 | 0.21% | 18 | 0.32% | 0 | 0.00% | 0 | 0.00% | 3,972 | 69.59% | 5,708 |
Totals | 965,396 | 70.36% | 396,762 | 28.92% | 3,516 | 0.26% | 2,881 | 0.21% | 2,728 | 0.20% | 799 | 0.06% | 568,634 | 41.44% | 1,372,082 |
Analysis[edit]
Neither Smith norRepublicannomineesHerbert HooverofCaliforniaand running mateCharles Curtiscampaigned in Michigan. A small poll at the end of September showed Hoover leading in Michigan by 286 votes to 160,[18]whilst a larger poll in October showed Hoover leading by three to one.[19]As it turned out, the October poll was accurate: Hoover received slightly over seventy percent of the popular vote compared to Smith and running mateJoseph T. Robinson's 28.92 percent.[20][21]
With 70.36 percent of the popular vote, Michigan would prove to be Hoover's second strongest victory in the nation afterKansas.[22]Hoover nonetheless fell five percent short of Calvin Coolidge’s record performance from 1924 due to losses of up to twenty percent in the pro-La Follette western Upper Peninsula, and in heavily CatholicWayneandHuron Counties.Nevertheless, scholars have demonstrated that there was no realignment of the one-party system in Michigan until the following 1932 election.[23]The Democratic Party did however win a seat inthe state Senatefor the first time since 1916.[10]
As of the2020 presidential election[update],this remains the last time a Republican presidential candidate carriedWayne County,home of Michigan's most populous city,Detroit,[24][25]and also the last time any presidential candidate won every single county in the state (which only previously occurred in 1904, 1908, and 1924).
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^The ruling inNewberry v. United Stateswas a plurality decision only, and would be overturned in 1941 byUnited States v. Classic.
References[edit]
- ^"1928 Election for the Thirty-Sixth Term (1929-1933)".RetrievedApril 3,2018.
- ^abBurnham, Walter Dean. "TheSystem of 1896:An Analysis ".The Evolution of American Electoral Systems.pp. 178–179.ISBN0313213798.
- ^"Swamped! The Democrats Drowned Out by a Tremendous Republican Tidal Wave".The L'Anse Sentinel.L'Anse.November 10, 1894. p. 1.
- ^English, Gustavus P.;Proceedings of the Ninth Republican National Convention(1888), p. 234
- ^Sundquist, James.Politics and Policy: The Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson Years.p. 526.ISBN0815719094.
- ^Rogowski, Ronald (2020).Commerce and Coalitions: How Trade Affects Domestic Political Alignments.Princeton University Press.ISBN0691219435.
- ^"Davis Forces See Upset in Michigan: Democrats Claim Nominee Will Lead La Follette Despite Result Indicated in Poll".The San Francisco Examiner.San Francisco,California.October 18, 1924. p. 2.
- ^Hansen, John Mark; Shigeo, Hirano; Snyder Jr., James M. "Parties within Parties: Parties, Factions, and Coordinated Politics, 1900-1980". In Gerber, Alan S.; Schickler, Eric (eds.).Governing in a Polarized Age: Elections, Parties, and Political Representation in America.pp. 165–168.ISBN978-1-107-09509-0.
- ^Morello, John A.Albert D. Lasker, Advertising, and the Election of Warren G. Harding.p. 64.ISBN0275970302.
- ^abKang, Michael S. (May 29, 2019). "Hyperpartisan Gerrymandering".Boston College Law Review.69:1395.
- ^Dunbar, Willis Frederick; May, George S. (1970).Michigan, a History of the Wolverine State.pp. 549–551.ISBN0802870430.
- ^Phillips, Kevin P. (1970).The Emerging Republican Majority.p. 405.ISBN978-0-691-16324-6.
- ^SeeLichtman, Allan J.Prejudice and the Old Politics: the Presidential Election of 1928.pp. 98–99.ISBN0807813583.
- ^Stark, Rodneyand Christiano, Kevin J.; 'Support for the American Left, 1920-1924: The Opiate Thesis Reconsidered';Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion,Vol. 31, No. 1 (March, 1992), pp. 62-75
- ^Warren, Kenneth F.;Encyclopedia of U.S. campaigns, elections, and electoral behavior: A-M, Volume 1,p. 620ISBN1412954894
- ^Glad, Paul W. (2013).The History of Wisconsin – Volume V: War, a New Era, and Depression, 1914-1940.p. 321.ISBN087020632X.
- ^"MI US President, November 06, 1928".Our Campaigns.
- ^"Straw Vote Gives Hoover Big Lead in National Race: Assured of Election as President According to Literary Digest Computation".The La Crosse Tribune.La Crosse,Wisconsin.September 20, 1928. p. 7.
- ^"Smith Moving Up In Literary-Digest Poll: Straw Vote of 2,000,000 Includes 40 States".The Commercial Appeal.Memphis,Tennessee.October 12, 1928. p. 9.
- ^"1928 Presidential General Election Results — Michigan".RetrievedApril 3,2018.
- ^"The American Presidency Project — Election of 1928".RetrievedApril 3,2018.
- ^"1928 Presidential Election Statistics".Dave Leip’s Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections.RetrievedMarch 5,2018.
- ^Burnham;The System of 1896,p. 183
- ^Menendez, Albert J.The Geography of Presidential Elections in the United States, 1868-2004.pp. 225–227.ISBN0786422173.
- ^Sullivan, Robert David;‘How the Red and Blue Map Evolved Over the Past Century’;America MagazineinThe National Catholic Review;June 29, 2016