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9th century

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The9th centurywas a period from801(represented by theRoman numeralsDCCCI) through900(CM) in accordance with theJulian calendar.

TheCarolingian Renaissanceand theViking raidsoccurred within this period. In the Middle East, theHouse of Wisdomwas founded inAbbasidBaghdad,attracting many scholars to the city. The field ofalgebrawas founded by the Muslim polymathal-Khwarizmi.The most famous Islamic scholarAhmad ibn Hanbalwas tortured andimprisonedby Abbasid officialAhmad ibn Abi Du'adduring the reign of Abbasid caliphal-Mu'tasimand caliphal-Wathiq.In Southeast Asia, the height of theMataram Kingdomhappened in this century, while Burma would see the establishment of the major kingdom ofPagan.Tang Chinastarted the century with the effective rule underEmperor Xianzongand ended the century with theHuang Chao rebellions.In America, theMayaexperienced widespreadpolitical collapsein the central Maya region, resulting ininternecine warfare,the abandonment of cities, and a northward shift of population.

West Africa[edit]

Bronzes made around the 9th century, some of the bronzes found atIgbo-Ukwu.[1]

Southeastern Nigeria[edit]

Further information:Archaeology of Igbo-Ukwu

Around the 9th century, theIgbo peopleof what is now southernNigeriadeveloped bronze casts ofhumans,animals,andlegendary creatures.These bronzes, which were used as vessels, amulets, pendants, and sacrificial tools, are among the earliest made bronzes ever found in Nigeria. Most items were part of a burial of a nobleman culture in the northern part of theIgboland.

Ghana Empire[edit]

Further information:Ghana Empire

TheGhana (Wagadu) Empire(beforec. 830untilc. 1235) was located in what is now southeasternMauritaniaand westernMali.It is considered the first of theSahelian Kingdoms,which would exist in some form until the early 20th century.

Western Europe[edit]

Britain and Ireland[edit]

Britainexperienced a great influx ofVikingpeoples in the 9th century as theViking Agecontinued from the previous century. The kingdoms of theHeptarchywere gradually conquered by the Danes, who set up Anglo-Saxon puppet rulers in each kingdom. This invasion was achieved by a huge military force known as theGreat Heathen Army,which was supposedly led byIvar the Boneless,Halfdan Ragnarsson,andGuthrum.This Danish army first arrived in Britain in865inEast Anglia.After conquering that kingdom, the army proceeded to capture the city ofYork(Jorvik) and establish the kingdom ofJorvik.The Danes went on to subjugate the kingdom ofNorthumbriaand to take all but the western portion ofMercia.The remaining kingdom ofWessexwas the only kingdom of theHeptarchyleft.Alfred the Greatmanaged to maintain his kingdom ofWessexand push back the Viking incursions, relieving the neighbouring kingdoms from the threat of the Danes following his famous victory over them at theBattle of Ethandunin878.Alfred re-establishedAnglo-Saxonrule over the western half ofMercia,and theDanelawwas established which separatedMerciainto halves, the eastern half remaining under the control of the Danes.

Irelandwas also affected by the Viking expansion across theNorth Sea.Extensive raids were carried out all along the coast and eventually, permanent settlements were established, such as that ofDublinin841.Particular targets for these raids were the monasteries on the western coast of Ireland, as they provided a rich source for loot. On such raids theVikingsset up impermanent camps, which were calledlongphortsby the Irish—this period of Viking raids on the coasts of Ireland has been named the longphort phase after these types of settlements. Ireland in the 9th century was organised into an amalgam of small kingdoms, calledtuatha.These kingdoms were sometimes grouped together and ruled by a single, provincial ruler. If such a ruler could establish and maintain authority over a portion of these tuatha, he was sometimes granted the title ofHigh King.

Scotlandalso experienced significant Viking incursions during the 9th century. The Vikings established themselves in coastal regions, usually in northern Scotland, and in the northern islands such asOrkneyandShetland.The Viking invasion and settlement in Scotland provided a contributing factor in the collapse of the kingdoms of thePicts,who inhabited most of Scotland at the time. Not only were the Pictish realms either destroyed or severely weakened, the Viking invasion and settlements may have been the reason for the movement ofKenneth MacAlpin,the king ofDál Riataat that time. The kingdom ofDál Riatawas located on the western coast of Scotland, and Viking incursions destroyed it after the death of its previous king,Áed mac Boantain 839, according to theAnnals of Ulster.This may have caused the new king, MacAlpin, to move to the east, and conquer the remnants of the Pictish realms. MacAlpin became king of the Picts in 843 and later kings would be titled as theKing of AlbaorKing of Scots.

Art[edit]

Art in the 9th century was primarily dedicated to the Gospel and employed as basic tools of liturgy of the Roman Orthodox Church. Thousands of golden art objects were made: Sacred cups, vessels, reliquaries, crucifixes, rosaries, altarpieces, and statues of the Virgin and Child or Saints all kept the flame of western art from dying out. Architecture began to revive to some extent in the West by the 9th century, taking the form of Church facilities of all kinds, and the first castle fortifications since Roman times began to take form in simple "moat and bailey" castles, or simple "strong point" tower structures, with little refinement.

Events[edit]

Eastern Hemisphere at the beginning of the 9th century.
Eastern Hemisphere at the end of the 9th century.
Borobudurwas likely founded around 800.[5]This corresponds to the period between 760 and 830, the peak of theSailendra dynastyin central Java,[6]when it was under the influence of theSrivijayan Empire.The construction has been estimated to have taken 75 years and been completed during the reign ofSamaratunggain 825.[3][4]

Unknown date[edit]

Inventions, discoveries, introductions[edit]

See also:Timeline of historic inventions § 9th century

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^Apley, Alice."Igbo-Ukwu (ca. 9th century)".Metropolitan Museum of Art.Archivedfrom the original on 4 December 2008.Retrieved2008-11-23.
  2. ^Nicholl, Robert (1983)."Brunei Rediscovered: A Survey of Early Times".Journal of Southeast Asian Studies.14(1): 32–45.doi:10.1017/S0022463400008973.ISSN0022-4634.JSTOR20174317.S2CID161541098.
  3. ^abDumarçay (1991).
  4. ^abPaul Michel Munoz (2007).Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula.Singapore: Didier Millet. p. 143.ISBN978-981-4155-67-0.
  5. ^Soekmono (1976), page 9.
  6. ^Miksic (1990)
  7. ^"Succession of the Carolingian Empire, 843 CE".Cmunce.org.Columbia Model United Nations Conference and Exposition. Archived fromthe originalon 25 December 2014.Retrieved24 December2014.The year is 843 C.E., and the Carolingian Empire has reached the peak of its expansion, covering more territory in Western Europe than any other dynasty since the Roman Empire.
  8. ^Miksic(1997)
  9. ^Soekmono, R, Drs., Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia 2, 2nd ed. Penerbit Kanisius, Yogyakarta, 1973, 5th reprint edition in 1988 p.46
  10. ^Jones, Colin (2006-04-06).Paris: Biography of a City.Penguin Adult. p. 32.ISBN978-0-14-028292-4.
  11. ^Julian equivalent of the indicated Hindu calendar date: the 4th day, aMonday,of thedarkening halfof the monthVaisakhainShaka year822

Bibliography[edit]

  • Comans, Michael (2000),The Method of Early Advaita Vedānta: A Study of Gauḍapāda, Śaṅkara, Sureśvara, and Padmapāda,Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
  • Sharma, Chandradhar (1962).Indian Philosophy: A Critical Survey.New York: Barnes & Noble.
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