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Abraham
אַבְרָהָם
Abraham Casting out Hagar and Ishmael(1657)
byGiovanni Francesco Barbieri
Born
Ur of the Chaldees,Mesopotamia
Died
Hebron,Canaan
Known forNamesake of theAbrahamic religions:traditional founder of theJewish nation,[1][2]spiritual ancestor ofChristians,[3]majorIslamic prophet,[4]Manifestation of Godand originator ofmonotheisticfaith inBaháʼí Faith,[5]third spokesman (natiq) prophet ofDruzes[6]
Spouse(s)Sarah(his half-sister)
Hagar(concubine fromEgypt)
Keturah(also concubine)
Children
Oldest to youngest:
Parents
Relatives
Closest to furthest:

Abraham[a](originallyAbram[b]) is the commonHebrewpatriarchof theAbrahamic religions,includingJudaism,Christianity,andIslam.[7]In Judaism, he is the founding father of thespecial relationshipbetween theJewsandGod;in Christianity, he is the spiritual progenitor of all believers, whether Jewish ornon-Jewish;[c][8]andin Islam,he is a link in thechain of Islamic prophetsthat begins withAdamand culminates inMuhammad.[4]As the namesake of the Abrahamic religions, Abraham is also revered in other Abrahamic religions, such asDruze FaithandBaháʼí Faith.[6][5]

The story of the life of Abraham as told in the narrative of theBook of Genesisin theHebrew Biblerevolves around the themes of posterity and land. He is said to have been called by God to leave the house of his fatherTerahand settle in the land ofCanaan,which God now promises to Abraham and his progeny. This promise is subsequently inherited byIsaac,Abraham's son, by his wifeSarah,while Isaac's half-brotherIshmaelis also promised that he will be the founder of a great nation. Abraham purchases a tomb (theCave of the Patriarchs) atHebronto be Sarah's grave, thus establishing his right to the land; and, in the second generation, his heir Isaac is married to a woman from his own kin to earn his parents' approval. Abraham later marriesKeturahand has six more sons; but, on his death, when he is buried beside Sarah, it is Isaac who receives "all Abraham's goods" while the other sons receive only "gifts".[9]

Most scholars view thepatriarchal age,along withthe Exodusand the period of thebiblical judges,as a late literary construct that does not relate to any particular historical era,[10]and after a century of exhaustive archaeological investigation, no evidence has been found for a historical Abraham.[11][12]It is largely concluded that theTorah,the series of books that includes Genesis, was composed during theearly Persian period,c. 500 BC,as a result of tensions between Jewish landowners who had stayed inJudahduring theBabylonian captivityand traced their right to the land through their "father Abraham", and the returning exiles who based their counterclaim onMosesand the Exodus tradition of theIsraelites.[13]

The Abraham cycle in the Bible

Structure and narrative programs

The Abraham cycle is not structured by a unified plot centered on a conflict and its resolution or a problem and its solution.[14]The episodes are often only loosely linked, and the sequence is not always logical, but it is unified by the presence of Abraham himself, as either actor or witness, and by the themes of posterity and land.[15]These themes form "narrative programs" set out inGenesis 11:27–31concerning the sterility of Sarah and12:1–3in which Abraham is ordered to leave the land of his birth for the land YHWH will show him.[15]

Origins and calling

Abraham's Journey to Canaan according to the Book of Genesis.

Terah,the ninth in descent fromNoah,was the father of Abram,Nahor,Haran(Hebrew:הָרָןHārān) andSarah.[16]Haran was the father ofLot,who was Abram's nephew; thefamilylived inUr of the Chaldees.Haran died there. Abram marriedSarah (Sarai).Terah, Abram, Sarai, and Lot departed forCanaan,but settled in a place namedHaran(Hebrew:חָרָןḤārān), where Terah died at the age of 205.[17]According to some exegetes (likeNahmanides), Abram was actually born in Haran and he later relocated to Ur, while some of his family remained in Haran.[18]

God had told Abram to leave his country and kindred and go to a land that he would show him, and promised to make of him a great nation, bless him, make his name great, bless them that bless him, and curse them who may curse him. Abram was 75 years old when he left Haran with his wife Sarai, his nephew Lot, and the substance and souls that they had acquired, and traveled toShechemin Canaan.[19] Then he pitched his tent in the east ofBethel,and built an altar which was between Bethel andAi.

Sarai

Abraham's Counsel to Sarai,watercolor byJames Tissot,c. 1900(Jewish Museum,New York)

There was a severe famine in the land of Canaan, so that Abram and Lot and their households traveled toEgypt.On the way Abram told Sarai to say that she was his sister, so that the Egyptians would not kill him. When they entered Egypt, the Pharaoh's officials praised Sarai's beauty toPharaoh,and they took her into the palace and gave Abram goods in exchange. God afflicted Pharaoh and his household with plagues, which led Pharaoh to try to find out what was wrong.[20]Upon discovering that Sarai was a married woman, Pharaoh demanded that Abram and Sarai leave.[21]

Abram and Lot separate

Main article:Abraham and Lot's conflict

When they lived for a while in theNegevafter being banished from Egypt and came back to theBethelandAiarea, Abram's and Lot's sizable herds occupied the same pastures. This became a problem for the herdsmen, who were assigned to each family's cattle. The conflicts between herdsmen had become so troublesome that Abram suggested that Lot choose a separate area, either on the left hand or on the right hand, that there be no conflict amongst brethren. Lot decided to go eastward to the plain ofJordan,where the land was well watered everywhere as far asZoara,and he dwelled in the cities of the plain towardSodom.[22]Abram went south toHebronand settled in the plain ofMamre,where he built another altar to worshipGod.[23]

Chedorlaomer

Main article:Battle of Siddim
Meeting of Abraham and Melchizedek,canvas byDieric Bouts the Elder,c. 1464–1467

During the rebellion of the Jordan River cities,Sodom and Gomorrah,againstElam,Abram's nephew, Lot, was taken prisoner along with his entire household by the invading Elamite forces. The Elamite army came to collect the spoils of war, after having just defeated the king of Sodom's armies.[24]Lot and his family, at the time, were settled on the outskirts of the Kingdom of Sodom which made them a visible target.[25]

One person who escaped capture came and told Abram what happened. Once Abram received this news, he immediately assembled 318 trained servants. Abram's force headed north in pursuit of the Elamite army, who were already worn down from theBattle of Siddim.When they caught up with them atDan,Abram devised a battle plan by splitting his group into more than one unit, and launched a night raid. Not only were they able to free the captives, Abram's unit chased and slaughtered the Elamite KingChedorlaomerat Hobah, just north ofDamascus.They freed Lot, as well as his household and possessions, and recovered all of the goods from Sodom that had been taken.[26]

Upon Abram's return, Sodom's king came out to meet with him in theValley of Shaveh,the "king's dale". Also,Melchizedekking of Salem (Jerusalem), a priest ofEl Elyon,brought out bread and wine and blessed Abram and God.[27]Abram then gave Melchizedek atenthof everything. The king of Sodom then offered to let Abram keep all the possessions if he would merely return his people. Abram declined to accept anything other than the share to which his allies were entitled.

Covenant of the pieces

See also:Covenant of the pieces

The voice of the Lord came to Abram in a vision and repeated the promise of the land and descendants as numerous as the stars. Abram and God made a covenant ceremony, and God told of the future bondage of Israel in Egypt. God described to Abram the land that his offspring would claim: the land of theKenites,Kenizzites,Kadmonites,Hittites,Perizzites,Rephaims,Amorites,Canaanites,Girgashites,andJebusites.[28]

Hagar

See also:HagarandHagar in Islam
Abraham,SarahandHagar,Bible illustration from 1897

Abram and Sarai tried to make sense of how he would become a progenitor of nations, because after 10 years of living in Canaan, no child had been born. Sarai then offered her Egyptian slave,Hagar,to Abram with the intention that she would bear him a son.[29]

After Hagar found she was pregnant, she began to despise her mistress, Sarai. Sarai responded by mistreating Hagar, and Hagar fled into the wilderness. An angel spoke with Hagar at the fountain on the way toShur.He instructed her to return to Abram's camp and that her son would be "a wild ass of a man; his hand shall be against every man, and every man's hand against him; and he shall dwell in the face of all his brethren." She was told to call her sonIshmael.Hagar then called God who spoke to her "El-roi",(" Thou God seest me: "KJV). From that day onward, the well was called Beer-lahai-roi, (" The well of him that liveth and seeth me. "KJV margin), located betweenKadeshand Bered. She then did as she was instructed by returning to her mistress in order to have her child. Abram was 86 years of age when Ishmael was born.[30]

Sarah

Thirteen years later, when Abram was 99 years of age, God declared Abram's new name: "Abraham" – "a father of many nations".[31]Abraham then received the instructions for thecovenant of the pieces,of whichcircumcisionwas to be the sign.[32]

God declared Sarai's new name: "Sarah",blessed her, and told Abraham," I will give thee a son also of her ".[33]Abraham laughed, and "said in his heart, 'Shall achildbe born unto him that is a hundred years old? and shall Sarah, that is ninety years old, bear [a child]?' "[34]Immediately after Abraham's encounter with God, he had his entire household of men, including himself (age 99) and Ishmael (age 13), circumcised.[35]

Three visitors

Abraham and the Three Angels,watercolor byJames Tissot,c. 1896–1902

Not long afterward, during the heat of the day, Abraham had been sitting at the entrance of his tent by theterebinthsofMamre.He looked up and saw three men in the presence of God. Then he ran and bowed to the ground to welcome them. Abraham then offered to wash their feet and fetch them a morsel of bread, to which they assented. Abraham rushed to Sarah's tent to orderash cakesmade from choice flour, then he ordered a servant-boy to prepare a choice calf. When all was prepared, he set curds, milk and the calf before them, waiting on them, under a tree, as they ate.[36]

One of the visitors told Abraham that upon his return next year, Sarah would have a son. While at the tent entrance, Sarah overheard what was said and she laughed to herself about the prospect of having a child at their ages. The visitor inquired of Abraham why Sarah laughed at bearing a child at her age, as nothing is too hard for God. Frightened, Sarah denied laughing.[37]

Abraham's plea

Main articles:Sodom and GomorrahandLot (biblical person)
Abraham Sees Sodom in Flames,watercolor byJames Tissot,c. 1896–1902

After eating, Abraham and the three visitors got up. They walked over to the peak that overlooked the 'cities of the plain' to discuss the fate ofSodom and Gomorrahfor their detestable sins that were so great, it moved God to action. Because Abraham's nephew was living in Sodom, God revealed plans to confirm and judge these cities. At this point, the two other visitors left for Sodom. Then Abraham turned to God and pleaded decrementally with Him (from fifty persons to less) that "if there were at least ten righteous men found in the city, would not God spare the city?" For the sake of ten righteous people, God declared that he would not destroy the city.[38]

When the two visitors arrived in Sodom to conduct their report, they planned on staying in the city square. However, Abraham's nephew, Lot, met with them and strongly insisted that these two "men" stay at his house for the night. A rally of men stood outside of Lot's home and demanded that Lot bring out his guests so that they may "know" (v.5) them. However, Lot objected and offered his virgin daughters who had not "known" (v. 8) man to the rally of men instead. They rejected that notion and sought to break down Lot's door to get to his male guests,[39]thus confirming the wickedness of the city and portending their imminent destruction.[40]

Early the next morning, Abraham went to the place where he stood before God. He "looked out toward Sodom and Gomorrah" and saw what became of the cities of the plain, where not even "ten righteous" (v. 18:32) had been found, as "the smoke of the land went up as the smoke of a furnace."[41]

Abimelech

The Caravan of Abraham,watercolor byJames Tissot,before 1903 (Jewish Museum,New York)
See also:EndogamyandWife–sister narratives in the Book of Genesis

Abraham settled betweenKadeshandShurin what the Bible anachronistically calls "the land of thePhilistines".While he was living inGerar,Abraham openly claimed that Sarah was his sister. Upon discovering this news, KingAbimelechhad her brought to him. God then came to Abimelech in a dream and declared that taking her would result in death because she was a man's wife. Abimelech had not laid hands on her, so he inquired if he would also slay a righteous nation, especially since Abraham had claimed that he and Sarah were siblings. In response, God told Abimelech that he did indeed have a blameless heart and that is why he continued to exist. However, should he not return the wife of Abraham back to him, God would surely destroy Abimelech and his entire household. Abimelech was informed that Abraham was a prophet who would pray for him.[42]

Early next morning, Abimelech informed his servants of his dream and approached Abraham inquiring as to why he had brought such great guilt upon his kingdom. Abraham stated that he thought there was no fear of God in that place, and that they might kill him for his wife. Then Abraham defended what he had said as not being a lie at all: "And yet indeedshe ismy sister; sheisthe daughter of my father, but not the daughter of my mother; and she became my wife. "[43]Abimelech returned Sarah to Abraham, and gave him gifts of sheep, oxen, and servants; and invited him to settle wherever he pleased in Abimelech's lands. Further, Abimelech gave Abraham a thousand pieces of silver to serve as Sarah's vindication before all. Abraham then prayed for Abimelech and his household, since God had stricken the women with infertility because of the taking of Sarah.[44]

After living for some time in the land of the Philistines, Abimelech andPhicol,the chief of his troops, approached Abraham because of a dispute that resulted in a violent confrontation at a well. Abraham then reproached Abimelech due to his Philistine servant's aggressive attacks and the seizing ofAbraham's Well.Abimelech claimed ignorance of the incident. Then Abraham offered a pact by providing sheep and oxen to Abimelech. Further, to attest that Abraham was the one who dug the well, he also gave Abimelech seven ewes for proof. Because of this sworn oath, they called the place of this well:Beersheba.After Abimelech and Phicol headed back toPhilistia,Abraham planted atamariskgrove in Beersheba and called upon "the name of the LORD,the everlasting God. "[45]

Isaac

As had been prophesied in Mamre the previous year,[46]Sarah became pregnant and bore a son to Abraham, on the first anniversary of the covenant of circumcision. Abraham was "an hundred years old", when his son whom he namedIsaacwas born; and he circumcised him when he was eight days old.[47]For Sarah, the thought of giving birth and nursing a child, at such an old age, also brought her much laughter, as she declared, "God hath made me to laugh, so that all who hear will laugh with me."[48]Isaac continued to grow and on the day he was weaned, Abraham held a great feast to honor the occasion. During the celebration, however, Sarah found Ishmael mocking; an observation that would begin to clarify the birthright of Isaac.[49]

Ishmael

See also:Ishmael in Islam § The sacrifice
The Expulsion of Hagar and Ishmael,byAdriaen van der Werff,c. 1699(Rhode Island School of Design Museum,Rhode Island)

Ishmael was fourteen years old when Abraham's son Isaac was born to Sarah. When she found Ishmael teasing Isaac, Sarah told Abraham to send both Ishmael and Hagar away. She declared that Ishmael would not share in Isaac's inheritance. Abraham was greatly distressed by his wife's words and sought the advice of his God. God told Abraham not to be distressed but to do as his wife commanded. God reassured Abraham that "in Isaac shall seed be called to thee."[50]He also said Ishmael would make a nation, "because he is thy seed".[51]

Early the next morning, Abraham brought Hagar and Ishmael out together. He gave her bread and water and sent them away. The two wandered in the wilderness of Beersheba until her bottle of water was completely consumed. In a moment of despair, she burst into tears. After God heard the boy's voice, anangel of the Lordconfirmed to Hagar that he would become a great nation, and will be "living on his sword". A well of water then appeared so that it saved their lives. As the boy grew, he became a skilledarcherliving in the wilderness ofParan.Eventually his mother found a wife for Ishmael from her home country, the land of Egypt.[52]

Binding of Isaac

Main article:Binding of Isaac
The Angel Hinders the Offering of Isaac,byRembrandt,1635 (Hermitage Museum,Saint Petersburg)

At some point in Isaac's youth, Abraham was commanded by God to offer his son up as a sacrifice in the land ofMoriah.The patriarch traveled three days until he came to the mount that God told him of. He then commanded the servants to remain while he and Isaac proceeded alone into the mount. Isaac carried the wood upon which he would be sacrificed. Along the way, Isaac asked his father where the animal for the burnt offering was, to which Abraham replied "God will provide himself a lamb for a burnt offering". Just as Abraham was about to sacrifice his son, he was interrupted by the angel of the Lord, and he saw behind him a "ram caught in a thicket by his horns", which he sacrificed instead of his son. The place was later named asJehovah-jireh.For his obedience he received another promise of numerous descendants and abundant prosperity. After this event, Abraham went to Beersheba.[53]

Later years

See also:Abraham's family tree

Sarah died, and Abraham buried her in theCave of the Patriarchs(the "cave of Machpelah" ), near Hebron which he had purchased along with the adjoining field from Ephron theHittite.[54]After the death of Sarah, Abraham took another wife, aconcubinenamedKeturah,by whom he had six sons:Zimran,Jokshan,Medan,Midian,Ishbak,andShuah.[55]According to the Bible, reflecting the change of his name to "Abraham" meaning "a father of many nations", Abraham is considered to be the progenitor of many nations mentioned in the Bible, among others theIsraelites,Ishmaelites,[56]Edomites,[57]Amalekites,[58]Kenizzites,[59]MidianitesandAssyrians,[60]and through his nephew Lot he was also related to theMoabitesandAmmonites.[61]Abraham lived to see Isaac marryRebekah,and to see the birth of his twin grandsonsJacob and Esau.He died at age 175, and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his sons Isaac and Ishmael.[62]

Historicity and origins of the narrative

Main article:Historicity of the Bible

Historicity

Abraham's WellatBeersheba,Israel

In the early and middle 20th century, leading archaeologists such asWilliam F. AlbrightandG. Ernest Wrightand biblical scholars such asAlbrecht AltandJohn Brightbelieved that the patriarchs and matriarchs were either real individuals or believable composites of people who lived in the "patriarchal age",the 2nd millennium BCE.[63]But, in the 1970s, new arguments concerning Israel's past and the biblical texts challenged these views; these arguments can be found inThomas L. Thompson'sThe Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives(1974),[64]andJohn Van Seters'Abraham in History and Tradition(1975).[65]Thompson, a literary scholar, based his argument on archaeology and ancient texts. His thesis centered on the lack of compelling evidence that the patriarchs lived in the 2nd millennium BCE, and noted how certain biblical texts reflected first millennium conditions and concerns. Van Seters examined the patriarchal stories and argued that their names, social milieu, and messages strongly suggested that they wereIron Agecreations.[66]Van Seters' and Thompson's works were aparadigm shiftin biblical scholarship and archaeology, which gradually led scholars to no longer consider the patriarchal narratives as historical.[67][page needed]Some conservative scholars attempted to defend the Patriarchal narratives in the following years, but this has not found acceptance among scholars.[68][69]By the beginning of the 21st century, archaeologists had stopped trying to recover any context that would make Abraham, Isaac or Jacob credible historical figures.[70]

Origins of the narrative

Abraham's Gate, Tel Dan, Israel

Abraham's story, like those of the other patriarchs, most likely had a substantial oral prehistory[71](he is mentioned in theBook of Ezekiel[72]and theBook of Isaiah[73]). As withMoses,Abraham's name is apparently very ancient, as the tradition found in theBook of Genesisno longer understands its original meaning (probably "Father is exalted" – the meaning offered inGenesis 17:5,"Father of a multitude", is afolk etymology).[74]At some stage theoral traditionsbecame part of the written tradition of thePentateuch;a majority of scholars believe this stage belongs to the Persian period, roughly 520–320 BCE.[75]The mechanisms by which this came about remain unknown,[76]but there are currently at least two hypotheses.[77]The first, called Persian Imperial authorisation, is that the post-Exilic community devised the Torah as a legal basis on which to function within the Persian Imperial system; the second is that the Pentateuch was written to provide the criteria for determining who would belong to the post-Exilic Jewish community and to establish the power structures and relative positions of its various groups, notably the priesthood and the lay "elders".[77]

The completion of the Torah and its elevation to the centre of post-Exilic Judaism was as much or more about combining older texts as writing new ones – the final Pentateuch was based on existing traditions.[78]In theBook of Ezekiel,[79]written during the Exile (i.e., in the first half of the 6th century BCE),Ezekiel,an exile in Babylon, tells how those who remained in Judah are claiming ownership of the land based on inheritance from Abraham; but the prophet tells them they have no claim because they do not observe Torah.[80]TheBook of Isaiah[81]similarly testifies of tension between the people of Judah and the returning post-Exilic Jews (the "gôlâ"), stating that God is the father of Israel and that Israel's history begins with the Exodus and not with Abraham.[82]The conclusion to be inferred from this and similar evidence (e.g.,Ezra–Nehemiah), is that the figure of Abraham must have been preeminent among the great landowners of Judah at the time of the Exile and after, serving to support their claims to the land in opposition to those of the returning exiles.[82]

Amorite origin hypothesis

In 1915,Lewis Bayles Patonsuggested that Abraham was anAmorite,based on his early name, which was identical with the Amorite name Abi-ramu. That name was found in a tablet ofApil-Sin,the fourth king of theFirst Dynasty of Babylon,which was Amorite-dominated. But ultimately, he concluded that Abraham was an Amorite-Aramean to explain away discrepancies within the biblical text.[83]More recently, scholars likeDaniel E. Flemingand Alice Mandell have argued that the biblical portrayal of the Patriarchs' lifestyle appears to reflect the Amorite culture of the 2nd millennium BCE as attested in texts from the ancient city-state ofMari,suggesting that the Genesis stories retain historical memories of the ancestral origins of some of the Israelites.[84][85]

Palestine origin hypothesis

The earliest possible reference to Abraham may be the name of a town in theNegevlisted in a victory inscription of PharaohSheshonq I(biblicalShishak), which is referred as “the Fortress of Abraham”, suggesting the possible existence of an Abraham tradition in the 10th century BCE.[86]The orientalistMario Liveraniproposed to see in the name Abraham the mythical eponym of a Palestinian tribe from the 13th century BCE, that of the Raham, of which mention was found in the stele ofSeti Ifound inBeth-She'anand dating back to 'around 1289 BCE.[87]The tribe probably lived in the area surrounding or close toBeth-She'an,inGalilee(the stele in fact refers to fights that took place in the area). The semi-nomadic and pastoral Semitic tribes of the time used to prefix their names with the term banū ( "sons of" ), so it is hypothesized that the Raham called themselves Banu Raham. Furthermore, many interpreted blood ties between tribe members as common descent from an eponymous ancestor (i.e., one who gave the tribe its name), rather than as the result of intra-tribal ties. The name of this eponymous mythical ancestor was constructed with the patronymic (prefix) Abū ( "father" ), followed by the name of the tribe; in the case of the Raham, it would have been Abu Raham, later to become Ab-raham, Abraham. Abraham's Journey from Ur to Harran could be explained as a retrospective reflection of the story of the return of the Jews from the Babylonian exile. Indeed,Israel Finkelsteinsuggested that the oldest Abraham traditions originated in the Iron Age (monarchic period) and that they contained anautochthonoushero story, as the oldest mentions of Abraham outside the book of Genesis (Ezekiel 33andIsaiah 51): do not depend on Genesis 12–26; do not have an indication of a Mesopotamian origin of Abraham; and present only two main themes of the Abraham narrative in Genesis—land and offspring.[88]Yet, unlike Liverani, Finkelstein considered Abraham as ancestor who was worshiped in Hebron, which is too far from Beit She'an, and the oldest tradition of him might be about the altar he built in Hebron.[88]

Religious traditions

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Abraham is given a high position of respect in three major world faiths,Judaism,ChristianityandIslam.In Judaism, he is the founding father of the covenant, the special relationship between the Jewish people and God—leading to the belief that theJews are the chosen people of God.In Christianity,Paul the Apostletaught that Abraham's faith in God—preceding theMosaic law—made him the prototype of all believers, Jewish orgentile;and in Islam he is seen as a link in thechain of prophetsthat begins withAdamand culminates inMuhammad.[4]

Judaism

In Jewish tradition, Abraham is calledAvraham Avinu(אברהם אבינו), "our father Abraham," signifying that he is both the biological progenitor of the Jews and the father of Judaism, the first Jew.[1]His story is read in the weeklyTorahreading portions, predominantly in theparashot:Lech-Lecha(לֶךְ-לְךָ),Vayeira(וַיֵּרָא),Chayei Sarah(חַיֵּי שָׂרָה), andToledot(תּוֹלְדֹת).

Hanan bar Ravataught inAbba Arikha's name that Abraham's mother was named ʾĂmatlaʾy bat Karnebo.[89][d]Hiyya bar Abbataught thatAbraham worked in Teraḥ's idol shopin his youth.[92]

InLegends of the Jews,God created heaven and earth for the sake of the merits of Abraham.[93]After thebiblical flood,Abraham was the only one among the pious who solemnly swore never to forsake God,[94]studied in the house ofNoahandShemto learn about the "Ways of God,"[95]continued the line ofHigh Priestfrom Noah and Shem, and assigning the office toLeviandhis seedforever. Before leaving his father's land, Abraham was miraculously saved from the fiery furnace ofNimrodfollowing his brave action of breaking the idols of theChaldeansinto pieces.[96]During his sojourning in Canaan, Abraham was accustomed to extend hospitality to travelers and strangers and taught how to praise God also knowledge of God to those who had received his kindness.[97]

Along withIsaacandJacob,he is the one whose name would appear united with God, asGod in Judaismwas calledElohei Abraham, Elohei Yitzchaq ve Elohei Ya'aqob( "God of Abraham, God of Isaac, and God of Jacob" ) and never the God of anyone else.[98]He was also mentioned as the father of thirty nations.[99]

Abraham is generally credited as the author of theSefer Yetzirah,one of the earliest extant books onJewish mysticism.[100]

According toPirkei Avot,Abraham underwent ten tests at God's command.[101]TheBinding of Isaacis specified in the Bible as a test;[102]the other nine are not specified, but later rabbinical sources give various enumerations.[citation needed]

Christianity

Abraham
Abraham and the Angels,byAert de Gelder,c. 1680–85(Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen,Rotterdam)
First Patriarch
Venerated in
Feast9 October –Roman CatholicismandLutheranism[105]

InChristianity,Abraham is revered as theprophetto whom God chose to reveal himself and with whom God initiated acovenant(cf.Covenant Theology).[8][106]Paul the Apostledeclared that all who believe in Jesus (Christians) are "included in the seed of Abraham and are inheritors of the promise made to Abraham."[8]InRomans4, Abraham is praised for his "unwavering faith" in God, which is tied into the concept of partakers of the covenant of grace being those "who demonstrate faith in the saving power of Christ".[107][106]

Throughout history, church leaders, following Paul, have emphasized Abraham as the spiritual father of all Christians.[108]Augustine of Hippodeclared that Christians are "children (or" seed ") of Abraham by faith",Ambrosestated that "by means of their faith Christians possess the promises made to Abraham", andMartin Lutherrecalled Abraham as "a paradigm of the man of faith."[e]

TheRoman Catholic Church,the largest Christian denomination, calls Abraham "our father in Faith" in theEucharistic prayerof theRoman Canon,recited during theMass.He is also commemorated in thecalendars of saintsof several denominations: on 20 August by theMaronite Church,28 August in theCoptic Churchand theAssyrian Church of the East(with the fullofficefor the latter), and on 9 October by the Roman Catholic Church and theLutheran Church–Missouri Synod.[105]In the introduction to his 15th-century translation of theGolden Legend's account of Abraham,William Caxtonnoted that this patriarch's life was read in church onQuinquagesima Sunday.[109] He is thepatron saintof those in the hospitality industry.[110]TheEastern Orthodox Churchcommemorates him as the "Righteous Forefather Abraham", with twofeast daysin itsliturgical calendar.The first time is on 9 October (for those churches which follow the traditionalJulian Calendar,9 October falls on 22 October of the modernGregorian Calendar), where he is commemorated together with his nephew "Righteous Lot". The other is on the "Sunday of the Forefathers" (two Sundays before Christmas), when he is commemorated together with otherancestors of Jesus.Abraham is also mentioned in theDivine LiturgyofBasil the Great,just before the Anaphora, and Abraham and Sarah are invoked in the prayers said by the priest over a newly married couple. A popularhymnsung in many English-speakingSunday Schoolsby children is known as "Father Abraham" and emphasizes the patriarch as the spiritual progenitor of Christians.[111]

Some Christian theologians equate the"three visitors"with the HolyTrinity,seeing in their apparition atheophanyexperienced by Abraham[112](see also the articles on theConstantinianbasilicaatMamreand the church at the so-called "Oak of Mamre").

Islam

Main article:Abraham in Islam
Folios of a prophetic and heroic genealogy including an illustration of Abraham, from a manuscript of a Turkish translation of the 13th century cosmological text

Islam regards Ibrahim (Abraham) as a link in the chain of prophets that begins with Adam and culminates inMuhammadvia Ismail (Ishmael).[4] Ibrāhīmis mentioned in 35chapters of the Quran,more often than any other biblical personage apart fromMoses.[113]He is called both ahanif(monotheist) andmuslim(one who submits),[114]and Muslims regard him as aprophetandpatriarch,the archetype of the perfectMuslim,and the revered reformer of theKaabainMecca.[115]Islamic traditions consider Ibrāhīm the first Pioneer of Islam (which is also calledmillat Ibrahim,the "religion of Abraham" ), and that his purpose and mission throughout his life was to proclaim theOneness of God.In Islam, Abraham holds an exalted position among the major prophets and he is referred to as "Ibrahim Khalilullah", meaning "Abraham the Friend ofGod".

BesidesIshaqandYaqub,Ibrahim is among the most honorable and the most excellent men in sight of God.[116][117][118]Ibrahim was also mentioned in Quran as "Father of Muslims" and the role model for the community.[119][120][121]

Druze

TheDruzeregard Abraham as the third spokesman (natiq) afterAdamandNoah,who helped transmit the foundational teachings of monotheism (tawhid) intended for the larger audience.[6]He is also among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history according to the Druze faith.[103][104]

Mandaeism

InMandaeism,Abraham (Classical Mandaic:ࡀࡁࡓࡀࡄࡉࡌ,romanized:Abrahim) is mentioned inBook 18of theRight Ginzaas the patriarch of the Jewish people.Mandaeansconsider Abraham to have been originally a Mandaean priest, however they differ with Abraham and Jews regarding circumcision which they consider to be bodily mutilation and therefore forbidden.[122][123][124][125][126]: 18, 185 

Baháʼí Faith

Baháʼísconsidered Abraham as aManifestation of God,and as the originator ofmonotheisticreligion.[5]ʻAbdu'l-Bahástates that Abraham was born inMesopotamia,[127]andBahá’u’lláhstates that the language which Abraham spoke, when "he crossed theJordan",isHebrew(‘Ibrání), so "the language of the crossing."[128]To ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, the Abraham was born to a family that was ignorant of the oneness of God.[129]Abraham opposed his own people and government, and even his own kin, he rejected all their gods, and, alone and single-handed, he withstood a powerful nation.[129]These people believed not in one Godbut in many gods,to whom they ascribed miracles, and hence they all rose up against Abraham. No one supported him except his nephewLotand "one or two other individuals of no consequence".[129]At last the intensity of his enemies' opposition obliged him, utterly wronged, to forsake his native land. Abraham then came to "these regions", that is, to theHoly Land.[129]To Bahá’u’lláh, the "Voice ofGod"commanded Abraham to offer upIshmaelas a sacrifice, so that his steadfastness in the faith of God and his detachment from all else but him may be demonstrated unto men. The purpose of God, moreover, was to sacrifice him as a ransom for the sins and iniquities of all the peoples of the earth.[130]

In the Baháʼí texts, like the Islamic texts, Abraham is often referred to as "the Friend of God".[131]‘Abdu’l-Bahá described Abraham as the founder of monotheism.[132]

ʻAbdu'l-Bahá also suggested the "holy manifestations who have been the sources or founders of the various religious systems" were united and agreed in purpose and teaching, and the Abraham,Moses,Zoroaster,the Buddha,Jesus,Muhammad,theBáband Bahá’u’lláh are one in "spirit and reality".[133]

In the arts

Painting and sculpture

16th-century plaster cast of a late-Roman-eraSacrifice of Isaac.The hand of God originally came down to restrain Abraham's knife (both are now missing).

Paintings on the life of Abraham tend to focus on only a few incidents: the sacrifice of Isaac; meeting Melchizedek; entertaining the three angels; Hagar in the desert; and a few others.[f]Additionally, Martin O'Kane, a professor of Biblical Studies, writes that the parable ofLazarusresting in the "Bosom of Abraham",as described in theGospel of Luke,became an iconic image in Christian works.[134]According to O'Kane, artists often chose to divert from the common literary portrayal of Lazarus sitting next to Abraham at a banquet in Heaven and instead focus on the "somewhat incongruous notion of Abraham, the most venerated of patriarchs, holding a naked and vulnerable child in his bosom".[134]Several artists have been inspired by the life of Abraham, includingAlbrecht Dürer(1471–1528),Caravaggio(1573–1610),Donatello,Raphael,Philip van Dyck(Dutch painter, 1680–1753), andClaude Lorrain(French painter, 1600–1682).Rembrandt(Dutch, 1606–1669) created at least seven works on Abraham,Peter Paul Rubens(1577–1640) did several,Marc Chagalldid at least five on Abraham, Gustave Doré (French illustrator, 1832–1883) did six, andJames Tissot(French painter and illustrator, 1836–1902) did over twenty works on the subject.[f]

TheSarcophagus of Junius Bassusdepicts a set of biblical stories, including Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac. These sculpted scenes are on the outside of a marbleEarly Christiansarcophagusused for the burial ofJunius Bassus.He died in 359. This sarcophagus has been described as "probably the single most famous piece of early Christian relief sculpture."[135]The sarcophagus was originally placed in or underOld St. Peter's Basilica,was rediscovered in 1597, and is now below the modern basilica in the Museo Storico del Tesoro della Basilica di San Pietro (Museum ofSt. Peter's Basilica) in theVatican.The base is approximately 4 ft × 8 ft × 4 ft (1.2 m × 2.4 m × 1.2 m). TheOld Testamentscenes depicted were chosen as precursors of Christ's sacrifice in theNew Testament,in an early form oftypology.Just to the right of the middle is Daniel in the lion's den and on the left is Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac.

George Segalcreated figural sculptures by molding plastered gauze strips over live models in his 1987 workAbraham's Farewell to Ishmael.The human condition was central to his concerns, and Segal used the Old Testament as a source for his imagery. This sculpture depicts the dilemma faced by Abraham when Sarah demanded that he expel Hagar and Ishmael. In the sculpture, the father's tenderness, Sarah's rage, and Hagar's resigned acceptance portray a range of human emotions. The sculpture was donated to the Miami Art Museum after the artist's death in 2000.[136]

Christian iconography

Abraham in paradise,Gračanica Monastery,Serbia

Abraham can sometimes be identified by the context of the image – the meeting withMelchizedek,the three visitors,orthe sacrifice of Isaac.In solo portraits a sword or knife may be used as his accessory, as inthis statuebyGiovanni Maria Morlaiterorthis paintingbyLorenzo Monaco.The Bible describes him as an “older” person, and beardless.[137]

As early as the beginning of the 3rd century, Christian art followed Christiantypologyin making the sacrifice of Isaac a foreshadowing of Christ's sacrifice on the cross, and its memorial in the sacrifice of the Mass. See for examplethis 11th-century Christian altarengraved with Abraham's and other sacrifices taken to prefigure that of Christ in the Eucharist.[138]

Some early Christian writers interpreted the three visitors as thetriune God.Thus inSanta Maria Maggiore,Rome,a 5th-century mosaicportrays only the visitors against agold groundand puts semitransparent copies of them in the "heavenly" space above the scene. In Eastern Orthodox art, the visit is the chief means by which the Trinity is pictured (example). Some images do not include Abraham and Sarah, like Andrei Rublev'sTrinity,which shows only the three visitors as beardless youths at a table.[139]

Literature

Fear and Trembling(originalDanishtitle:Frygt og Bæven) is an influential philosophical work bySøren Kierkegaard,published in 1843 under the pseudonymJohannes de silentio(John the Silent). Kierkegaard wanted to understand the anxiety that must have been present in Abraham when God asked him to sacrifice his son.[140]W. G. Hardy's novelFather Abraham(1935) tells the fictionalized life story of Abraham.[141]In her short story collectionSarah and After,Lynne Reid Bankstells the story of Abraham and Sarah, with an emphasis on Sarah's view of events.[142]

Music

In 1681,Marc-Antoine Charpentierreleased a Dramatic motet (Oratorio),Sacrificim AbrahaeH.402 – 402 a – 402 b, for soloists, chorus, doubling instruments and continuo.Sébastien de Brossardcomposed acantataAbraham ou le sacrifice d'Isaac.between 1703 and 1708.[143]

In 1994,Steve Reichreleased an opera namedThe Cave.The title refers to theCave of the Patriarchs.The narrative of the opera is based on the story of Abraham, and his immediate family, as it is recounted in religious texts, and understood by individuals from different cultures and religious traditions.[144]

Bob Dylan's "Highway 61 Revisited"[145]is the title track for his 1965 albumHighway 61 Revisited.In 2004,Rolling Stonemagazine ranked the song as number 364 in their500 Greatest Songs of All Time.[146]The song has five stanzas. In each stanza, someone describes an unusual problem that is ultimately resolved on Highway 61. In Stanza 1,Godtells Abraham to "kill me a son".God wants the killing done on Highway 61. Abram, the original name of the biblical Abraham, is also the name of Dylan's own father.[147]

See also

Notes

  1. ^/ˈeɪbrəhæm,-həm/;Hebrew:אַבְרָהָם‎,Modern:ʾAvraham,Tiberian:ʾAḇrāhām;Biblical Greek:Ἀβραάμ,Abraám;Arabic:إبراهيم‎,Ibrāhīm
  2. ^Hebrew:אַבְרָם‎,Modern:ʾAvram,Tiberian:ʾAḇrām
  3. ^Jeffrey 1992,p. 10 writes "In the NT Abraham is recognized as the father of Israel and of the Levitical priesthood (Heb. 7), as the" legal "forebear of Jesus (i.e. ancestor of Joseph according to Matt. 1), and spiritual progenitor of all Christians (Rom. 4; Gal. 3:16, 29; cf. also theVisio Pauli) "
  4. ^MSS variants:bat Barnebo, bat bar-Nebo, bar-bar-Nebo, bat Karnebi, bat Kar Nebo.Karnebo (outpost ofNabu) is attested as aSumeriantheophoric place-name inAkkadianinscriptions, including theMichaux stone.It referred to at least two separate cities in antiquity.[90]Rabbinic tradition connects Karnebo to theBiblical HebrewKar (כרlamb), translating itpurelambs.[91]
  5. ^Jeffrey 1992,p. 10 states "St. Augustine, following Paul, regards all Christians as children (or" seed ") of Abraham by faith, although" born of strangers "(e.g. In Joan. Ev. 108). St. Ambrose likewise says that by means of their faith Christians possess the promises made to Abraham. Abraham's initial departure from his homeland is understood by St. Caesarius of Arles as a type of Christian leaving the world of carnal habits to follow Christ. Later commentators as diverse as Luther and Kierkegaard recall Abraham as a paradigm of the man of faith.
  6. ^abFor a very thorough online collection of links to artwork about Abraham see:"Artwork Depicting Scenes from Abraham's Life".Retrieved25 March2011.

References

  1. ^abLevenson 2012,p. 3.
  2. ^Mendes-Flohr 2005.
  3. ^Levenson 2012,p. 6.
  4. ^abcdLevenson 2012,p. 8.
  5. ^abcSmith 2000a,p. 22, 231.
  6. ^abcSwayd 2009,p. 3.
  7. ^McCarter 2000,p. 8.
  8. ^abcWright 2010,p. 72.
  9. ^Ska 2009,pp. 26–31.
  10. ^McNutt 1999,pp. 41–42.
  11. ^Dever 2001,p. 98.
  12. ^Frevel, Christian.History of Ancient Israel.Atlanta, Georgia.SBL Press.2023. p. 38. ISBN 9781628375138. “[I]t cannot be proven or excluded that there have been historical persons named Abraham, Sarai, Ishmael, Isaac, Rebekah, Jacob, Rachel, Leah, and so on.”
  13. ^Ska 2006,pp. 227–228, 260.
  14. ^Ska 2009,p. 28.
  15. ^abSka 2009,pp. 28–29.
  16. ^Freedman, Meyers & Beck.Eerdmans dictionary of the BibleISBN978-0-8028-2400-4,2000, p. 551 andGenesis 20:12
  17. ^Larsson, Gerhard (1983)."The Chronology of the Pentateuch: A Comparison of the MT and LXX".Journal of Biblical Literature.102(3): 401–409.doi:10.2307/3261014.JSTOR3261014– via JSTOR.
  18. ^Klein, Reuven Chaim (2016)."Nahmanides' Understanding of Abraham's Mesopotamian Origins"(PDF).Jewish Bible Quarterly.44(4): 233–240.
  19. ^Genesis 12:4–6
  20. ^Genesis 12:14–17
  21. ^Genesis 12:18–20
  22. ^George W. Coats (1983).Genesis, with an Introduction to Narrative Literature.Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 113–114.ISBN978-0-8028-1954-3.
  23. ^Pagolu, Augustine (1 November 1998).The Religion of the Patriarchs.A&C Black. pp. 59–60.ISBN978-1-85075-935-5– via Google Books.
  24. ^Genesis 14:8–12
  25. ^Genesis 13:12
  26. ^Genesis 14:13–16
  27. ^Noth, Martin.A History of Pentateuchal Traditions(Englewood Cliffs 1972) p. 28
  28. ^Zeligs, Dorothy F. (1961)."Abraham and the Covenant of the Pieces: A Study in Ambivalence".American Imago.18(2): 173–186.ISSN0065-860X.JSTOR26301751.
  29. ^"Jewish Encyclopedia,Hagar".Jewishencyclopedia.
  30. ^Genesis 16:4–16
  31. ^Genesis 17:5
  32. ^Genesis 17:10–14
  33. ^Genesis 17:15–16
  34. ^Genesis 17:17
  35. ^Genesis 17:22–27
  36. ^Genesis 18:1–8
  37. ^Genesis 18:15
  38. ^Genesis 18:17–33
  39. ^Genesis 19:1–9
  40. ^Genesis 19:12–13
  41. ^Genesis 19:27–29
  42. ^Genesis 20:1–7
  43. ^Genesis 20:12
  44. ^Genesis 20:8–18
  45. ^Genesis 21:22–34
  46. ^Genesis 17:21
  47. ^Genesis 21:1–5
  48. ^Genesis 21:6–7
  49. ^Genesis 21:8–13
  50. ^Genesis 21:12
  51. ^Genesis 21:9–13
  52. ^Genesis 21:14–21
  53. ^Genesis 22:1–19
  54. ^Genesis 23:1–20
  55. ^Genesis 25:1–6
  56. ^Genesis 25:12–18
  57. ^Genesis 36:1–43
  58. ^Genesis 36:12–16
  59. ^Genesis 36:9–16
  60. ^Genesis 25:1–5
  61. ^Genesis 19:35–38
  62. ^Genesis 25:7–10,1 Chronicles 1:32
  63. ^Bright, John (1959).A History of Israel.Westminster John Knox Press. p. 93.ISBN978-0-664-22068-6.
  64. ^Thompson, Thomas L. (1974).The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the Historical Abraham.Gruyter, Walter de, & Company.ISBN9783110040968.
  65. ^Seters, John Van (1975).Abraham in History and Tradition.Echo Point Books and Media.ISBN978-1-62654-910-4.
  66. ^Moore & Kelle 2011,pp. 18–19.
  67. ^Moorey, Peter Roger Stuart (1991).A Century of Biblical Archaeology.Westminster John Knox Press.ISBN978-0-664-25392-9.
  68. ^Dever 2001,p. 98: "There are a few sporadic attempts by conservative scholars to" save "the patriarchal narratives as history, such asKenneth Kitchen[...] By and large, however, the minimalist view of Thompson's pioneering work,The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives,prevails. "
  69. ^Grabbe, Lester L. (2007). "Some Recent Issues in the Study of the History of Israel". In Williamson, H. G. M (ed.).Understanding the History of Ancient Israel.British Academy.doi:10.5871/bacad/9780197264010.001.0001.ISBN978-0-19-173494-6.The fact is that we are all minimalists – at least, when it comes to the patriarchal period and the settlement. When I began my PhD studies more than three decades ago in the USA, the 'substantial historicity' of the patriarchs was widely accepted as was the unified conquest of the land. These days it is quite difficult to find anyone who takes this view.
  70. ^Dever 2001,p. 98 and fn.2.
  71. ^Pitard 2001,p. 27.
  72. ^Ezekiel 33:24
  73. ^Isaiah 63:16
  74. ^Thompson 2016,pp. 23–24.
  75. ^Ska 2009,p. 260.
  76. ^Enns 2012,p. 26.
  77. ^abSka 2006,pp. 217, 227–28.
  78. ^Carr & Conway 2010,p. 193.
  79. ^33:24
  80. ^Ska 2009,p. 43.
  81. ^63:16
  82. ^abSka 2009,p. 44.
  83. ^Paton, Lewis Bayles (1915)."Archaeology and the Book of Genesis".The Biblical World.45(6): 353–361.doi:10.1086/475296.JSTOR3142695– via JSTOR.
  84. ^Fleming, Daniel E. (2004)."Genesis in History and Tradition: The Syrian Background of Israel's Ancestors, Reprise".In Hoffmeier, James K.; Millard, Alan R. (eds.).The Future of Biblical Archaeology: Reassessing Methodologies and Assumptions.Eerdmans. pp. 193–232.ISBN978-0-8028-2173-7.
  85. ^Mandell, Alice (2022)."Genesis and its Ancient Literary Analogues".In Arnold, Bill T. (ed.).The Cambridge Companion to Genesis.Cambridge University Press. pp. 143–46.ISBN978-1-108-42375-5.
  86. ^McCarter 2000,p. 9.
  87. ^The stele reads: «The Apiru of Mount Yarumta, together with the Tayaru, attack the Raham tribe». J. B. Pritchard (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, p. 255. Princeton, 1955.
  88. ^abFinkelstein, Israel; Römer, Thomas (2014)."Comments on the Historical Background of the Abraham Narrative: Between" Realia "and" Exegetica "".Hebrew Bible and Ancient Israel.3(1): 3–23.doi:10.1628/219222714x13994465496820.
  89. ^"Bava Batra 91a".sefaria.org.Retrieved8 March2021.
  90. ^Yamada, Shigeo."Karus on the Frontiers of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Orient 40 (2005)"
  91. ^"Rashbam on Bava Batra 91a:14:2".http:// sefaria.org.Retrieved 2021-03-08.
  92. ^"Bereishit Rabbah 38".sefaria.org.Retrieved11 March2021.
  93. ^Ginzberg 1909,Vol I: The Wicked Generations.
  94. ^Ginzberg 1909,Vol. I: In the Fiery Furnace.
  95. ^Jasher 1840,p. 22, Ch9, vv 5–6.
  96. ^Ginzberg 1909.
  97. ^Ginzberg 1909,Vol. I: The Covenant with Abimelech.
  98. ^Ginzberg 1909,Vol. I: Joy and Sorrow in the House of Jacob.
  99. ^Ginzberg 1909,Vol. I: The Birth of Esau and Jacob.
  100. ^Sefer Yetzirah Hashalem(with Rabbi Saadia Gaon's Commentary),Yosef Qafih(editor), Jerusalem 1972, p. 46 (Hebrew / Judeo-Arabic)
  101. ^Pirkei Avot 5:3 – עֲשָׂרָה נִסְיוֹנוֹת נִתְנַסָּה אַבְרָהָם אָבִינוּ עָלָיו הַשָּׁלוֹם וְעָמַד בְּכֻלָּם, לְהוֹדִיעַ כַּמָּה חִבָּתוֹ שֶׁל אַבְרָהָם אָבִינוּ עָלָיו הַשָּׁלוֹם
  102. ^Genesis 22:1
  103. ^abHitti, Philip K. (1928).The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings.Library of Alexandria. p. 37.ISBN978-1465546623.
  104. ^abDana, Nissim (2008).The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status.Michigan University press. p. 17.ISBN9781903900369.
  105. ^ab"Commemorations".Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod.Retrieved31 October2020.
  106. ^abWaters, Reid & Muether 2020:"Paul also shows us how the Abrahamic covenant relates to the covenantal administrations that precede and follow it.... There is, then, covenantal continuity between the inaugural administration of God's one gracious covenant in the garden of Eden (Gen. 3:15) and the subsequent administration of that covenant to Abraham and his family (Gen. 12; 15; 17). The Abrahamic administration serves to reveal more of the person and work of Christ and, in this way, continue to administer Christ to human beings through faith."
  107. ^Firestone, Reuven."Abraham."Archived9 September 2017 at theWayback MachineEncyclopedia of World History.
  108. ^Jeffrey 1992,p. 10.
  109. ^Caxton, William."Abraham".The Golden Legend.Internet Medieval Source Book.Retrieved3 April2014.
  110. ^Holweck 1924,p. 7.
  111. ^Smith, Carol (2000b).The Ultimate Guide to the Bible.Barbour. p. 91.ISBN978-1-57748-824-8.
  112. ^Bucur, Bogdan G. (2015)."The Early Christian Reception of Genesis 18: From Theophany to Trinitarian Symbolism"(PDF).Journal of Early Christian Studies.23(2).Baltimore,MD:Johns Hopkins University Press:245–272.doi:10.1353/earl.2015.0020.S2CID12888388.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.Retrieved1 June2022.
  113. ^Peters 2003,p. 9.
  114. ^Levenson 2012,p. 200.
  115. ^Lings 2004.
  116. ^Quran 38:45–47
  117. ^"Surah 38 Sad (The letter Saad). Read and listen Quran · Quran Academy".en.quranacademy.org.
  118. ^Maulana 2006,p. 104.
  119. ^Q22:78&Q60:4–6
  120. ^"Surah 22 Al-Hajj (The Pilgrimage). Read and listen Quran · Quran Academy".en.quranacademy.org.
  121. ^"Surah 60 Al-Mumtahanah (She that is to be examined). Read and listen Quran · Quran Academy".en.quranacademy.org.
  122. ^Gelbert, Carlos (2011).Ginza Rba.Sydney: Living Water Books.ISBN978-0958034630.
  123. ^Lidzbarski, Mark (1925).Ginza: Der Schatz oder Das große Buch der Mandäer.Göttingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht.
  124. ^Drower, Ethel Stefana (1953).The Haran Gawaita and the Baptism of Hibil-Ziwa.Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana.
  125. ^Drower, Ethel Stefana (1937).The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran.Oxford At The Clarendon Press.
  126. ^Smith, Andrew Phillip (2016).John the Baptist and the Last Gnostics: the Secret History of the Mandaeans.Watkins.
  127. ^ʻAbdu'l-Bahá 2014,p. 10.
  128. ^Baháʼu'lláh 1976,p. 54.
  129. ^abcdʻAbdu'l-Bahá 2014,p. 4.
  130. ^Baháʼu'lláh 1976,p. 23.
  131. ^Smith 2000a,p. 22.
  132. ^ʻAbdu'l-Bahá 1978,p. 22.
  133. ^ʻAbdu'l-Bahá 1912,p. 118.
  134. ^abExum 2007,p. 135.
  135. ^Rutgers 1993.
  136. ^Abraham's Farewell to Ishmael.George Segal.Miami Art Museum. Collections: Recent Acquisitions..Retrieved 10 September 2014.
  137. ^"What did abraham look like in the bible? - The holy script".24 March 2023.
  138. ^"Abraham the Patriarch in Art – Iconography and Literature".Christian Iconography – a project ofGeorgia Regents University.Retrieved18 April2014.
  139. ^Boguslawski, Alexander."The Holy Trinity".Rollins.edu.Retrieved3 April2014.
  140. ^Kierkegaard 1980,pp. 155–156.
  141. ^Allison, W. T. (26 January 1935)."Abraham's Quest For God".Winnipeg Tribune.Winnipeg, Manitoba. p. 39.Free access icon
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Bibliography

External links

Wikisourcehas the text of the 1897Easton's Bible DictionaryarticleAbraham.
Wikisourcehas the text of the1911Encyclopædia Britannicaarticle "Abraham".
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