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For peoples and persons from Africa, seeAfricans.For white Afrikaans speakers, seeAfrikaners.

Afrikaans
Pronunciation[afriˈkɑːns]
Native to
RegionSouthern Africa
EthnicityAfrikaners
Basters
Cape Coloureds
Cape Malays
Griqua
Oorlams
Native speakers
7.2 million (2016)
10.3 million L2 speakers in South Africa (2011)[1]
Early forms
Dialects
Latin script (Afrikaans Alpha bet),Arabic script
Signed Afrikaans[2]
Official status
Official language in
South Africa
Recognised minority
language in
Regulated byDie Taalkommissie
Language codes
ISO 639-1af
ISO 639-2afr
ISO 639-3afr
Glottologafri1274
Linguasphere52-ACB-ba
spoken by a majority
spoken by a minority
This article containsIPAphonetic symbols.Without properrendering support,you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead ofUnicodecharacters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.
Colin speaking Afrikaans
Alaric speaking Afrikaans
Rossouw speaking Afrikaans

Afrikaans(/ˌæfrɪˈkɑːns/AF-rih-KAHNSS,/ˌɑːf-,-ˈkɑːnz/AHF-, -⁠KAHNZ)[3][4]is aWest Germanic language,spoken inSouth Africa,Namibiaand (to a lesser extent)Botswana,ZambiaandZimbabwe.It evolved from theDutch vernacular[5][6]ofSouth Holland(Hollandic dialect)[7][8]spoken by thepredominantly Dutch settlersandenslaved populationof theDutch Cape Colony,where it gradually began to develop distinguishing characteristics in the course of theseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies.[9]

Obelisks of theAfrikaans Language MonumentnearPaarl

Although Afrikaans has adopted words from other languages, includingGermanand theKhoisan languages,an estimated 90 to 95% of the vocabulary of Afrikaans is of Dutch origin.[n 1]Differences between Afrikaans and Dutchoften lie in the moreanalyticmorphologyand grammar of Afrikaans, and different spellings.[n 2]There is a large degree ofmutual intelligibilitybetween the two languages, especially inwritten form.[10]

Etymology[edit]

The name of the language comes directly from the Dutch wordAfrikaansch(now spelledAfrikaans)[11]meaning "African".[12]It was previously referred to as "Cape Dutch" (Kaap-Hollands/Kaap-Nederlands),a term also used to refer to theearly Cape settlerscollectively, or the derogatory "kitchen Dutch" (kombuistaal) from its use by slaves of colonial settlers "in the kitchen".

History[edit]

Origin[edit]

The Afrikaans language arose in theDutch Cape Colony,through a gradual divergence from EuropeanDutch dialects,during the course of the 18th century.[13][14]As early as the mid-18th century and as recently as the mid-20th century, Afrikaans was known in standard Dutch as a "kitchen language" (Afrikaans:kombuistaal), lacking the prestige accorded, for example, even by the educational system in Africa, to languages spoken outside Africa. Other early epithets setting apartKaaps Hollands( "Cape Dutch",i.e. Afrikaans) as putatively beneath official Dutch standards includedgeradbraakt,gebrokenandonbeschaafd Hollands( "mutilated/broken/uncivilised Dutch" ), as well asverkeerd Nederlands( "incorrect Dutch" ).[15][16]

'Hottentot Dutch'
Dutch-basedpidgin
Language codes
ISO 639-3None(mis)
Glottologhott1234

Den Besten theorises that modern Standard Afrikaans derives from two sources:[17]

  • Cape Dutch,a direct transplantation of European Dutch to Southern Africa, and
  • 'Hottentot Dutch',[18]apidginthat descended from 'Foreigner Talk' and ultimately from the Dutch pidgin spoken by slaves, via a hypotheticalDutch creole.

Thus, in his view, Afrikaans is neither a creole nor a direct descendant of Dutch, but a fusion of two transmission pathways.

Development[edit]

Standard Dutchused in a 1916 South African newspaper before Afrikaans replaced it for use in media

Most of the firstsettlerswhose descendants today are theAfrikanerswere from theUnited Provinces(nowNetherlands),[19]with up to one-sixth of the community of FrenchHuguenotorigin, and a seventh fromGermany.[20]

African and Asian workers,Cape Colouredchildren of European settlers andKhoikhoiwomen,[21]and slaves contributed to the development of Afrikaans. The slave population was made up of people fromEast Africa,West Africa,India,Madagascar,and theDutch East Indies(modernIndonesia).[22]A number were also indigenousKhoisanpeople, who were valued as interpreters, domestic servants, and labourers. Many free and enslaved women married or cohabited with the male Dutch settlers. M. F. Valkhoff argued that 75% of children born to female slaves in the Dutch Cape Colony between 1652 and 1672 had a Dutch father.[23]Sarah Grey Thomason and Terrence Kaufman argue that Afrikaans' development as a separate language was "heavily conditioned by nonwhites who learned Dutch imperfectly as a second language."[24]

Beginning in about 1815, Afrikaans started to replaceMalayas the language of instruction inMuslim schoolsinSouth Africa,written with theArabic Alpha bet:seeArabic Afrikaans.Later, Afrikaans, now written with theLatin script,started to appear in newspapers and political and religious works in around 1850 (alongside the already established Dutch).[13]

In 1875, a group of Afrikaans-speakers from the Cape formed theGenootskap vir Regte Afrikaaners( "Society for Real Afrikaners" ),[13]and published a number of books in Afrikaans including grammars, dictionaries, religious materials and histories.

Until the early 20th century, Afrikaans was considered aDutch dialect,alongsideStandard Dutch,which it eventually replaced as an official language.[10]Before theBoer wars,"and indeed for some time afterwards, Afrikaans was regarded as inappropriate for educated discourse. Rather, Afrikaans was described derogatorily as 'a kitchen language' or 'a bastard jargon', suitable for communication mainly between the Boers and their servants."[25][better source needed]

Recognition[edit]

"Dit is ons erns"( "This is our passion" ),at theAfrikaans Language Monument

In 1925, Afrikaans was recognised by the South African government as a distinct language, rather than simply a vernacular of Dutch.[13]On 8 May 1925, twenty-three years after theSecond Boer Warended,[25]theOfficial Languages of the Union Actof 1925 was passed—mostly due to the efforts of theAfrikaans-language movement—at a joint sitting of theHouse of Assemblyand theSenate,in which the Afrikaans language was declared a variety of Dutch.[26]TheConstitution of 1961reversed the position of Afrikaans and Dutch, so that English and Afrikaans were the official languages, and Afrikaans was deemed to include Dutch. TheConstitution of 1983removed any mention of Dutch altogether.

TheAfrikaans Language Monumentis located on a hill overlookingPaarlin theWestern Cape Province.Officially opened on 10 October 1975,[27]it was erected on the 100th anniversary of the founding of theSociety of Real Afrikaners,[28]and the 50th anniversary of Afrikaans being declared an official language of South Africa in distinction to Dutch.

Standardisation[edit]

The side view of thePretoria Art MuseuminArcadia, Pretoria,with its name written in Afrikaans, Xhosa and Southern Ndebele.

The earliest Afrikaans texts were somedoggerel versefrom 1795 and a dialogue transcribed by a Dutch traveller in 1825. Afrikaans used the Latin Alpha bet around this time, although theCape Muslimcommunity used the Arabic script. In 1861, L.H. Meurant published hisZamenspraak tusschen Klaas Waarzegger en Jan Twyfelaar( "Conversation between Nicholas Truthsayer and John Doubter" ), which is considered to be the first book published in Afrikaans.[29]

The first grammar book was published in 1876; a bilingual dictionary was later published in 1902. The main modern Afrikaans dictionary in use is theVerklarende Handwoordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal(HAT). A new authoritative dictionary, calledWoordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal(WAT), was under development as of 2018. The officialorthographyof Afrikaans is theAfrikaanse Woordelys en Spelreëls,compiled byDie Taalkommissie.[29]

The Afrikaans Bible[edit]

Main article:Bible translations into Afrikaans

The Afrikaners primarily were Protestants, of theDutch Reformed Churchof the 17th century. Their religious practices were later influenced in South Africa by British ministries during the 1800s.[30]A landmark in the development of the language was the translation of the wholeBibleinto Afrikaans. While significant advances had been made in thetextual criticismof the Bible, especially the GreekNew Testament,the 1933 translation followed theTextus Receptusand was closely akin to theStatenbijbel.Before this, most Cape Dutch-Afrikaans speakers had to rely on the DutchStatenbijbel.ThisStatenvertalinghad its origins with theSynod of Dordrechtof 1618 and was thus in anarchaicform of Dutch. This was hard for Dutch speakers to understand, and increasingly unintelligible for Afrikaans speakers.

C. P. Hoogehout,Arnoldus Pannevis[af],andStephanus Jacobus du Toitwere the firstAfrikaans Bibletranslators. Important landmarks in the translation of the Scriptures were in 1878 with C. P. Hoogehout's translation of theEvangelie volgens Markus(Gospel of Mark,lit. Gospel according to Mark); however, this translation was never published. The manuscript is to be found in the South African National Library, Cape Town.

The first official translation of the entire Bible into Afrikaans was in 1933 byJ. D. du Toit,E. E. van Rooyen, J. D. Kestell, H. C. M. Fourie, andBB Keet.[31][32]This monumental work established Afrikaans as'n suiwer en ordentlike taal,that is "a pure and proper language" for religious purposes, especially amongst the deeplyCalvinistAfrikaans religious community that previously had been sceptical of aBible translationthat varied from the Dutch version that they were used to.

In 1983, a fresh translation marked the 50th anniversary of the 1933 version. The final editing of this edition was done by E. P. Groenewald, A. H. van Zyl, P. A. Verhoef, J. L. Helberg and W. Kempen. This translation was influenced byEugene Nida's theory ofdynamic equivalencewhich focused on finding the nearest equivalent in the receptor language to the idea that the Greek, Hebrew or Aramaic wanted to convey.

A new translation,Die Bybel: 'n Direkte Vertalingwas released in November 2020. It is the first trulyecumenicaltranslation of the Bible in Afrikaans as translators from various churches, including theRoman CatholicandAnglicanChurches, were involved.[33]

Classification[edit]

Afrikaans descended from Dutch dialects in the 17th century. It belongs to aWest Germanicsub-group, theLow Franconian languages.[34]Other West Germanic languages related to Afrikaans areGerman,English,theFrisian languages,and the unstandardised languagesLow GermanandYiddish.

Geographic distribution[edit]

Statistics[edit]

The geographical distribution of Afrikaans in South Africa: proportion of the population that speaks Afrikaans at home.
0–20%
20–40%
40–60%
60–80%
80–100%
Country Speakers Percentage of speakers Year Reference
Argentina 650 0.001% 2019 [35]
Australia 49,375 0.68% 2021 [36]
Botswana 8,082 0.11% 2011 [citation needed]
Canada 23,410 0.32% 2016 [37]
United Kingdom 11,247 0.16% 2011 [38]
Finland 58 0.001% 2021 [39]
Pakistan 2,228 0.03% 2016 [40]
Mauritius 36 0.003% 2011 [citation needed]
Namibia 219,760 3.05% 2011 [citation needed]
New Zealand 36,966 0.51% 2018 [41]
South Africa 6,855,082 94.66% 2011 [citation needed]
United States 28,406 0.39% 2016 [42]
Total 7,211,537

Sociolinguistics[edit]

The geographical distribution of Afrikaans in South Africa: density of Afrikaans home-language speakers.
<1 /km2
1–3 /km2
3–10 /km2
10–30 /km2
30–100 /km2
100–300 /km2
300–1000 /km2
1000–3000 /km2
>3000 /km2
The geographical distribution of Afrikaans inNamibia.

Afrikaans is also widely spoken in Namibia. Before independence, Afrikaans had equal status with German as an official language. Since independence in 1990, Afrikaans has had constitutional recognition as a national, but not official, language.[43][44]There is a much smaller number of Afrikaans speakers among Zimbabwe's white minority, as most have left the country since 1980. Afrikaans was also a medium of instruction for schools inBophuthatswana,an Apartheid-eraBantustan.[45]Eldoretin Kenya was founded by Afrikaners.[46]

In 1976, secondary-school pupils inSowetobegana rebellionin response to the government's decision that Afrikaans be used as the language of instruction for half the subjects taught in non-White schools (with English continuing for the other half). AlthoughEnglishis themother tongueof only 8.2% of the population, it is the language most widely understood, and thesecond languageof a majority of South Africans.[47]Afrikaans is more widely spoken than English in the Northern and Western Cape provinces, several hundred kilometres from Soweto.[48]The Black community's opposition to Afrikaans and preference for continuing English instruction was underlined when the government rescinded the policy one month after the uprising: 96% of Black schools chose English (over Afrikaans or native languages) as the language of instruction.[48]Afrikaans-medium schools were also accused of using language policy to deter Black African parents.[49]Some of these parents, in part supported by provincial departments of education, initiated litigation which enabled enrolment with English as language of instruction. By 2006 there were 300 single-medium Afrikaans schools, compared to 2,500 in 1994, after most converted to dual-medium education.[49]Due to Afrikaans being viewed as the "language of the white oppressor" by some, pressure has been increased to remove Afrikaans as a teaching language in South African universities, resulting in bloody student protests in 2015.[50][51][52]

UnderSouth Africa's Constitutionof 1996, Afrikaans remains anofficial language,and has equal status to English and nine other languages. The new policy means that the use of Afrikaans is now often reduced in favour of English, or to accommodate the other official languages. In 1996, for example, theSouth African Broadcasting Corporationreduced the amount of television airtime in Afrikaans, whileSouth African Airwaysdropped its Afrikaans nameSuid-Afrikaanse Lugdiensfrom itslivery.Similarly, South Africa'sdiplomatic missionsoverseas now display the name of the country only in English and their host country's language, and not in Afrikaans. Meanwhile, theconstitution of the Western Cape,which went into effect in 1998, declares Afrikaans to be an official language of the province alongsideEnglishandXhosa.[53]

The Afrikaans-language general-interest family magazineHuisgenoothas the largest readership of any magazine in the country.[54]

When the British design magazineWallpaperdescribed Afrikaans as "one of the world's ugliest languages" in its September 2005 article about themonument,[55]South African billionaireJohann Rupert(chairman of theRichemont Group), responded by withdrawing advertising for brands such asCartier,Van Cleef & Arpels,MontblancandAlfred Dunhillfrom the magazine.[56]The author of the article, Bronwyn Davies, was anEnglish-speaking South African.

Mutual intelligibility with Dutch[edit]

Main article:Comparison of Afrikaans and Dutch

An estimated 90 to 95% of the Afrikaans lexicon is ultimately of Dutch origin,[57][58][59]and there are few lexical differences between the two languages.[60]Afrikaans has a considerably more regular morphology,[61]grammar, and spelling.[62]There is a high degree ofmutual intelligibilitybetween the two languages,[61][63][64]particularly in written form.[62][65][66]

Afrikaans acquired some lexical and syntactical borrowings from other languages such asMalay,Khoisan languages,Portuguese,[67]andBantu languages,[68]and Afrikaans has also been significantly influenced bySouth African English.[69]Dutch speakers are confronted with fewer non-cognates when listening to Afrikaans than the other way round.[66]Mutual intelligibility thus tends to be asymmetrical, as it is easier for Dutch speakers to understand Afrikaans than for Afrikaans speakers to understand Dutch.[66]

In general, mutual intelligibility between Dutch and Afrikaans is far better than between Dutch andFrisian[70]orbetweenDanishandSwedish.[66]The South African poet writerBreyten Breytenbach,attempting to visualise the language distance forAnglophonesonce remarked that the differences between (Standard) Dutch and Afrikaans are comparable to those between theReceived PronunciationandSouthern American English.[71]

Current status[edit]

Use of Afrikaans as a first language by province
Province 1996[72] 2001[72] 2011[72] 2022[73]
Western Cape 58.5% 55.3% 49.7% 41.2%
Eastern Cape 9.8% 9.6% 10.6% 9.6%
Northern Cape 57.2% 56.6% 53.8% 54.6%
Free State 14.4% 11.9% 12.7% 10.3%
KwaZulu-Natal 1.6% 1.5% 1.6% 1.0%
North West 8.8% 8.8% 9.0% 5.2%
Gauteng 15.6% 13.6% 12.4% 7.7%
Mpumalanga 7.1% 5.5% 7.2% 3.2%
Limpopo 2.6% 2.6% 2.6% 2.3%
South Africa 14.4%[74] 13.3%[75] 13.5%[76] 10.6%[73]

Afrikaans is an official language of the Republic of South Africa and a recognised national language of the Republic of Namibia.Post-apartheid South Africahas seen a loss of preferential treatment by the government for Afrikaans, in terms of education, social events,media(TV and radio), and general status throughout the country, given that it now shares its place as official language with ten other languages. Nevertheless, Afrikaans remains more prevalent in the media – radio, newspapers and television[77]– than any of the other official languages, except English. More than 300 book titles in Afrikaans are published annually.[78]South African census figures suggest a decreasing number of first language Afrikaans speakers in South Africa from 13.5% in 2011 to 10.6% in 2022.[79]TheSouth African Institute of Race Relations(SAIRR) projects that a growing majority of Afrikaans speakers will beColoured.[80]Afrikaans speakers experience higher employment rates than other South African language groups, though as of 2012half a million were unemployed.[81]

Despite the challenges of demotion and emigration that it faces in South Africa, the Afrikaans vernacular remains competitive, being popular inDSTVpay channels and several internet sites, while generating high newspaper and music CD sales. A resurgence in Afrikaans popular music since the late 1990s has invigorated the language, especially among a younger generation of South Africans. A recent trend is the increased availability of pre-school educational CDs and DVDs. Such media also prove popular with the extensive Afrikaans-speaking emigrant communities who seek to retain language proficiency in a household context.

Afrikaans-language cinema showed signs of new vigour in the early 21st century. The 2007 filmOuma se slim kind,the first full-length Afrikaans movie sincePaljasin 1998, is seen as the dawn of a new era in Afrikaans cinema. Several short films have been created and more feature-length movies, such asPoena is KoningandBakgat(both in 2008) have been produced, besides the 2011 Afrikaans-language filmSkoonheid,which was the first Afrikaans film to screen at theCannes Film Festival.The filmPlattelandwas also released in 2011.[82]The Afrikaans film industry started gaining international recognition via the likes of big Afrikaans Hollywood film stars, likeCharlize Theron(Monster) andSharlto Copley(District 9) promoting their mother tongue.

SABC3announced early in 2009 that it would increase Afrikaans programming due to the "growing Afrikaans-language market and [their] need for working capital as Afrikaans advertising is the only advertising that sells in the currentSouth African televisionmarket ". In April 2009, SABC3 started screening several Afrikaans-language programmes.[83]There is a groundswell movement within Afrikaans to be inclusive, and to promote itself along with the indigenous official languages. In Namibia, the percentage of Afrikaans speakers declined from 11.4% (2001 Census) to 10.4% (2011 Census). The major concentrations are inHardap(41.0%),ǁKaras(36.1%),Erongo(20.5%),Khomas(18.5%),Omaheke(10.0%),Otjozondjupa(9.4%),Kunene(4.2%), andOshikoto(2.3%).[84]

Some native speakers of Bantu languages andEnglishalso speak Afrikaans as a second language. It is widely taught in South African schools, with about 10.3 million second-language students.[1]

Afrikaans is offered at many universities outside South Africa, including in the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Poland, Russia and the United States.[85]

Grammar[edit]

Main article:Afrikaans grammar

In Afrikaans grammar, there is no distinction between theinfinitiveand present forms of verbs, with the exception of the verbs 'to be' and 'to have':

infinitive form present indicative form Dutch English
wees is zijnorwezen be
hê het hebben have

In addition, verbs do notconjugatedifferently depending on the subject. For example,

Afrikaans Dutch English
ek is ik ben I am
jy/u is jij/u bent you are (sing.)
hy/sy/dit is hij/zij/het is he/she/it is
ons is wij zijn we are
julle is jullie zijn you are (plur.)
hulle is zij zijn they are

Only a handful of Afrikaans verbs have apreterite,namely the auxiliarywees( "to be" ), themodal verbs,and the verbdink( "to think" ). The preterite ofmag( "may" ) is rare in contemporary Afrikaans.

Afrikaans Dutch English
present past present past present past
ek is ek was ik ben ik was I am I was
ek kan ek kon ik kan ik kon I can I could
ek moet ek moes ik moet ik moest I must (I had to)
ek wil ek wou ik wil ik wilde/wou I want to I wanted to
ek sal ek sou ik zal ik zou I shall I should
ek mag (ek mog) ik mag ik mocht I may I might
ek dink ek dog ik denk ik dacht I think I thought

All other verbs use the perfect tense, het + past participle (ge-), for the past. Therefore, there is no distinction in Afrikaans betweenI drankandI have drunk.(In colloquial German, the past tense is also often replaced with the perfect.)

Afrikaans Dutch English
ek het gedrink ik dronk I drank
ik heb gedronken I have drunk

When telling a longer story, Afrikaans speakers usually avoid the perfect and simply use the present tense, orhistorical present tenseinstead (as is possible, but less common, in English as well).

A particular feature of Afrikaans is its use of thedouble negative;it is classified in Afrikaans asontkennende vormand is something that is absent from the other West Germanic standard languages. For example,

Afrikaans:Hy kannieAfrikaans praatnie,lit. 'He can not Afrikaans speak not'
Dutch:Hij spreektgeenAfrikaans.
English: He cannotspeak Afrikaans. / Hecan'tspeak Afrikaans.

Both French and San origins have been suggested for double negation in Afrikaans. While double negation is still found inLow Franconian dialectsinWest Flandersand in some "isolated" villages in the centre of the Netherlands (such asGarderen), it takes a different form, which is not found in Afrikaans. The following is an example:

Afrikaans:Ek wil nie dit doen nie.*(lit.I want not this do not.)
Dutch:Ik wil dit niet doen.
English: I do not want to do this.

*Compare withEk wil dit nie doen nie,which changes the meaning to "I want not to do this." WhereasEk wil nie dit doen nieemphasizes a lack of desire to act,Ek wil dit nie doen nieemphasizes the act itself.

The-newas theMiddle Dutchway to negate but it has been suggested that since-nebecame highly non-voiced,nieornietwas needed to complement the-ne.With time the-nedisappeared in most Dutch dialects.

The double negative construction has been fully grammaticalised in standard Afrikaans and its proper use follows a set of fairly complex rules as the examples below show:

Afrikaans Dutch (literally translated) More correct Dutch Literal English Idiomatic English
Ek het (nie) geweet dat hy (nie) sou kom (nie). Ik heb (niet) geweten dat hij (niet) zou komen. Ik wist (niet) dat hij (niet) zou komen. I did (not) know that he would (not) come. I did (not) know that he was (not) going to come.
Hy sal nie kom nie, want hy is siek.[n 3] Hij zal niet komen, want hij is ziek. Hij komt niet, want hij is ziek. He will not come, as he is sick. He is sick and is not going to come.
Dis (Dit is) nie so moeilik om Afrikaans te leer nie. Het is niet zo moeilijk (om) Afrikaans te leren. It is not so difficult to learn Afrikaans.

A notable exception to this is the use of the negating grammar form that coincides with negating the Englishpresent participle.In this case there is only a single negation.

Afrikaans:Hy is in die hospitaal, maar hy eet nie.
Dutch:Hij is in het ziekenhuis, maar hij eet niet.
English: He is in [the] hospital, though he doesn't eat.

Certain words in Afrikaans would be contracted. For example,moet nie,which literally means "must not", usually becomesmoenie;although one does not have to write or say it like this, virtually all Afrikaans speakers will change the two words tomoeniein the same way asdo notis contracted todon'tin English.

The Dutch wordhet( "it" in English) does not correspond tohetin Afrikaans. The Dutch words corresponding to Afrikaanshetareheb,hebt,heeftandhebben.

Afrikaans Dutch English
het heb, hebt, heeft, hebben have, has
die de, het the
dit het it

Phonology[edit]

Main article:Afrikaans phonology
A voice recording ofDie Stem van Suid-Afrika('The Voice of South Africa'), the former national anthem, read in poetic form

Vowels[edit]

Monophthong phonemes[86][87]
Front Central Back
unrounded rounded unrounded rounded
short long short long short long short long short long
Close i (iː) y yː u (uː)
Mid e eː ə (əː) œ (œː) o (oː)
Near-open (æ) (æː)
Open a ɑː
  • As phonemes,/iː/and/uː/occur only in the wordsspieël/spiːl/'mirror' andkoeël/kuːl/'bullet', which used to be pronounced with sequences/i.ə/and/u.ə/,respectively. In other cases,[iː]and[uː]occur as allophones of, respectively,/i/and/u/before/r/.[88]
  • /y/is phonetically long[yː]before/r/.[89]
  • /əː/is always stressed and occurs only in the wordwîe'wedges'.[90]
  • The closest unrounded counterparts of/œ,œː/are central/ə,əː/,rather than front/e,eː/.[91]
  • /œː,oː/occur only in a few words.[92]
  • [æ]occurs as an allophone of/e/before/k,χ,l,r/,though this occurs primarily dialectally, most commonly in the formerTransvaalandFree Stateprovinces.[93]

Diphthongs[edit]

Diphthongphonemes[94][95]
Starting point Ending point
Front Central Back
Mid unrounded ɪø,əi ɪə
rounded œi,ɔi ʊə œu
Open unrounded ai,ɑːi
  • /ɔi,ai/occur mainly in loanwords.[96]

Consonants[edit]

Consonant phonemes
Labial Alveolar Post-
alveolar 		Dorsal Glottal
Nasal m n ŋ
Plosive voiceless p t t͡ʃ k
voiced b d (d͡ʒ) (ɡ)
Fricative voiceless f s ʃ(ɹ̠̊˔) χ
voiced v (z) ʒ ɦ
Approximant l j
Rhotic r~ɾ~ʀ~ʁ
  • Allobstruentsat the ends of words aredevoiced,so that e.g. a final/d/is realized as[t].[97]
  • /ɡ,dʒ,z/occur only in loanwords.[ɡ]is also an allophone of/χ/in some environments.[98]
  • /χ/is most often uvular[χ~ʀ̥].[99][100][101]Velar[x]occurs only in some speakers.[100]
  • The rhotic is usually an alveolar trill[r]or tap[ɾ].[102]In some parts of the formerCape Province,it is realized uvularly, either as a trill[ʀ]or a fricative[ʁ].[103]

Dialects[edit]

A warning sign in Afrikaans:Gevaar Slagystersor "Danger, Traps".

Following early dialectal studies of Afrikaans, it was theorised that three main historical dialects probably existed after the Great Trek in the 1830s. These dialects are the Northern Cape, Western Cape, and Eastern Cape dialects.[104]Northern Cape dialect may have resulted from contact between Dutch settlers and theKhoekhoepeople between the Great Karoo and the Kunene, and Eastern Cape dialect between the Dutch and the Xhosa. Remnants of these dialects still remain in present-day Afrikaans, although the standardising effect of Standard Afrikaans has contributed to a great levelling of differences in modern times.[105][better source needed]

There is also a prisoncant,known asSabela,which is based on Afrikaans, yet heavily influenced byZulu.This language is used as a secret language in prison and is taught to initiates.[105]

Patagonian Afrikaans dialect[edit]

Patagonian Afrikaansis a distinct dialect of Afrikaans is spoken by the 650-strongSouth African communityofArgentina,in the region ofPatagonia.[106]

Influences on Afrikaans from other languages[edit]

Malay[edit]

Due to the early settlement of aCape Malaycommunity inCape Town,who are now known asColoureds,numerousClassical Malaywords were brought into Afrikaans. Some of these words entered Dutch via people arriving from what is now known asIndonesiaas part of their colonial heritage. Malay words in Afrikaans include:[107]

  • baie,which means 'very'/'much'/'many' (frombanyak) is a very commonly used Afrikaans word, different from its Dutch equivalentveelorerg.
  • baadjie,Afrikaans forjacket(frombaju,ultimately fromPersian), used where Dutch would usejasorvest.The wordbaadjein Dutch is now considered archaic and only used in written, literary texts.
  • bobotie,a traditional Cape-Malay dish, made from spicedminced meatbaked with an egg-based topping.
  • piesang,which meansbanana.This is different from the common Dutch wordbanaan.The Indonesian wordpisangis also used in Dutch, though usage is less common.
  • piering,which meanssaucer(frompiring,also from Persian).

Portuguese[edit]

Some words originally came from Portuguese such assambreel( "umbrella" ) from the Portuguesesombreiro,kraal( "pen/cattle enclosure" ) from the Portuguesecurralandmielie( "corn", frommilho). Some of these words also exist in Dutch, likesambreel"parasol",[108]though usage is less common and meanings can slightly differ.

Khoisan languages[edit]

Some of these words also exist in Dutch, though with a more specific meaning:assegaaifor example means "South-African tribal javelin"[110]andkarosmeans "South-African tribal blanket of animal hides".[111]

Bantu languages[edit]

Loanwords fromBantu languagesin Afrikaans include the names of indigenous birds, such asmahemandsakaboela,and indigenous plants, such asmaroelaandtamboekie(gras).[112]

French[edit]

The revoking of theEdict of Nanteson 22 October 1685 was a milestone in the history ofSouth Africa,for it marked the beginning of the greatHuguenotexodus fromFrance.It is estimated that between 250,000 and 300,000 Protestants left France between 1685 and 1700; out of these, according toLouvois,100,000 had received military training. A measure of the calibre of these immigrants and of their acceptance by host countries (in particular South Africa) is given byH. V. Mortonin his book:In Search of South Africa(London, 1948). The Huguenots were responsible for a great linguistic contribution to Afrikaans, particularly in terms of military terminology as many of them fought on the battlefields during the wars of theGreat Trek.

Most of the words in this list are descendants from Dutch borrowings from French, Old French or Latin, and are not direct influences from French on Afrikaans.

Afrikaans Dutch French English
advies advies avis advice
alarm alarm alarme alarm
ammunisie ammunitie, munitie munition ammunition
amusant amusant amusant funny
artillerie artillerie artillerie artillery
ateljee atelier atelier studio
bagasie bagage bagage luggage
bastion bastion bastion bastion
bataljon bataljon bataillon battalion
battery batterij batterie battery
biblioteek bibliotheek bibliothèque library
faktuur factuur facture invoice
fort fort fort fort
frikkadel frikandel fricadelle meatball
garnisoen garnizoen garnison garrison
generaal generaal général general
granaat granaat grenade grenade
infanterie infanterie infanterie infantry
interessant interessant intéressant interesting
kaliber kaliber calibre calibre
kanon kanon canon cannon
kanonnier kanonnier canonier gunner
kardoes kardoes, cartouche cartouche cartridge
kaptein kapitein capitaine captain
kolonel kolonel colonel colonel
kommandeur commandeur commandeur commander
kwartier kwartier quartier quarter
lieutenant lieutenant lieutenant lieutenant
magasyn magazijn magasin magazine
manier manier manière way
marsjeer marcheer, marcheren marcher (to) march
meubels meubels meubles furniture
militêr militair militaire militarily
morsel morzel morceau piece
mortier mortier mortier mortar
muit muit, muiten mutiner (to) mutiny
musket musket mousquet musket
muur muur mur wall
myn mijn mine mine
offisier officier officier officer
orde orde ordre order
papier papier papier paper
pionier pionier pionnier pioneer
plafon plafond plafond ceiling
plat plat plat flat
pont pont pont ferry
provoos provoost prévôt chief
rondte rondte, ronde ronde round
salvo salvo salve salvo
soldaat soldaat soldat soldier
tante tante tante aunt
tapyt tapijt tapis carpet
tros tros trousse bunch

Orthography[edit]

The Afrikaanswriting systemis based onDutch,using the 26 letters of theISO basic Latin Alpha bet,plus 16 additional vowels withdiacritics.Thehyphen(e.g. in a compound likesee-eend'sea duck'),apostrophe(e.g.ma's'mothers'), and awhitespace character(e.g. in multi-word units likeDooie See'Dead Sea') is part of theorthographyof words, while the indefinite articleʼnis aligature.All the Alpha bet letters, including those with diacritics, have capital letters asallographs;theʼndoes not have a capital letter allograph. This means that Afrikaans has 88graphemeswith allographs in total.

Majuscule forms(also calleduppercaseorcapital letters)
A Á Ä B C D E É È Ê Ë F G H I Í Î Ï J K L M N O Ó Ô Ö P Q R S T U Ú Û Ü V W X Y Ý Z
Minuscule forms(also calledlowercaseorsmall letters)
a á ä b c d e é è ê ë f g h i í î ï j k l m n ʼn o ó ô ö p q r s t u ú û ü v w x y ý z

In Afrikaans, many consonants are dropped from the earlier Dutch spelling. For example,slechts('only') in Dutch becomesslegsin Afrikaans. Also, Afrikaans and some Dutch dialects make no distinction between/s/and/z/,having merged the latter into the former; while the word for "south" is writtenzuidin Dutch, it is spelledsuidin Afrikaans (as well as dialectal Dutch writings) to represent this merger. Similarly, the Dutch digraphij,normally pronounced as/ɛi/,corresponds to Afrikaansy,except where it replaces the Dutchsuffix–lijkwhich is pronounced as/lək/,as inwaarschijnlijk>waarskynlik.

Another difference is the indefinite article,'nin Afrikaans andeenin Dutch. "A book" is'n boekin Afrikaans, whereas it is eithereen boekor'n boekin Dutch. This'nis usually pronounced as just aweak vowel,[ə],just like English "a".

Thediminutivesuffix in Afrikaans is-tjie,-djieor-ie,whereas in Dutch it is-tjeordje,hence a "bit" isʼnbietjiein Afrikaans andbeetjein Dutch.

The lettersc,q,x,andzoccur almost exclusively in borrowings from French, English,GreekandLatin.This is usually because words that hadcandchin the original Dutch are spelled withkandg,respectively, in Afrikaans. Similarly originalquandxare most often speltkwandks,respectively. For example,ekwatoriaalinstead ofequatoriaal,andekskuusinstead ofexcuus.

The vowels with diacritics in non-loanword Afrikaans are:á,ä,é,è,ê,ë,í,î,ï,ó,ô,ö,ú,û,ü,ý.Diacritics are ignored when Alpha betising, though they are still important, even when typing the diacritic forms may be difficult. For example,geëet( "ate" ) instead of the 3 e's alongside each other:*geeet,which can never occur in Afrikaans, orsê,which translates to "say", whereasseis a possessive form. The acute's (á,é,í,ó,ú, ý)primary function is to place emphasis on a word (i.e. for emphatic reasons), by adding it to the emphasised syllable of the word. For example,sál( "will" (verb)),néé('no'),móét( "must" ),hý( "he" ),gewéét( "knew" ). The acute is only placed on theiif it is the only vowel in the emphasised word:wil('want' (verb)) becomeswíl,butlui('lazy') becomeslúi.Only a few non-loan words are spelled with acutes, e.g.dié('this'),ná('after'),óf... óf('either... or'),nóg... nóg('neither... nor'), etc. Only four non-loan words are spelled with the grave:nè('yes?', 'right?', 'eh?'),dè('here, take this!' or '[this is] yours!'),hè('huh?', 'what?', 'eh?'), andappèl('(formal) appeal' (noun)).

Initial apostrophes[edit]

A few short words in Afrikaans take initial apostrophes. In modern Afrikaans, these words are always written in lower case (except if the entire line is uppercase), and if they occur at the beginning of a sentence, the next word is capitalised. Three examples of such apostrophed words are'k, 't, 'n.The last (the indefinite article) is the only apostrophed word that is common in modern written Afrikaans, since the other examples are shortened versions of other words (ekandhet,respectively) and are rarely found outside of a poetic context.[119]

Here are a few examples:

Apostrophed version Usual version Translation Notes
'k 't Dit gesê Ek het dit gesê I said it Uncommon, more common:Ek't dit gesê
't Jy dit geëet? Het jy dit geëet? Did you eat it? Extremely uncommon
'n Man loop daar A man walks there Standard Afrikaans pronounces'nas aschwavowel.

The apostrophe and the following letter are regarded as two separate characters, and are never written using a single glyph, although a single character variant of the indefinite article appears in Unicode,ʼn.

Table of characters[edit]

For more on the pronunciation of the letters below, seeHelp:IPA/Afrikaans.

Afrikaans letters and pronunciation
Grapheme IPA Examples and Notes
a /a/,/ɑː/ appel('apple';/a/),tale('languages';/ɑː/). Represents/a/in closed syllables and/ɑː/in stressed open syllables
á /a/, /ɑ:/ ná(after)
ä /a/, /ɑ:/ sebraägtig('zebra-like'). The diaeresis indicates the start of new syllable.
aa /ɑː/ aap('monkey', 'ape'). Only occurs in closed syllables.
aai /ɑːi/ draai('turn')
ae /ɑːə/ vrae('questions'); the vowels belong to two separate syllables
ai /ai/ baie('many', 'much' or 'very'),ai(expression of frustration or resignation)
b /b/,/p/ boom('tree')
c /s/,/k/ Found only in borrowed words or proper nouns; the former pronunciation occurs before 'e', 'i', or 'y'; featured in the Latinate plural ending-ici(singular form-ikus)
ch /ʃ/,/x/,/k/ chirurg('surgeon';/ʃ/;typicallysjis used instead),chemie('chemistry';/x/),chitien('chitin';/k/). Found only in recent loanwords and in proper nouns
d /d/,/t/ dag('day'),deel('part', 'divide', 'share')
dj /d͡ʒ/,/k/ djati('teak'),broodjie('sandwich'). Used to transcribe foreign words for the former pronunciation, and in the diminutive suffix-djiefor the latter in words ending withd
e /e(ː)/,/æ(ː)/,/ɪə/,/ɪ/,/ə/ bed(/e/),mens('person', /eː/) (lengthened before/n/)ete('meal',/ɪə/and/ə/respectively),ek('I', /æ/),berg('mountain', /æː/) (lengthened before/r/)./ɪ/is the unstressed allophone of/ɪə/
é /e(ː)/,/æ(ː)/,/ɪə/ dié('this'),mét('with', emphasised),ék('I; me', emphasised),wéét('know', emphasised)
è /e/ Found in loanwords (likecrèche) and proper nouns (likeEugène) where the spelling was maintained, and in four non-loanwords:nè('yes?', 'right?', 'eh?'),dè('here, take this!' or '[this is] yours!'),hè('huh?', 'what?', 'eh?'), andappèl('(formal) appeal' (noun)).
ê /eː/,/æː/ sê('to say'),wêreld('world'),lêer('file') (Allophonically/æː/before/(ə)r/)
ë - Diaeresis indicates the start of new syllable, thusë,ëeandëiare pronounced like 'e', 'ee' and 'ei', respectively
ee /ɪə/ weet('to know'),een('one')
eeu /ɪu/ leeu('lion'),eeu('century', 'age')
ei /ei/ lei('to lead')
eu /ɪɵ/ seun('son' or 'lad')
f /f/ fiets('bicycle')
g /x/,/ɡ/ /ɡ/exists as the allophone of/x/if at the end of a root word preceded by a stressed single vowel +/r/and suffixed with a schwa, e.g.berg('mountain') is pronounced as/bæːrx/,andbergeis pronounced as/bæːrɡə/
gh /ɡ/ gholf('golf'). Used for/ɡ/when it is not an allophone of/x/;found only in borrowed words. If thehinstead begins the next syllable, the two letters are pronounced separately.
h /ɦ/ hael('hail'),hond('dog')
i /i/,/ə/ kind('child';/ə/),ink('ink';/ə/),krisis('crisis';/i/and/ə/respectively),elektrisiteit('electricity';/i/for all three; third 'i' is part of diphthong 'ei')
í /i/, /ə/ krísis('crisis', emphasised),dít('that', emphasised)
î /əː/ wîe(plural ofwig;'wedges' or 'quoins')
ï /i/, /ə/ Found in words such asbeïnvloed('to influence'). The diaeresis indicates the start of new syllable.
ie /i(ː)/ iets('something'),vier('four')
j /j/ julle(plural 'you')
k /k/ kat('cat'),kan('can' (verb) or 'jug')
l /l/ lag('laugh')
m /m/ man('man')
n /n/ nael('nail')
ʼn /ə/ indefinite articleʼn('a'), styled as a ligature (Unicode character U+0149)
ng /ŋ/ sing('to sing')
o /o/,/ʊə/,/ʊ/ op('up(on)';/o/),grote('size';/ʊə/),polisie('police';/ʊ/)
ó /o/,/ʊə/ óp('done, finished', emphasised),gróót('huge', emphasised)
ô /oː/ môre('tomorrow')
ö /o/,/ʊə/ Found in words such askoöperasie('co-operation'). The diaeresis indicates the start of new syllable, thusöis pronounced the same as 'o' based on the following remainder of the word.
oe /u(ː)/ boek('book'),koers('course', 'direction')
oei /ui/ koei('cow')
oo /ʊə/ oom('uncle' or 'sir')
ooi /oːi/ mooi('pretty', 'beautiful'),nooi('invite')
ou /ɵu/ By itself means ('guy'). Sometimes spelledouwin loanwords and surnames, for exampleLouw.
p /p/ pot('pot'),pers('purple' — or 'press' indicating the news media; the latter is often spelled with an <ê>)
q /k/ Found only in foreign words with original spelling maintained; typicallykis used instead
r /r/ rooi('red')
s /s/,/z/,/ʃ/,/ʒ/ ses('six'),stem('voice' or 'vote'),posisie('position',/z/for first 's',/s/for second 's'),rasioneel('rational',/ʃ/(nonstandard; formally /s/ is used instead)visuëel('visual',/ʒ/(nonstandard; /z/ is more formal)
sj /ʃ/ sjaal('shawl'),sjokolade('chocolate')
t /t/ tafel('table')
tj /tʃ/,/k/ tjank('whine like a dog' or 'to cry incessantly'). The latter pronunciation occurs in the common diminutive suffix"-(e)tjie"
u /ɵ/,/y(ː)/ stuk('piece'),unie('union'),muur('wall')
ú /œ/, /y(:)/ búk('bend over', emphasised),ú('you', formal, emphasised)
û /ɵː/ brûe('bridges')
ü - Found in words such asreünie('reunion'). The diaeresis indicates the start of a new syllable, thusüis pronounced the same asu,except when found in proper nouns and surnames from German, likeMüller.
ui /ɵi/ uit('out')
uu /y(ː)/ uur('hour')
v /f/,/v/ vis('fish'),visuëel('visual')
w /v/,/w/ water('water';/v/); allophonically/w/after obstruents within a root; an example:kwas('brush';/w/)
x /z/,/ks/ xifoïed('xiphoid';/z/),x-straal('x-ray';/ks/).
y /əi/ byt('bite')
ý /əi/ hý('he', emphasised)
z /z/ Zoeloe('Zulu'). Found only inonomatopoeiaand loanwords

Sample text[edit]

Psalm 231983 translation:[120]

Die Here is my Herder, ek kom niks kort nie.
Hy laat my rus in groen weivelde. Hy bring my by waters waar daar vrede is.
Hy gee my nuwe krag. Hy lei my op die regte paaie tot eer van Sy naam.
Selfs al gaan ek deur donker dieptes, sal ek nie bang wees nie, want U is by my. In U hande is ek veilig.

Psalm 231953 translation:[121]

Die Here is my Herder, niks sal my ontbreek nie.
Hy laat my neerlê in groen weivelde; na waters waar rus is, lei Hy my heen.
Hy verkwik my siel; Hy lei my in die spore van geregtigheid, om sy Naam ontwil.
Al gaan ek ook in 'n dal van doodskaduwee, ek sal geen onheil vrees nie; want U is met my: u stok en u staf die vertroos my.

Lord's Prayer(Afrikaans New Living Version translation):[122]

Ons Vader in die hemel, laat u Naam geheilig word.
Laat u koninkryk kom.
Laat u wil hier op aarde uitgevoer word soos in die hemel.
Gee ons die porsie brood wat ons vir vandag nodig het.
En vergeef ons ons sondeskuld soos ons ook óns skuldenaars vergewe het.
Bewaar ons sodat ons nie aan verleiding sal toegee nie; maar bevry ons van die greep van die bose.
Want aan U behoort die koningskap,
en die krag,
en die heerlikheid,
vir altyd.
Amen.

Lord's Prayer(Original translation):[citation needed]

Onse Vader wat in die hemel is,
laat U Naam geheilig word;
laat U koninkryk kom;
laat U wil geskied op die aarde,
net soos in die hemel.
Gee ons vandag ons daaglikse brood;
en vergeef ons ons skulde
soos ons ons skuldenaars vergewe
en laat ons nie in die versoeking nie
maar verlos ons van die bose
Want aan U behoort die koninkryk
en die krag
en die heerlikheid
tot in ewigheid.
Amen

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^Afrikaans borrowed from other languages such as Portuguese, German, Malay, Bantu, and Khoisan languages; seeSebba 1997,p. 160,Niesler, Louw & Roux 2005,p. 459.
    90 to 95% of Afrikaans vocabulary is ultimately of Dutch origin; seeMesthrie 1995,p. 214,Mesthrie 2002,p. 205,Kamwangamalu 2004,p. 203,Berdichevsky 2004,p. 131,Brachin & Vincent 1985,p. 132.
  2. ^For morphology; seeHolm 1989,p. 338,Geerts & Clyne 1992,p. 72. For grammar and spelling; seeSebba 1997,p. 161.
  3. ^kanwould be best used in this case becausekan niemeans cannot and since he is sick he is unable to come, whereassalis "will" in English and is thus not the best word choice.

References[edit]

Citations[edit]

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Sources[edit]

Further reading[edit]

  • Grieshaber, Nicky. 2011.Diacs and Quirks in a Nutshell – Afrikaans spelling explained.Pietermaritzburg.ISBN978-0-620-51726-3;e-ISBN978-0-620-51980-9.
  • Roberge, P. T. (2002), "Afrikaans – considering origins",Language in South Africa,Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press,ISBN0-521-53383-X
  • Thomas, C. H. (1899),"Boer language",Origin of the Anglo-Boer War revealed,London, England: Hodder and Stoughton

External links[edit]

Afrikaans editionofWikipedia,the free encyclopedia
Wikivoyage has a phrasebook forAfrikaans.
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of:Afrikaans
Wikiquote has quotations related toAfrikaans.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Afrikaans&oldid=1234650759"