Agriculture

"Farming" redirects here. For other uses, seeFarming (disambiguation).

Agricultureencompasses crop andlivestockproduction,aquaculture,fisheries,andforestryfor food and non-food products.Agriculture was the key development in the rise ofsedentaryhumancivilization,whereby farming ofdomesticatedspecies created foodsurplusesthat enabled people to live in cities. While humans started gathering grains at least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers only began planting them around 11,500 years ago. Sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle were domesticated around 10,000 years ago. Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. In the 20th century,industrial agriculturebased on large-scalemonoculturescame to dominate agricultural output.

As of 2021,small farmsproduce about one-third of the world's food, but large farms are prevalent.The largest 1% of farms in the world are greater than 50 hectares (120 acres) and operate more than 70% of the world's farmland.Nearly 40% of agricultural land is found on farms larger than 1,000 hectares (2,500 acres).However, five of every six farms in the world consist of fewer than 2 hectares (4.9 acres), and take up only around 12% of all agricultural land.Farms and farming greatly influencerural economicsand greatly shaperural society,effecting both the directagricultural workforceand broaderbusinessesthat support the farms and farming populations.

The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped intofoods,fibers,fuels,andraw materials(such asrubber). Food classes includecereals(grains),vegetables,fruits,cooking oils,meat,milk,eggs,andfungi.Global agricultural production amounts to approximately 11 billion tonnes of food,32 million tonnes of natural fibresand 4 billion m³of wood.However, around 14% of the world's food is lost from production before reaching the retail level.

Modernagronomy,plant breeding,agrochemicalssuch aspesticidesandfertilizers,and technological developments have sharply increasedcrop yields,but also contributed toecological and environmental damage.Selective breedingand modern practices inanimal husbandryhave similarly increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns aboutanimal welfareand environmental damage. Environmental issues includecontributions to climate change,depletion ofaquifers,deforestation,antibiotic resistance,andother agricultural pollution.Agriculture is both a cause of and sensitive toenvironmental degradation,such asbiodiversity loss,desertification,soil degradation,andclimate change,all of which can cause decreases in crop yield.Genetically modified organismsare widely used, althoughsome countries ban them.

Etymology and scope

Further information:Horticulture § Scope

Winnowinggrain in Ethiopia.

The wordagricultureis a lateMiddle Englishadaptation of Latinagricultūra,fromager'field' andcultūra'cultivation' or 'growing'.While agriculture usually refers to human activities, certain species ofant,termiteandbeetlehave been cultivating crops for up to 60 million years.Agriculture is defined with varying scopes, in its broadest sense using natural resources to "produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops, and their related services".Thus defined, it includesarable farming,horticulture,animal husbandryandforestry,but horticulture and forestry are in practice often excluded. It may also be broadly decomposed intoplant agriculture,which concerns the cultivation of useful plants,andanimal agriculture,the production of agricultural animals.

History

Centres of origin,as numbered byNikolai Vavilovin the 1930s.

Area 3 is no longer recognised as a centre of origin

New Guinea(area P) was identified more recently.

Main article:History of agriculture

Origins

Main article:Neolithic Revolution

The development of agriculture enabled the human population to grow many times larger than could be sustained byhunting and gathering.Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe,and included a diverse range oftaxa,in at least 11 separatecenters of origin.Wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago.In the Paleolithic Levant, 23,000 years ago, cereals cultivation ofemmer,barley,andoatshas been observed near the sea of Galilee.Rice wasdomesticated in Chinabetween 11,500 and 6,200 BC with the earliest known cultivation from 5,700 BC,followed bymung,soyandazukibeans. Sheep were domesticated inMesopotamiabetween 13,000 and 11,000 years ago.Cattle were domesticated from the wildaurochsin the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan some 10,500 years ago.Pig productionemerged in Eurasia, including Europe, East Asia and Southwest Asia,wherewild boarwere first domesticated about 10,500 years ago.In theAndesof South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans,coca,llamas,alpacas,andguinea pigs.Sugarcaneand someroot vegetableswere domesticated inNew Guineaaround 9,000 years ago.Sorghumwas domesticated in theSahelregion of Africa by 7,000 years ago. Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago,and was independently domesticated in Eurasia.In Mesoamerica,wildteosintewas bred intomaize(corn) from 10,000 to 6,000 years ago.Thehorsewasdomesticatedin theEurasian Steppesaround 3500 BC. Scholars have offered multiple hypotheses to explain the historical origins of agriculture. Studies of the transition fromhunter-gathererto agricultural societies indicate an initial period of intensification and increasingsedentism;examples are theNatufian culturein theLevant,and the Early Chinese Neolithic in China. Then, wild stands that had previously been harvested started to be planted, and gradually came to be domesticated.

Civilizations

Map of the world showing approximate centers of origin of agriculture and its spread in prehistory.DNA studies have shown that agriculture was introduced inEuropeby the expansion of theearly farmers from Anatoliaabout 9,000 years ago.

In Eurasia, theSumeriansstarted to live in villages from about 8,000 BC, relying on theTigrisandEuphratesrivers and a canal system for irrigation. Ploughs appear inpictographsaround 3,000 BC; seed-ploughs around 2,300 BC. Farmers grew wheat, barley, vegetables such as lentils and onions, and fruits including dates, grapes, and figs.Ancient Egyptian agriculturerelied on theNile Riverand its seasonal flooding. Farming started in the predynastic period at the end of thePaleolithic,after 10,000 BC. Staple food crops were grains such as wheat and barley, alongside industrial crops such asflaxandpapyrus.InIndia,wheat, barley andjujubewere domesticated by 9,000 BC, soon followed by sheep and goats.Cattle, sheep and goats were domesticated inMehrgarhculture by 8,000–6,000 BC.Cotton was cultivated by the 5th–4th millennium BC.Archeological evidence indicates an animal-drawnploughfrom 2,500 BC in theIndus Valley civilisation.

In China, from the 5th century BC, there was a nationwidegranarysystem and widespreadsilk farming.Water-powered grain mills were in use by the 1st century BC,followed by irrigation.By the late 2nd century,heavy ploughshad been developed with iron ploughshares andmouldboards.These spread westwards across Eurasia.Asian rice was domesticated 8,200–13,500 years ago – depending on themolecular clockestimate that is used– on the Pearl River in southern China with a single genetic origin from the wild riceOryza rufipogon.InGreeceandRome,the major cereals were wheat, emmer, and barley, alongside vegetables including peas, beans, and olives. Sheep and goats were kept mainly for dairy products.

Agricultural scenes ofthreshing,a grain store, harvesting withsickles,digging, tree-cutting and ploughing fromancient Egypt.Tomb ofNakht,15th century BC

In the Americas, crops domesticated inMesoamerica(apart from teosinte) include squash, beans, andcacao.Cocoa was domesticated by the Mayo Chinchipe of the upper Amazon around 3,000 BC. Theturkeywas probably domesticated in Mexico or the American Southwest.TheAztecsdeveloped irrigation systems, formedterracedhillsides, fertilized their soil, and developedchinampasor artificial islands. TheMayasused extensive canal and raised field systems to farm swampland from 400 BC.In South America agriculture may have begun about 9000 BC with the domestication ofsquash(Cucurbita) and other plants.Cocawas domesticated in the Andes, as were the peanut, tomato, tobacco, andpineapple.Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 3,600 BC.Animals includingllamas,alpacas,andguinea pigswere domesticated there.InNorth America,the indigenous people of theEast domesticated cropssuch assunflower,tobacco,squash andChenopodium.Wild foods includingwild riceandmaple sugarwere harvested.The domesticatedstrawberryis a hybrid of a Chilean and a North American species, developed by breeding in Europe and North America.Theindigenous people of the Southwestand thePacific Northwestpracticedforest gardeningandfire-stick farming.Thenatives controlled fireon a regional scale to create a low-intensityfire ecologythatsustained a low-density agriculturein loose rotation; a sort of "wild"permaculture.A system ofcompanion plantingcalledthe Three Sisterswas developed in North America. The three crops werewinter squash,maize, and climbing beans.

Indigenous Australians,long supposed to have been nomadichunter-gatherers,practised systematic burning, possibly to enhance natural productivity in fire-stick farming.Scholars have pointed out that hunter-gatherers need a productive environment to support gathering without cultivation. Because the forests of New Guinea have few food plants, early humans may have used "selective burning" to increase the productivity of the wildkarukafruit trees to support the hunter-gatherer way of life.

TheGunditjmaraand other groups developedeelfarming and fish trapping systems from some 5,000 years ago.There is evidence of 'intensification' across the whole continent over that period.In two regions of Australia, the central west coast and eastern central, early farmers cultivated yams, native millet, and bush onions, possibly in permanent settlements.

Revolution

Agricultural calendar,c. 1470,from a manuscript ofPietro de Crescenzi

In theMiddle Ages,compared to theRoman period,agriculture in Western Europe became more focused onself-sufficiency.The agricultural population under feudalism was typically organized intomanorsconsisting of several hundred or more acres of land presided over by alord of the manorwith aRoman Catholicchurch and priest.

Thanks to the exchange with theAl-Andaluswhere theArab Agricultural Revolutionwas underway, European agriculture transformed, with improved techniques and the diffusion of crop plants, including the introduction of sugar, rice, cotton and fruit trees (such as the orange).

After 1492, theColumbian exchangebrought New World crops such as maize, potatoes, tomatoes,sweet potatoes,andmaniocto Europe, and Old World crops such as wheat, barley, rice, andturnips,and livestock (including horses, cattle, sheep and goats) to the Americas.

Irrigation,crop rotation,andfertilizersadvanced from the 17th century with theBritish Agricultural Revolution,allowing global population to rise significantly. Since 1900, agriculture in developed nations, and to a lesser extent in the developing world, has seen large rises in productivity asmechanizationreplaces human labor, and assisted bysynthetic fertilizers,pesticides, andselective breeding.TheHaber-Boschmethod allowed the synthesis ofammonium nitratefertilizer on an industrial scale, greatly increasingcrop yieldsand sustaining a further increase in global population.

Modern agriculture has raised or encountered ecological, political, and economic issues includingwater pollution,biofuels,genetically modified organisms,tariffsandfarm subsidies,leading to alternative approaches such as theorganic movement.Unsustainable farming practices in North America led to theDust Bowlof the 1930s.

Types

Reindeerherds form the basis of pastoral agriculture for several Arctic and Subarctic peoples.

Harvestingwheat with acombine harvesteraccompanied by a tractor and trailer

Pastoralisminvolves managing domesticated animals. Innomadic pastoralism,herds of livestock are moved from place to place in search of pasture, fodder, and water. This type of farming is practised in arid and semi-arid regions ofSahara,Central Asia and some parts of India.

Spreading manure by hand in Zambia

Inshifting cultivation,a small area of forest is cleared by cutting and burning the trees. The cleared land is used for growing crops for a few years until the soil becomes too infertile, and the area is abandoned. Another patch of land is selected and the process is repeated. This type of farming is practiced mainly in areas with abundant rainfall where the forest regenerates quickly. This practice is used in Northeast India, Southeast Asia, and the Amazon Basin.

Subsistence farmingis practiced to satisfy family or local needs alone, with little left over for transport elsewhere. It is intensively practiced in Monsoon Asia and South-East Asia.An estimated 2.5 billion subsistence farmers worked in 2018, cultivating about 60% of the earth'sarable land.

Intensive farmingis cultivation to maximise productivity, with a low fallow ratio and a high use of inputs (water, fertilizer, pesticide and automation). It is practiced mainly in developed countries.

Contemporary agriculture

Status

Suitability for agriculture of land around the world (US Department of Agriculture, 1998)

Recent trends of employment in agriculture (including forestry and fishing) by region

From the twentieth century onwards, intensive agriculture increased crop productivity. It substituted synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labour, but caused increased water pollution, and often involved farm subsidies.Soil degradationand diseases such asstem rustare major concerns globally;approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.In recent years there has been a backlash against theenvironmental effectsof conventional agriculture, resulting in theorganic,regenerative,andsustainable agriculturemovements.One of the major forces behind this movement has been theEuropean Union,which first certifiedorganic foodin 1991 and began reform of itsCommon Agricultural Policy(CAP) in 2005 to phase out commodity-linked farm subsidies,also known asdecoupling.The growth of organic farming has renewed research in alternative technologies such asintegrated pest management,selective breeding,andcontrolled-environment agriculture.There are concerns about the lower yield associated withorganic farmingand its impact on globalfood security.Recent mainstream technological developments includegenetically modified food.

Development of agricultural output of China in 2015 US$ since 1961

By 2015, the agricultural output of China was the largest in the world, followed by the European Union, India and the United States.Economists measure thetotal factor productivityof agriculture, according to which agriculture in the United States is roughly 1.7 times more productive than it was in 1948.

Agriculture employed 873 million people in 2021, or 27% of the global workforce, compared with 1 027 million (or 40%) in 2000. The share of agriculture in global GDP was stable at around 4% since 2000 - 2023.

Despite increases in agricultural production and productivity,between 702 and 828 million people were affected by hunger in 2021.Food insecurity and malnutrition can be the result of conflict, climate extremes and variability and economic swings.It can also be caused by a country's structural characteristics such as income status and natural resource endowments as well as its political economy.

Pesticide use in agriculture went up 62% between 2000 and 2021, with the Americas accounting for half the use in 2021.

TheInternational Fund for Agricultural Developmentposits that an increase insmallholder agriculturemay be part of the solution to concerns aboutfood pricesand overallfood security,given the favorable experience of Vietnam.

Workforce

See also:Gender roles in agriculture

Worldwide employment In agriculture, forestry and fishing in 2021

Agriculture provides about one-quarter of all global employment, more than half in sub-Saharan Africa and almost 60 percent in low-income countries.As countries develop, other jobs have historically pulled workers away from agriculture, and labour-saving innovations increase agricultural productivity by reducing labour requirements per unit of output.Over time, a combination of labour supply and labour demand trends have driven down the share of population employed in agriculture.

On thethree-sector theory,the proportion of people working in agriculture (left-hard bar in each group, green) falls as an economy becomes more developed.

During the 16th century in Europe, between 55 and 75% of the population was engaged in agriculture; by the 19th century, this had dropped to between 35 and 65%.In the same countries today, the figure is less than 10%. At the start of the 21st century, some one billion people, or over 1/3 of the available work force, were employed in agriculture. This constitutes approximately 70% of the global employment of children, and in many countries constitutes the largest percentage of women of any industry.The service sector overtook the agricultural sector as the largest global employer in 2007.

In many developed countries, immigrants help fill labour shortages in high-value agriculture activities that are difficult to mechanize.Foreign farm workers from mostly Eastern Europe, North Africa and South Asia constituted around one-third of the salaried agricultural workforce in Spain, Italy, Greece and Portugal in 2013.In the United States of America, more than half of all hired farmworkers (roughly 450,000 workers) were immigrants in 2019, although the number of new immigrants arriving in the country to work in agriculture has fallen by 75 percent in recent years and rising wages indicate this has led to a major labor shortage on U.S. farms.

Women in agriculture

Around the world, women make up a large share of the population employed in agriculture.This share is growing in all developing regions except East and Southeast Asia where women already make up about 50 percent of the agricultural workforce.Women make up 47 percent of the agricultural workforce in sub-Saharan Africa, a rate that has not changed significantly in the past few decades.However, theFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO) posits that the roles and responsibilities of women in agriculture may be changing – for example, from subsistence farming to wage employment, and from contributing household members to primary producers in the context of male-out-migration.

In general, women account for a greater share of agricultural employment at lower levels of economic development, as inadequate education, limited access to basic infrastructure and markets, high unpaid work burden and poor rural employment opportunities outside agriculture severely limit women's opportunities for off-farm work.

Women who work in agricultural production tend to do so under highly unfavourable conditions. They tend to be concentrated in the poorest countries, where alternative livelihoods are not available, and they maintain the intensity of their work in conditions of climate-induced weather shocks and in situations of conflict. Women are less likely to participate as entrepreneurs and independent farmers and are engaged in the production of less lucrative crops.

The gender gap in land productivity between female- and male managed farms of the same size is 24 percent. On average, women earn 18.4 percent less than men in wage employment in agriculture; this means that women receive 82 cents for every dollar earned by men. Progress has been slow in closing gaps in women's access to irrigation and in ownership of livestock, too.

Women in agriculture still have significantly less access than men to inputs, including improved seeds, fertilizers and mechanized equipment. On a positive note, the gender gap in access to mobile internet in low- and middle-income countries fell from 25 percent to 16 percent between 2017 and 2021, and the gender gap in access to bank accounts narrowed from 9 to 6 percentage points. Women are as likely as men to adopt new technologies when the necessary enabling factors are put in place and they have equal access to complementary resources.

Safety

Main article:Agricultural safety and health

Rollover protection barretrofittedto a mid-20th centuryFordson tractor

Agriculture, specifically farming, remains a hazardous industry, and farmers worldwide remain at high risk of work-related injuries, lung disease,noise-induced hearing loss,skin diseases, as well as certain cancers related to chemical use and prolonged sun exposure. Onindustrialized farms,injuries frequently involve the use ofagricultural machinery,and a common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in developed countries istractor rollovers.Pesticides and other chemicals used in farming can behazardous to worker health,and workers exposed to pesticides may experience illness or have children with birth defects.As an industry in which families commonly share in work and live on the farm itself, entire families can be at risk for injuries, illness, and death.Ages 0–6 may be an especially vulnerable population in agriculture;common causes of fatal injuries among young farm workers include drowning, machinery and motor accidents, including with all-terrain vehicles.

TheInternational Labour Organizationconsiders agriculture "one of the most hazardous of all economic sectors".It estimates that the annual work-related death toll among agricultural employees is at least 170,000, twice the average rate of other jobs. In addition, incidences of death, injury and illness related to agricultural activities often go unreported.The organization has developed theSafety and Health in Agriculture Convention, 2001,which covers the range of risks in the agriculture occupation, the prevention of these risks and the role that individuals and organizations engaged in agriculture should play.

In the United States, agriculture has been identified by theNational Institute for Occupational Safety and Healthas a priority industry sector in theNational Occupational Research Agendato identify and provide intervention strategies for occupational health and safety issues. In the European Union, theEuropean Agency for Safety and Health at Workhas issued guidelines on implementing health and safety directives in agriculture, livestock farming, horticulture, and forestry.The Agricultural Safety and Health Council of America (ASHCA) also holds a yearly summit to discuss safety.

Production

Main article:List of countries by GDP sector composition

See also:List of most important agricultural crops worldwide

Value of agricultural production, 2016

Overall production varies by country as listed.

Largest countries by agricultural output (in nominal terms) according toIMFandCIA World Factbook,at peak level as of 2018

Economy Countries by agricultural output (in nominal terms) at peak level as of 2018 (billions in USD) (01)China 1,117 (02)India 414 (—)European Union 308 (03)United States 185 (04)Brazil 162 (05)Indonesia 141 (06)Nigeria 123 (07)Russia 108 (08)Pakistan 76 (09)Argentina 70 (10)Turkey 64 (11)Japan 62 (12)France 59 (13)Iran 57 (14)Australia 56 (15)Mexico 51 (16)Italy 50 (17)Spain 43 (18)Bangladesh 41 (19)Thailand 40 (20)Egypt 40 The twenty largest countries by agricultural output (in nominal terms) at peak level as of 2018, according to theIMFandCIA World Factbook.

Largest countries by agricultural output according toUNCTADat 2005 constant prices and exchange rates, 2015
Economy Countries by agricultural output in 2015 (millions in 2005 constant USD and exchange rates) (01)China 418,455 (02)India 196,592 (03)United States 149,023 (04)Nigeria 77,113 (05)Brazil 59,977

Crop cultivation systems

Slash and burnshifting cultivation, Thailand

Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the available resources and constraints; geography and climate of the farm; government policy; economic, social and political pressures; and the philosophy and culture of the farmer.

Shifting cultivation (orslash and burn) is a system in which forests are burnt, releasing nutrients to support cultivation of annual and thenperennialcrops for a period of several years.Then the plot is leftfallowto regrow forest, and the farmer moves to a new plot, returning after many more years (10–20). This fallow period is shortened if population density grows, requiring the input of nutrients (fertilizer ormanure) and some manualpest control.Annual cultivation is the next phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This requires even greater nutrient and pest control inputs.

IntercroppingofcoconutandMexican marigold

Further industrialization led to the use ofmonocultures,when onecultivaris planted on a large acreage. Because of the lowbiodiversity,nutrient use is uniform and pests tend to build up, necessitating the greater use ofpesticidesand fertilizers.Multiple cropping,in which several crops are grown sequentially in one year, andintercropping,when several crops are grown at the same time, are other kinds of annual cropping systems known aspolycultures.

Insubtropicalandaridenvironments, the timing and extent of agriculture may be limited by rainfall, either not allowing multipleannual cropsin a year, or requiring irrigation. In all of these environments perennial crops are grown (coffee, chocolate) and systems are practiced such asagroforestry.Intemperateenvironments, where ecosystems were predominantlygrasslandorprairie,highly productive annual farming is the dominant agricultural system.

Important categories of food crops include cereals, legumes, forage, fruits and vegetables.Natural fibersinclude cotton,wool,hemp,silk andflax.Specific crops are cultivated in distinctgrowing regionsthroughout the world. Production is listed in millions of metric tons, based onFAOestimates.

Top agricultural products, by crop types (million tonnes) 2004 data
Cereals	2,263
Vegetables and melons	866
Rootsandtubers	715
Milk	619
Fruit	503
Meat	259
Oilcrops	133
Fish (2001 estimate)	130
Eggs	63
Pulses	60
Vegetable fiber	30
Source:Food and Agriculture Organization

Top agricultural products, by individual crops (million tonnes) 2011 data
Sugar cane	1794
Maize	883
Rice	722
Wheat	704
Potatoes	374
Sugar beet	271
Soybeans	260
Cassava	252
Tomatoes	159
Barley	134
Source:Food and Agriculture Organization

Livestock production systems

Main articles:LivestockandAnimal husbandry

See also:List of domesticated animals

Intensively farmedpigs

Animal husbandry is the breeding and raising of animals for meat, milk,eggs,orwool,and for work and transport.Working animals,including horses,mules,oxen,water buffalo,camels, llamas, alpacas, donkeys, and dogs, have for centuries been used to help cultivate fields,harvestcrops, wrangle other animals, and transport farm products to buyers.

Livestock production systems can be defined based on feed source, as grassland-based, mixed, and landless.As of 2010,30% of Earth's ice- and water-free area was used for producing livestock, with the sector employing approximately 1.3 billion people. Between the 1960s and the 2000s, there was a significant increase in livestock production, both by numbers and by carcass weight, especially among beef, pigs and chickens, the latter of which had production increased by almost a factor of 10. Non-meat animals, such as milk cows and egg-producing chickens, also showed significant production increases. Global cattle, sheep and goat populations are expected to continue to increase sharply through 2050.Aquacultureor fish farming, the production of fish for human consumption in confined operations, is one of the fastest growing sectors of food production, growing at an average of 9% a year between 1975 and 2007.

During the second half of the 20th century, producers using selective breeding focused on creating livestockbreedsandcrossbreedsthat increased production, while mostly disregarding the need to preservegenetic diversity.This trend has led to a significant decrease in genetic diversity and resources among livestock breeds, leading to a corresponding decrease in disease resistance and local adaptations previously found among traditional breeds.

Raising chickens intensively for meat in a broiler house

Grassland based livestock production relies upon plant material such asshrubland,rangeland,andpasturesfor feedingruminantanimals. Outside nutrient inputs may be used, however manure is returned directly to the grassland as a major nutrient source. This system is particularly important in areas where crop production is not feasible because of climate or soil, representing 30–40 million pastoralists.Mixed production systems use grassland,foddercrops and grain feed crops as feed for ruminant and monogastric (one stomach; mainly chickens and pigs) livestock. Manure is typically recycled in mixed systems as a fertilizer for crops.

Landless systems rely upon feed from outside the farm, representing the de-linking of crop and livestock production found more prevalently inOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Developmentmember countries. Synthetic fertilizers are more heavily relied upon for crop production and manure use becomes a challenge as well as a source for pollution.Industrialized countries use these operations to produce much of the global supplies of poultry and pork. Scientists estimate that 75% of the growth in livestock production between 2003 and 2030 will be inconfined animal feeding operations,sometimes calledfactory farming.Much of this growth is happening in developing countries in Asia, with much smaller amounts of growth in Africa.Some of the practices used in commercial livestock production, including the usage ofgrowth hormones,are controversial.

Production practices

Tillingan arable field

Further information:Tillage,Crop rotation,andIrrigation

Tillage is the practice of breaking up the soil with tools such as the plow orharrowto prepare for planting, for nutrient incorporation, or for pest control. Tillage varies in intensity from conventional tono-till.It can improve productivity by warming the soil, incorporating fertilizer and controlling weeds, but also renders soil more prone to erosion, triggers the decomposition of organic matter releasing CO₂,and reduces the abundance and diversity of soil organisms.

Pest control includes the management of weeds, insects,mites,and diseases. Chemical (pesticides), biological (biocontrol), mechanical (tillage), and cultural practices are used. Cultural practices include crop rotation,culling,cover crops,intercropping,composting,avoidance, and resistance. Integrated pest management attempts to use all of these methods to keep pest populations below the number which would cause economic loss, and recommends pesticides as a last resort.

Nutrient managementincludes both the source of nutrient inputs for crop and livestock production, and the method of use of manure produced by livestock. Nutrient inputs can be chemical inorganic fertilizers, manure,green manure,compost and minerals.Crop nutrient use may also be managed using cultural techniques such as crop rotation or afallowperiod. Manure is used either by holding livestock where the feed crop is growing, such as in managed intensive rotational grazing, orby spreadingeither dry or liquid formulations of manure on cropland orpastures.

Acenter pivot irrigationsystem

Water managementis needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which occurs to some degree in most regions of the world.Some farmers use irrigation to supplement rainfall. In other areas such as theGreat Plainsin the U.S. and Canada, farmers use a fallow year to conserve soil moisture for the following year.Recent technological innovations in precision agriculture allow for water status monitoring and automate water usage, leading to more efficient management.Agriculture represents 70% of freshwater use worldwide.However, water withdrawal ratios for agriculture vary significantly by income level. In least developed countries and landlocked developing countries, water withdrawal ratios for agriculture are as high as 90 percent of total water withdrawals and about 60 percent inSmall Island Developing States.

According to 2014 report by theInternational Food Policy Research Institute,agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other. Using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, the International Food Policy Research Institute found that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost half.

Payment for ecosystem servicesis a method of providing additional incentives to encourage farmers to conserve some aspects of the environment. Measures might include paying for reforestation upstream of a city, to improve the supply of fresh water.

Agricultural automation

Different definitions exist for agricultural automation and for the variety of tools and technologies that are used to automate production. One view is that agricultural automation refers to autonomous navigation by robots without human intervention.Alternatively it is defined as the accomplishment of production tasks through mobile, autonomous, decision-making, mechatronic devices.However,FAOfinds that these definitions do not capture all the aspects and forms of automation, such as robotic milking machines that are static, most motorized machinery that automates the performing of agricultural operations, and digital tools (e.g., sensors) that automate only diagnosis.FAO defines agricultural automation as the use of machinery and equipment in agricultural operations to improve their diagnosis, decision-making or performing, reducing the drudgery of agricultural work or improving the timeliness, and potentially the precision, of agricultural operations.

The technological evolution in agriculture has involved a progressive move from manual tools to animal traction, to motorized mechanization, to digital equipment and finally, to robotics with artificial intelligence (AI).Motorized mechanization using engine power automates the performance of agricultural operations such as ploughing and milking.With digital automation technologies, it also becomes possible to automate diagnosis and decision-making of agricultural operations.For example, autonomous crop robots can harvest and seed crops, while drones can gather information to help automate input application.Precision agriculture often employs such automation technologies.Motorized machines are increasingly complemented, or even superseded, by new digital equipment that automates diagnosis and decision-making.A conventional tractor, for example, can be converted into an automated vehicle allowing it to sow a field autonomously.

Motorized mechanization has increased significantly across the world in recent years, although reliable global data with broad country coverage exist only for tractors and only up to 2009.Sub-Saharan Africa is the only region where the adoption of motorized mechanization has stalled over the past decades.

Automation technologies are increasingly used for managing livestock, though evidence on adoption is lacking. Global automatic milking system sales have increased over recent years, but adoption is likely mostly in Northern Europe,and likely almost absent in low- and middle-income countries. Automated feeding machines for both cows and poultry also exist, but data and evidence regarding their adoption trends and drivers is likewise scarce.

Measuring the overall employment impacts of agricultural automation is difficult because it requires large amounts of data tracking all the transformations and the associated reallocation of workers both upstream and downstream.While automation technologies reduce labour needs for the newly automated tasks, they also generate new labour demand for other tasks, such as equipment maintenance and operation.Agricultural automation can also stimulate employment by allowing producers to expand production and by creating other agrifood systems jobs.This is especially true when it happens in context of rising scarcity of rural labour, as is the case in high-income countries and many middle-income countries.On the other hand, if forcedly promoted, for example through government subsidies in contexts of abundant rural labour, it can lead to labour displacement and falling or stagnant wages, particularly affecting poor and low-skilled workers.

Effects of climate change on yields

Main article:Effects of climate change on agriculture

The sixth IPCC Assessment Report projects changes in average soil moisture at 2.0 °C of warming, as measured instandard deviationsfrom the 1850 to 1900 baseline.

Climate changeand agriculture are interrelated on a global scale.Climate change affects agriculturethrough changes inaverage temperatures,rainfall, andweather extremes(like storms and heat waves); changes in pests and diseases; changes in atmosphericcarbon dioxideand ground-levelozoneconcentrations; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods;and changes insea level.Global warming is already affecting agriculture, with effects unevenly distributed across the world.

In a 2022 report, theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Changedescribes how human-induced warming has slowed growth of agricultural productivity over the past 50 years in mid and low latitudes.Methane emissions have negatively impacted crop yields by increasing temperatures and surface ozone concentrations.Warming is also negatively affecting crop and grassland quality and harvest stability.Ocean warminghas decreased sustainable yields of some wild fish populations while ocean acidification and warming have already affected farmed aquatic species.Climate change will probably increase the risk offood insecurityfor some vulnerable groups, such as thepoor.

Crop alteration and biotechnology

Plant breeding

Main article:Plant breeding

Wheat cultivar tolerant of highsalinity(left) compared with non-tolerant variety

Crop alteration has been practiced by humankind for thousands of years, since the beginning of civilization. Altering crops through breeding practices changes the genetic make-up of a plant to develop crops with more beneficial characteristics for humans, for example, larger fruits or seeds, drought-tolerance, or resistance to pests. Significant advances in plant breeding ensued after the work of geneticistGregor Mendel.His work ondominantandrecessive alleles,although initially largely ignored for almost 50 years, gave plant breeders a better understanding of genetics and breeding techniques. Crop breeding includes techniques such as plant selection with desirable traits,self-pollinationandcross-pollination,and molecular techniques that genetically modify the organism.

Domestication of plants has, over the centuries increased yield, improved disease resistance anddrought tolerance,eased harvest and improved the taste and nutritional value of crop plants. Careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s and 1930s improved pasture (grasses and clover) in New Zealand. Extensive X-ray and ultraviolet induced mutagenesis efforts (i.e. primitive genetic engineering) during the 1950s produced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as wheat, corn (maize) and barley.

Seedlings in a green house. This is what it looks like when seedlings are growing from plant breeding.

TheGreen Revolutionpopularized the use of conventionalhybridizationto sharply increase yield by creating "high-yielding varieties". For example, average yields of corn (maize) in the US have increased from around 2.5 tons per hectare (t/ha) (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001. Similarly, worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less than 1 t/ha in 1900 to more than 2.5 t/ha in 1990. South American average wheat yields are around 2 t/ha, African under 1 t/ha, and Egypt and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t/ha with irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in countries such as France is over 8 t/ha. Variations in yields are due mainly to variation in climate, genetics, and the level of intensive farming techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical pest control, and growth control to avoid lodging).

Genetic engineering

Main article:Genetic engineering

See also:Genetically modified food,Genetically modified crops,Regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms,andGenetically modified food controversies

Genetically modifiedpotato plants (left) resist virus diseases that damage unmodified plants (right).

Genetically modified organisms (GMO) areorganismswhosegeneticmaterial has been altered by genetic engineering techniques generally known asrecombinant DNA technology.Genetic engineering has expanded the genes available to breeders to use in creating desired germlines for new crops. Increased durability, nutritional content, insect and virus resistance and herbicide tolerance are a few of the attributes bred into crops through genetic engineering.For some, GMO crops causefood safetyandfood labelingconcerns. Numerous countries have placed restrictions on the production, import or use of GMO foods and crops.TheBiosafety Protocol,an international treaty, regulates the trade of GMOs. There is ongoing discussion regarding the labeling of foods made from GMOs, and while the EU currently requires all GMO foods to be labeled, the US does not.

Herbicide-resistant seeds have a gene implanted into their genome that allows the plants to tolerate exposure to herbicides, includingglyphosate.These seeds allow the farmer to grow a crop that can be sprayed with herbicides to control weeds without harming the resistant crop. Herbicide-tolerant crops are used by farmers worldwide.With the increasing use of herbicide-tolerant crops, comes an increase in the use of glyphosate-based herbicide sprays. In some areas glyphosate resistant weeds have developed, causing farmers to switch to other herbicides.Some studies also link widespread glyphosate usage to iron deficiencies in some crops, which is both a crop production and a nutritional quality concern, with potential economic and health implications.

Other GMO crops used by growers include insect-resistant crops, which have a gene from the soil bacteriumBacillus thuringiensis(Bt), which produces a toxin specific to insects. These crops resist damage by insects.Some believe that similar or better pest-resistance traits can be acquired through traditional breeding practices, and resistance to various pests can be gained through hybridization or cross-pollination with wild species. In some cases, wild species are the primary source of resistance traits; some tomato cultivars that have gained resistance to at least 19 diseases did so through crossing with wild populations of tomatoes.

Environmental impact

Main article:Environmental issues with agriculture

Effects and costs

Water pollutionin a rural stream due torunoff from farming activity in New Zealand

Agriculture is both a cause of and sensitive toenvironmental degradation,such asbiodiversity loss,desertification,soil degradationandclimate change,which cause decreases in crop yield.Agriculture is one of the most important drivers of environmental pressures, particularly habitat change, climate change, water use and toxic emissions. Agriculture is the main source of toxins released into the environment, including insecticides, especially those used on cotton.The 2011 UNEP Green Economy report stated that agricultural operations produced some 13 per cent of anthropogenic global greenhouse gas emissions. This includes gases from the use of inorganic fertilizers, agro-chemical pesticides, and herbicides, as well as fossil fuel-energy inputs.

Agriculture imposes multiple external costs upon society through effects such as pesticide damage to nature (especially herbicides and insecticides), nutrient runoff, excessive water usage, and loss of natural environment. A 2000 assessment of agriculture in the UK determined total external costs for 1996 of £2,343 million, or £208 per hectare.A 2005 analysis of these costs in the US concluded that cropland imposes approximately $5 to $16 billion ($30 to $96 per hectare), while livestock production imposes $714 million.Both studies, which focused solely on the fiscal impacts, concluded that more should be done to internalize external costs. Neither included subsidies in their analysis, but they noted that subsidies also influence the cost of agriculture to society.

Agriculture seeks to increase yield and to reduce costs, often employing measures that cut biodiversity to very low levels. Yield increases with inputs such as fertilisers and removal of pathogens, predators, and competitors (such as weeds). Costs decrease with increasing scale of farm units, such as making fields larger; this means removinghedges,ditches and other areas of habitat. Pesticides kill insects, plants and fungi. Effective yields fall with on-farm losses, which may be caused by poor production practices during harvesting, handling, and storage.

The environmental effects of climate change show that research on pests and diseases that do not generally afflict areas is essential. In 2021, farmers discoveredstem ruston wheat in theChampagnearea of France, a disease that had previously only occurred inMoroccofor 20 to 30 years. Because of climate change, insects that used to die off over the winter are now alive and multiplying.

Livestock issues

Farmyardanaerobic digesterconverts waste plant material and manure from livestock intobiogasfuel.

A senior UN official, Henning Steinfeld, said that "Livestock are one of the most significant contributors to today's most serious environmental problems".Livestock production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land surface of the planet. It is one of the largest sources ofgreenhouse gases,responsible for 18% of the world'sgreenhouse gas emissionsas measured in CO₂equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits 13.5% of the CO₂.It produces 65% of human-relatednitrous oxide(which has 296 times theglobal warming potentialof CO₂) and 37% of all human-inducedmethane(which is 23 times as warming as CO₂.) It also generates 64% of theammoniaemission. Livestock expansion is cited as a key factor drivingdeforestation;in the Amazon basin 70% ofpreviously forested areais now occupied by pastures and the remainder used for feed crops.Through deforestation andland degradation,livestock is also driving reductions in biodiversity. A well documented phenomenon iswoody plant encroachment,caused by overgrazing in rangelands.Furthermore, theUnited Nations Environment Programme(UNEP) states that "methane emissionsfrom global livestock are projected to increase by 60 per cent by 2030 under current practices and consumption patterns. "

Land and water issues

See also:Environmental impact of irrigation

Countries with the highest share of water withdrawal by agriculture in total withdrawal.

Circularirrigatedcrop fields inKansas.Healthy, growing crops ofcornandsorghumare green (sorghum may be slightly paler). Wheat is brilliant gold. Fields of brown have been recently harvested and plowed or have lain infallowfor the year.

Land transformation, the use of land to yield goods and services, is the most substantial way humans alter the Earth's ecosystems, and is the driving force causingbiodiversity loss.Estimates of the amount of land transformed by humans vary from 39 to 50%.It is estimated that 24% of land globally experiences land degradation, a long-term decline in ecosystem function and productivity, with cropland being disproportionately affected.Land management is the driving factor behind degradation; 1.5 billion people rely upon the degrading land. Degradation can be through deforestation,desertification,soil erosion,mineral depletion,acidification,orsalinization.In 2021, the global agricultural land area was 4.79 billion hectares (ha), down 2 percent, or 0.09 billion ha compared with 2000. Between 2000 and 2021, roughly two-thirds of agricultural land were used for permanent meadows and pastures (3.21 billion ha in 2021), which declined by 5 percent (0.17 billion ha). One-third of the total agricultural land was cropland (1.58 billion ha in 2021), which increased by 6 percent (0.09 billion ha).

Eutrophication,excessive nutrient enrichment inaquatic ecosystemsresulting inalgal bloomsandanoxia,leads tofish kills,loss of biodiversity,and renders water unfit for drinking and other industrial uses. Excessive fertilization and manure application to cropland, as well as high livestock stocking densities cause nutrient (mainlynitrogenandphosphorus)runoffandleachingfrom agricultural land. These nutrients are majornonpoint pollutantscontributing toeutrophicationof aquatic ecosystems and pollution of groundwater, with harmful effects on human populations.Fertilisers also reduce terrestrial biodiversity by increasing competition for light, favouring those species that are able to benefit from the added nutrients.

Agriculture simultaneously is facing growing freshwater demand and precipitation anomalies (droughts, floods, and extreme rainfall and weather events) on rainfed areasfields and grazing lands.Agriculture accounts for 70 percent of withdrawals of freshwater resources,and an estimated 41 percent of current global irrigation water use occurs at the expense of environmental flow requirements.It is long known that aquifers in areas as diverse as northern China, theUpper Gangesand the western US are being depleted, and new research extends these problems to aquifers in Iran, Mexico and Saudi Arabia.Increasing pressure is being placed on water resources by industry and urban areas, meaning thatwater scarcityis increasing and agriculture is facing the challenge of producing more food for the world's growing population with reduced water resources.While industrial withdrawals have declined in the past few decades and municipal withdrawals have increased only marginally since 2010, agricultural withdrawals have continued to grow at an ever faster pace.Agricultural waterusage can also cause major environmental problems, including the destruction of natural wetlands, the spread of water-borne diseases, and land degradation through salinization and waterlogging, when irrigation is performed incorrectly.

Pesticides

Main article:Environmental impact of pesticides

Spraying a crop with apesticide

Pesticide use has increased since 1950 to 2.5 million short tons annually worldwide, yet crop loss from pests has remained relatively constant.The World Health Organization estimated in 1992 that three million pesticide poisonings occur annually, causing 220,000 deaths.Pesticides select forpesticide resistancein the pest population, leading to a condition termed the "pesticide treadmill" in which pest resistance warrants the development of a new pesticide.

An alternative argument is that the way to "save the environment" and prevent famine is by using pesticides and intensive high yield farming, a view exemplified by a quote heading the Center for Global Food Issues website: 'Growing more per acre leaves more land for nature'.However, critics argue that a trade-off between the environment and a need for food is not inevitable,and that pesticides can replacegood agronomic practicessuch as crop rotation.ThePush–pull agricultural pest managementtechnique involves intercropping, using plant aromas to repel pests from crops (push) and to lure them to a place from which they can then be removed (pull).

Contribution to climate change

Main article:Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture

World farm-gate greenhouse gas emissions by activity

Agriculture contributes towardsclimate changethroughgreenhouse gas emissionsand by the conversion of non-agricultural land such asforestsinto agricultural land.The agriculture, forestry and land use sector contribute between 13% and 21% of global greenhouse gas emissions.Emissions ofnitrous oxide,methanemake up over half of total greenhouse gas emission from agriculture.Animal husbandryis a major source of greenhouse gas emissions.

Approximately 57% of global GHG emissions from the production of food are from the production of animal-based food while plant-based foods contribute 29% and the remaining 14% is for other utilizations.Farmland management andland-use changerepresented major shares of total emissions (38% and 29%, respectively), whereas rice and beef were the largest contributing plant- and animal-based commodities (12% and 25%, respectively).South and Southeast Asia and South America were the largest emitters of production-based GHGs.

Sustainability

Terraces,conservation tillageand conservation buffers reducesoil erosionandwater pollutionon this farm in Iowa.

Main article:Sustainable agriculture

Current farming methods have resulted in over-stretched water resources, high levels of erosion and reduced soil fertility. There is not enough water to continue farming using current practices; therefore how water, land, andecosystemresources are used to boost crop yields must be reconsidered. A solution would be to give value to ecosystems, recognizing environmental and livelihood tradeoffs, and balancing the rights of a variety of users and interests.Inequities that result when such measures are adopted would need to be addressed, such as the reallocation of water from poor to rich, the clearing of land to make way for more productive farmland, or the preservation of a wetland system that limits fishing rights.

Technological advancements help provide farmers with tools and resources to make farming more sustainable.Technology permits innovations likeconservation tillage,a farming process which helps prevent land loss to erosion, reduces water pollution, and enhancescarbon sequestration.

Agricultural automation can help address some of the challenges associated with climate change and thus facilitate adaptation efforts.For example, the application of digital automation technologies (e.g. in precision agriculture) can improve resource-use efficiency in conditions which are increasingly constrained for agricultural producers.Moreover, when applied to sensing and early warning, they can help address the uncertainty and unpredictability of weather conditions associated with accelerating climate change.

Other potential sustainable practices includeconservation agriculture,agroforestry,improvedgrazing,avoided grassland conversion, andbiochar.Current mono-crop farming practices in the United States preclude widespread adoption of sustainable practices, such as 2–3 crop rotations that incorporate grass or hay with annual crops, unless negative emission goals such as soil carbon sequestration become policy.

The food demand of Earth's projected population, with current climate change predictions, could be satisfied by improvement of agricultural methods, expansion of agricultural areas, and a sustainability-oriented consumer mindset.

Energy dependence

Mechanised agriculture:from the first models in the 1940s, tools like acotton pickercould replace 50 farm workers, at the price of increased use offossil fuel.

Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically, due largely to the increased use of energy-intensive mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides. The vast majority of this energy input comes fromfossil fuelsources.Between the 1960s and the 1980s, the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, with world grain production increasing significantly (between 70% and 390% for wheat and 60% to 150% for rice, depending on geographic area)asworld populationdoubled. Heavy reliance onpetrochemicalshas raised concerns that oil shortages could increase costs and reduce agricultural output.

Industrialized agriculture depends onfossil fuelsin two fundamental ways: direct consumption on the farm and manufacture of inputs used on the farm. Direct consumption includes the use of lubricants and fuels to operate farm vehicles and machinery.

Indirect consumption includes the manufacture of fertilizers, pesticides, and farm machinery.In particular, the production ofnitrogen fertilizercan account for over half of agricultural energy usage.Together, direct and indirect consumption by US farms accounts for about 2% of the nation's energy use. Direct and indirect energy consumption by U.S. farms peaked in 1979, and has since gradually declined.Food systemsencompass not just agriculture but off-farm processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, consumption, and disposal of food and food-related items. Agriculture accounts for less than one-fifth of food system energy use in the US.

Plastic pollution

Main articles:Plastic pollutionandplasticulture

Plastic products are used extensively in agriculture, including to increase crop yields and improve the efficiency of water and agrichemical use. "Agriplastic" products include films to covergreenhousesand tunnels, mulch to cover soil (e.g. to suppress weeds,conserve water,increase soil temperature and aid fertilizer application), shade cloth, pesticide containers, seedling trays, protective mesh and irrigation tubing. The polymers most commonly used in these products are low- density polyethylene (LPDE), linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).

The total amount of plastics used in agriculture is difficult to quantify. A 2012 study reported that almost 6.5 million tonnes per year were consumed globally while a later study estimated that global demand in 2015 was between 7.3 million and 9 million tonnes. Widespread use of plastic mulch and lack of systematic collection and management have led to the generation of large amounts of mulch residue. Weathering and degradation eventually cause the mulch to fragment. These fragments and larger pieces of plastic accumulate in soil. Mulch residue has been measured at levels of 50 to 260 kg per hectare in topsoil in areas where mulch use dates back more than 10 years, which confirms that mulching is a major source of both microplastic and macroplastic soil contamination.

Agricultural plastics, especially plastic films, are not easy to recycle because of high contamination levels (up to 40–50% by weight contamination by pesticides, fertilizers, soil and debris, moist vegetation, silage juice water, and UV stabilizers) and collection difficulties. Therefore, they are often buried or abandoned in fields and watercourses or burned. These disposal practices lead to soil degradation and can result in contamination of soils and leakage ofmicroplasticsinto the marine environment as a result of precipitation run-off and tidal washing. In addition, additives in residual plastic film (such as UV and thermal stabilizers) may have deleterious effects on crop growth, soil structure, nutrient transport and salt levels. There is a risk that plastic mulch will deterioratesoil quality,deplete soil organic matter stocks, increase soil water repellence and emit greenhouse gases. Microplastics released through fragmentation of agricultural plastics can absorb and concentrate contaminants capable of being passed up the trophic chain.

Disciplines

Agricultural economics

Main article:Agricultural economics

In 19th century Britain, theprotectionistCorn Lawsled to high prices and widespread protest, such as this 1846 meeting of theAnti-Corn Law League.

Agricultural economics is economics as it relates to the "production, distribution and consumption of [agricultural] goods and services".Combining agricultural production with general theories of marketing and business as a discipline of study began in the late 1800s, and grew significantly through the 20th century.Although the study of agricultural economics is relatively recent, major trends in agriculture have significantly affected national and international economies throughout history, ranging fromtenant farmersandsharecroppingin the post-American Civil WarSouthern United Statesto the Europeanfeudalsystem ofmanorialism.In the United States, and elsewhere, food costs attributed tofood processing,distribution, andagricultural marketing,sometimes referred to as thevalue chain,have risen while the costs attributed to farming have declined. This is related to the greater efficiency of farming, combined with the increased level ofvalue addition(e.g. more highly processed products) provided by the supply chain.Market concentrationhas increased in the sector as well, and although the total effect of the increased market concentration is likely increased efficiency, the changes redistributeeconomic surplusfrom producers (farmers) and consumers, and may have negative implications for rural communities.

National government policies, such as taxation,subsidies,tariffs and others, can significantly change the economic marketplace for agricultural products.Since at least the 1960s, a combination of trade restrictions,exchange rate policiesand subsidies have affected farmers in both the developing and the developed world. In the 1980s, non-subsidized farmers in developing countries experienced adverse effects from national policies that created artificially low global prices for farm products. Between the mid-1980s and the early 2000s, several international agreements limited agricultural tariffs, subsidies and other trade restrictions.

However, as of 2009,there was still a significant amount of policy-driven distortion in global agricultural product prices. The three agricultural products with the most trade distortion were sugar, milk and rice, mainly due to taxation. Among theoilseeds,sesame had the most taxation, but overall, feed grains and oilseeds had much lower levels of taxation than livestock products. Since the 1980s, policy-driven distortions have decreases more among livestock products than crops during the worldwide reforms in agricultural policy.Despite this progress, certain crops, such as cotton, still see subsidies in developed countries artificially deflating global prices, causing hardship in developing countries with non-subsidized farmers.Unprocessed commodities such as corn, soybeans, and cattle are generally graded to indicate quality, affecting the price the producer receives. Commodities are generally reported by production quantities, such as volume, number or weight.

Agricultural science

Main article:Agricultural science

Further information:Agronomy

Anagronomistmapping a plantgenome

Agricultural scienceis a broad multidisciplinary field ofbiologythat encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic andsocial sciencesused in the practice and understanding of agriculture. It covers topics such as agronomy, plant breeding and genetics,plant pathology,crop modelling, soil science,entomology,production techniques and improvement, study of pests and their management, and study of adverse environmental effects such as soil degradation,waste management,andbioremediation.

The scientific study of agriculture began in the 18th century, whenJohann Friedrich Mayerconducted experiments on the use ofgypsum(hydratedcalcium sulphate) as a fertilizer.Research became more systematic when in 1843,John Lawesand Henry Gilbert began a set of long-term agronomy field experiments atRothamsted Research Stationin England; some of them, such as thePark Grass Experiment,are still running.In America, theHatch Act of 1887provided funding for what it was the first to call "agricultural science", driven by farmers' interest in fertilizers.In agricultural entomology, the USDA began to research biological control in 1881; it instituted its first large program in 1905, searching Europe and Japan for natural enemies of thespongy mothandbrown-tailmoth, establishingparasitoids(such as solitary wasps) and predators of both pests in the US.

Policy

Main article:Agricultural policy

Direct subsidiesfor animal products and feed byOECDcountries in 2012, in billions of US dollars

Product	Subsidy
Beef and veal	18.0
Milk	15.3
Pigs	7.3
Poultry	6.5
Soybeans	2.3
Eggs	1.5
Sheep	1.1

Agricultural policyis the set of government decisions and actions relating to domestic agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural products. Governments usually implement agricultural policies with the goal of achieving a specific outcome in the domestic agricultural product markets. Some overarching themes include risk management and adjustment (including policies related to climate change, food safety and natural disasters),economic stability(including policies related to taxes), natural resources andenvironmental sustainability(especiallywater policy), research and development, and market access for domestic commodities (including relations with global organizations and agreements with other countries).Agricultural policy can also touch onfood quality,ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality, food security, ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs, andconservation.Policy programs can range from financial programs, such as subsidies, to encouraging producers to enroll in voluntary quality assurance programs.

A 2021 report finds that globally, support to agricultural producers accounts for almost US$540 billion a year.This amounts to 15 percent of total agricultural production value, and is heavily biased towards measures that are leading to inefficiency, as well as are unequally distributed and harmful for the environment and human health.

There are many influences on the creation of agricultural policy, including consumers, agribusiness, trade lobbies and other groups.Agribusinessinterests hold a large amount of influence over policy making, in the form oflobbyingandcampaign contributions.Political action groups, including those interested in environmental issues and labor unions, also provide influence, as do lobbying organizations representing individual agricultural commodities.TheFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO) leads international efforts to defeat hunger and provides a forum for the negotiation of global agricultural regulations and agreements. Samuel Jutzi, director of FAO's animal production and health division, states that lobbying by large corporations has stopped reforms that would improve human health and the environment. For example, proposals in 2010 for a voluntary code of conduct for the livestock industry that would have provided incentives for improving standards for health, and environmental regulations, such as the number of animals an area of land can support without long-term damage, were successfully defeated due to large food company pressure.

See also

Main article:Outline of agriculture

• Aeroponics
• Agricultural aircraft
• Agricultural engineering
• Agricultural machinery
• Agricultural robot
• Agroecology
• Agribusiness
• Agrominerals
• Building-integrated agriculture
• Contract farming
• Corporate farming
• Crofting
• Ecoagriculture
• Farmworker
• Food loss and waste
• Food security
• Hill farming
• List of documentary films about agriculture
• Pharming (genetics)
• Remote sensing
• Rural Development
• Soil biodiversity
• Subsistence economy
• Sustainable agriculture
• Urban agriculture
• Vertical farming
• Vegetable farming

Cited sources

• Acquaah, George (2002).Principles of Crop Production: Theory, Techniques, and Technology.Prentice Hall.ISBN978-0-13-022133-9.
• Chrispeels, Maarten J.; Sadava, David E. (1994).Plants, Genes, and Agriculture.Boston, Massachusetts: Jones and Bartlett.ISBN978-0-86720-871-9.
• Needham, Joseph(1986).Science and Civilization in China.Taipei: Caves Books.

This article incorporates text from afree contentwork. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken fromDrowning in Plastics – Marine Litter and Plastic Waste Vital Graphics​,United Nations Environment Programme.

This article incorporates text from afree contentwork. (license statement/permission). Text taken fromIn Brief: The State of Food and Agriculture 2019. Moving forward on food loss and waste reduction​,FAO, FAO.

This article incorporates text from afree contentwork. (license statement/permission). Text taken fromIn Brief to The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. Repurposing food and agricultural policies to make healthy diets more affordable​,FAO.

This article incorporates text from afree contentwork. (license statement/permission). Text taken fromIn Brief: The State of Food and Agriculture 2018. Migration, agriculture and rural development​,FAO, FAO.

This article incorporates text from afree contentwork. (license statement/permission). Text taken fromIn Brief to The State of Food and Agriculture 2022. Leveraging automation in agriculture for transforming agrifood systems​,FAO, FAO.

This article incorporates text from afree contentwork. (license statement/permission). Text taken fromEnabling inclusive agricultural automation​,FAO, FAO.

This article incorporates text from afree contentwork. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken fromThe status of women in agrifood systems – Overview​,FAO, FAO.

This article incorporates text from afree contentwork. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken fromWorld Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​,FAO, FAO.

External links

• Food and Agriculture Organization
• United States Department of Agriculture
• Agriculturematerial from theWorld Bank Group
• Agriculturecollected news and commentary atThe New York Times
• Agriculturecollected news and commentary atThe Guardian