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Aircraft

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

TheCessna 172Skyhawkis themost produced aircraftin history.

Anaircraft(pl.:aircraft) is avehiclethat is able toflyby gaining support from theair.It counters the force of gravity by using eitherstatic liftor thedynamic liftof anairfoil,[1]or, in a few cases, directdownward thrustfrom its engines. Common examples of aircraft includeairplanes,helicopters,airships(includingblimps),gliders,paramotors,andhot air balloons.[2]

The human activity that surrounds aircraft is calledaviation.The science of aviation, including designing and building aircraft, is calledaeronautics.Crewedaircraft are flown by an onboardpilot,whereasunmanned aerial vehiclesmay be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboardcomputers.Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as lift type,aircraft propulsion(if any), usage and others.

History

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Main article:History of aviation
See also:Timeline of aviation
An illustration showcasing various 19th-century aviation prototypes and designs.
Aviation in 19th century

Flying model craft and stories of mannedflightgo back many centuries; however, the first manned ascent — and safe descent — in modern times took place by larger hot-air balloons developed in the 18th century. Each of the twoWorld Warsled to great technical advances. Consequently, the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras:

Methods of lift

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Lighter than air – aerostats

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Main article:Aerostat
Hot airballoons
AirshipUSSAkronover Manhattan in the 1930s

Aerostatsusebuoyancyto float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large cells or canopies, filled with a relatively low-density gas such ashelium,hydrogen,orhot air,which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, it adds up to the same weight as the air that the craft displaces.

Small hot-air balloons, calledsky lanterns,were first invented in ancient China prior to the 3rd century BC and used primarily in cultural celebrations, and were only the second type of aircraft to fly, the first beingkites,which were first invented in ancient China over two thousand years ago (seeHan Dynasty).

Aballoonwas originally any aerostat, while the termairshipwas used for large, powered aircraft designs — usually fixed-wing.[3][4][5][6][7][8]In 1919,Frederick Handley Pagewas reported as referring to "ships of the air," with smaller passenger types as "Air yachts."[9]In the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as "ships of the air" or "flying-ships".[10][11]— though none had yet been built. The advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by arigidouter framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced, theZeppelinsbeing the largest and most famous. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, so "airship" came to be synonymous with these aircraft. Then several accidents, such as theHindenburg disasterin 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a "balloon" is an unpowered aerostat and an "airship" is a powered one.

A powered, steerable aerostat is called adirigible.Sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimesdirigible balloonis regarded as the definition of an airship (which may then be rigid or non-rigid). Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderatelyaerodynamicgasbag with stabilizing fins at the back. These soon became known asblimps.DuringWorld War II,this shape was widely adopted fortethered balloons;in windy weather, this both reduces the strain on the tether and stabilizes the balloon. The nicknameblimpwas adopted along with the shape. In modern times, any small dirigible or airship is called a blimp, though a blimp may be unpowered as well as powered.

Heavier-than-air – aerodynes

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Heavier-than-air aircraft, such asairplanes,must find some way to push air or gas downwards so that a reaction occurs (by Newton's laws of motion) to push the aircraft upwards. This dynamic movement through the air is the origin of the term. There are two ways to produce dynamic upthrust —aerodynamic lift,andpowered liftin the form of engine thrust.

Aerodynamic lift involvingwingsis the most common, withfixed-wing aircraftbeing kept in the air by the forward movement of wings, androtorcraftby spinning wing-shapedrotorssometimes called "rotary wings." A wing is a flat, horizontal surface, usually shaped in cross-section as anaerofoil.To fly, air must flow over the wing and generatelift.Aflexible wingis a wing made of fabric or thin sheet material, often stretched over a rigid frame. Akiteis tethered to the ground and relies on the speed of the wind over its wings, which may be flexible or rigid, fixed, or rotary.

With powered lift, the aircraft directs its engine thrustverticallydownward.V/STOLaircraft, such as theHarrier jump jetandLockheed Martin F-35Btake off and land vertically using powered lift and transfer to aerodynamic lift in steady flight.

A purerocketis not usually regarded as an aerodyne because it does not depend on the air for its lift (and can even fly into space); however, many aerodynamic lift vehicles have been powered or assisted by rocket motors. Rocket-powered missiles that obtain aerodynamic lift at very high speed due to airflow over their bodies are a marginal case.

Fixed-wing

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Main article:Fixed-wing aircraft
AnAirbus A380,the world's largest passengerairliner

The forerunner of the fixed-wing aircraft is thekite.Whereas a fixed-wing aircraft relies on its forward speed to create airflow over the wings, a kite is tethered to the ground and relies on thewindblowing over its wings to provide lift. Kites were the first kind of aircraft to fly andwere invented in Chinaaround 500 BC. Much aerodynamic research was done with kites before test aircraft,wind tunnels,and computer modelling programs became available.

The first heavier-than-air craft capable of controlled free-flight weregliders.A glider designed byGeorge Cayleycarried out the first true manned, controlled flight in 1853. The first powered and controllable fixed-wing aircraft (theairplaneor aeroplane) was invented byWilbur and Orville Wright.

Besides the method ofpropulsion(if any), fixed-wing aircraft are in general characterized by theirwing configuration.The most important wing characteristics are:

Avariable geometryaircraft can change its wing configuration during flight.

Aflying winghas no fuselage, though it may have small blisters or pods. The opposite of this is alifting body,which has no wings, though it may have small stabilizing and control surfaces.

Wing-in-ground-effectvehicles are generally not considered aircraft.[12]They "fly" efficiently close to the surface of the ground or water, like conventional aircraft during takeoff. An example is the Russian ekranoplan nicknamed the "Caspian Sea Monster".Man-powered aircraftalso rely onground effectto remain airborne with minimal pilot power, but this is only because they are so underpowered—in fact, the airframe is capable of flying higher.

Rotorcraft

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Main article:Rotorcraft
TheMil Mi-8is the most produced rotorcraft.

Rotorcraft, or rotary-wing aircraft, use a spinningrotorwith aerofoil cross-section blades (arotary wing) to provide lift. Types includehelicopters,autogyros,and various hybrids such asgyrodynesand compound rotorcraft.

Helicoptershave a rotor turned by an engine-driven shaft. The rotor pushes air downward to create lift. By tilting the rotor forward, the downward flow is tilted backward, producing thrust for forward flight. Some helicopters have more than one rotor and a few have rotors turned by gas jets at the tips. Some have atail rotorto counteract the rotation of the main rotor, and to aid directional control.

Autogyroshave unpowered rotors, with a separate power plant to provide thrust. The rotor is tilted backward. As the autogyro moves forward, air blows upward across the rotor, making it spin. This spinning increases the speed of airflow over the rotor, to provide lift.Rotor kitesare unpowered autogyros, which are towed to give them forward speed or tethered to a static anchor in high-wind for kited flight.

Compound rotorcrafthave wings that provide some or all of the lift in forward flight. They are nowadays classified aspowered lifttypes and not as rotorcraft.Tiltrotoraircraft (such as theBell Boeing V-22 Osprey),tiltwing,tail-sitter,andcoleopteraircraft have their rotors/propellershorizontal for vertical flight and vertical for forward flight.

Other methods of lift

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TheLunar Landing Research Vehiclerelies onpowered lift.
  • Alifting bodyis an aircraft body shaped to produce lift. If there are any wings, they are too small to provide significant lift and are used only for stability and control. Lifting bodies are not efficient: they suffer from high drag, and must also travel at high speed to generate enough lift to fly. Many of the research prototypes, such as theMartin Marietta X-24,which led up to theSpace Shuttle,were lifting bodies, though the Space Shuttle is not, and somesupersonicmissilesobtain lift from the airflow over a tubular body.
  • Powered lifttypes rely on engine-derived lift for vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL). Most types transition to fixed-wing lift for horizontal flight. Classes of powered lift types includeVTOLjet aircraft (such as theHarrier jump jet) andtiltrotors,such as theBell Boeing V-22 Osprey,among others. A few experimental designs rely entirely on engine thrust to provide lift throughout the whole flight, including personal fan-lift hover platforms and jetpacks.VTOLresearch designs include theRolls-Royce Thrust Measuring Rig.
  • Somerotor wingsemploy horizontal-axis wings, in which airflow across a spinning rotor generates lift. TheFlettner airplaneuses a rotating cylinder, obtaining lift from theMagnus effect.TheFanWinguses across-flow fan,while the mechanically more complexcyclogyrocomprises multiple wings which rotate together around a central axis.
  • Theornithopterobtains thrust by flapping its wings.

Size and speed extremes

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Size

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Main article:List of large aircraft

The smallest aircraft are toys/recreational items, andnano aircraft.

The largest aircraft by dimensions and volume (as of 2016) is the 302 ft (92 m) long BritishAirlander 10,a hybrid blimp, with helicopter and fixed-wing features, and reportedly capable of speeds up to 90 mph (140 km/h; 78 kn), and an airborne endurance of two weeks with a payload of up to 22,050 lb (10,000 kg).[13][14][15]

The largest aircraft by weight and largest regular fixed-wing aircraft ever built, as of 2016,was theAntonov An-225Mriya.That Soviet-built (Ukrainian SSR) six-engine transport of the 1980s was 84 m (276 ft) long, with an 88 m (289 ft) wingspan. It holds the world payload record, after transporting 428,834 lb (194,516 kg) of goods, and has flown 100 t (220,000 lb) loads commercially. With a maximum loaded weight of 550–700 t (1,210,000–1,540,000 lb), it was also the heaviest aircraft built to date. It could cruise at 500 mph (800 km/h; 430 kn).[16][17][18][19][20]The aircraft was destroyed during theRusso-Ukrainian War.[21]

The largest military airplanes are the UkrainianAntonov An-124Ruslan(world's second-largest airplane, also used as a civilian transport),[22]and AmericanLockheed C-5 Galaxytransport, weighing, loaded, over 380 t (840,000 lb).[20][23]The 8-engine, piston/propellerHughes H-4Hercules"Spruce Goose" — an AmericanWorld War IIwooden flying boat transport with a greater wingspan (94m/260ft) than any current aircraft and a tail height equal to the tallest (Airbus A380-800 at 24.1m/78ft) — flew only one short hop in the late 1940s and never flew out ofground effect.[20]

The largest civilian airplanes, apart from the above-noted An-225 and An-124, are theAirbus Belugacargo transport derivative of theAirbus A300jet airliner, theBoeing Dreamliftercargo transport derivative of theBoeing 747jet airliner/transport (the 747-200B was, at its creation in the 1960s, the heaviest aircraft ever built, with a maximum weight of over 400 t (880,000 lb)),[23]and the double-deckerAirbus A380"super-jumbo" jet airliner (the world's largest passenger airliner).[20][24]

Speeds

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Main article:Flight airspeed record

The fastest fixed-wing aircraft and fastest glider, is theSpace Shuttle,which re-entered the atmosphere at nearly Mach 25 or 17,500 mph (28,200 km/h)[25]

The fastest recorded powered aircraft flight and fastest recorded aircraft flight of an air-breathing powered aircraft was of theNASA X-43APegasus,ascramjet-powered,hypersonic,lifting bodyexperimental research aircraft, atMach9.68 or 6,755 mph (10,870 km/h) on 16 November 2004.[26]

Prior to the X-43A, the fastest recorded powered airplane flight, and still the record for the fastest manned powered airplane, was theNorth American X-15,rocket-powered airplane at Mach 6.7 or 7,274 km/h (4,520 mph) on 3 October 1967.[27]

The fastest manned, air-breathing powered airplane is theLockheed SR-71 Blackbird,a U.S.reconnaissancejet fixed-wing aircraft, having reached 3,530 km/h (2,193 mph) on 28 July 1976.[28]

Propulsion

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Unpowered aircraft

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Main article:Unpowered aircraft
Sailplane (Rolladen-Schneider LS4)

Glidersare heavier-than-air aircraft that do not employ propulsion once airborne. Take-off may be by launching forward and downward from a high location, or by pulling into the air on a tow-line, either by a ground-based winch or vehicle, or by a powered "tug" aircraft. For a glider to maintain its forward air speed and lift, it must descend in relation to the air (but not necessarily in relation to the ground). Many gliders can "soar",i.e.,gain height from updrafts such as thermal currents. The first practical, controllable example was designed and built by the British scientist and pioneerGeorge Cayley,whom many recognise as the first aeronautical engineer. Common examples of gliders aresailplanes,hang glidersandparagliders.

Balloonsdrift with the wind, though normally the pilot can control the altitude, either by heating the air or by releasing ballast, giving some directional control (since the wind direction changes with altitude). A wing-shaped hybrid balloon can glide directionally when rising or falling; but a spherically shaped balloon does not have such directional control.

Kitesare aircraft[29]that are tethered to the ground or other object (fixed or mobile) that maintains tension in the tether orkite line;they rely on virtual or real wind blowing over and under them to generate lift and drag.Kytoonsare balloon-kite hybrids that are shaped and tethered to obtain kiting deflections, and can be lighter-than-air, neutrally buoyant, or heavier-than-air.

Powered aircraft

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Main article:Powered aircraft

Powered aircraft have one or more onboard sources of mechanical power, typicallyaircraft enginesalthough rubber and manpower have also been used. Most aircraft engines are either lightweightreciprocating enginesorgas turbines.Engine fuel is stored in tanks, usually in the wings but larger aircraft also have additionalfuel tanksin thefuselage.

Propeller aircraft

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Main article:Powered aircraft § Propeller aircraft
Aturboprop-enginedDeHavilland Twin Otteradapted as afloatplane

Propeller aircraftuse one or morepropellers(airscrews) to create thrust in a forward direction. The propeller is usually mounted in front of the power source intractor configurationbut can be mounted behind inpusher configuration.Variations of propeller layout includecontra-rotating propellersandducted fans.

Many kinds of power plant have been used to drive propellers. Early airships used man power orsteam engines.The more practicalinternal combustion piston enginewas used for virtually all fixed-wing aircraft untilWorld War IIand is still used in many smaller aircraft. Some types use turbine engines to drive a propeller in the form of aturboproporpropfan.Human-powered flighthas been achieved, but has not become a practical means of transport. Unmanned aircraft and models have also used power sources such aselectric motorsand rubber bands.

Jet aircraft

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Main article:Jet aircraft
Lockheed Martin F-22A Raptor

Jet aircraftuseairbreathing jet engines,which take in air, burn fuel with it in acombustion chamber,and accelerate the exhaust rearwards to provide thrust.

Different jet engine configurations include theturbojetandturbofan,sometimes with the addition of anafterburner.Those with no rotating turbomachinery include thepulsejetandramjet.These mechanically simple engines produce no thrust when stationary, so the aircraft must be launched to flying speed using a catapult, like theV-1 flying bomb,or a rocket, for example. Other engine types include themotorjetand the dual-cyclePratt & Whitney J58.

Compared to engines using propellers, jet engines can provide much higher thrust, higher speeds and, above about 40,000 ft (12,000 m), greater efficiency.[30]They are also much more fuel-efficient thanrockets.As a consequence nearly all large, high-speed or high-altitude aircraft use jet engines.

Rotorcraft

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Main article:Rotorcraft

Some rotorcraft, such ashelicopters,have a powered rotary wing orrotor,where the rotor disc can be angled slightly forward so that a proportion of its lift is directed forwards. The rotor may, like a propeller, be powered by a variety of methods such as a piston engine or turbine. Experiments have also usedjet nozzles at the rotor blade tips.

Other types of powered aircraft

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  • Rocket-powered aircrafthave occasionally been experimented with, and theMesserschmitt Me 163Kometfighter even saw action in the Second World War. Since then, they have been restricted to research aircraft, such as theNorth American X-15,which traveled up into space where air-breathing engines cannot work (rockets carry their own oxidant). Rockets have more often been used as a supplement to the main power plant, typically for therocket-assisted take offof heavily loaded aircraft, but also to provide high-speed dash capability in some hybrid designs such as theSaunders-Roe SR.53.
  • Theornithopterobtains thrust by flapping its wings.

Design and construction

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Aircraft aredesignedaccording to many factors such as customer and manufacturer demand,safetyprotocols and physical and economic constraints. For many types of aircraft the design process is regulated by national airworthiness authorities.

The key parts of an aircraft are generally divided into three categories:

  • Thestructure( "airframe"[31][32][33][34]) comprises the main load-bearing elements and associated equipment, as well as flight controls.
  • Thepropulsion system( "powerplant"[31][32][35]) (if it is powered) comprises the power source and associated equipment, as described above.
  • Theavionicscomprise the electrical and electronic control, navigation and communication systems.[31][32][34][36]

Structure

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The approach to structural design varies widely between different types of aircraft. Some, such as paragliders, comprise only flexible materials that act in tension and rely on aerodynamic pressure to hold their shape. Aballoonsimilarly relies on internal gas pressure, but may have a rigid basket or gondola slung below it to carry its payload. Early aircraft, includingairships,often employed flexibledopedaircraft fabric coveringto give a reasonably smooth aeroshell stretched over a rigid frame. Later aircraft employed semi-monocoquetechniques, where the skin of the aircraft is stiff enough to share much of the flight loads. In a true monocoque design there is no internal structure left.

The key structural parts of an aircraft depend on what type it is.

Aerostats

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Main article:Aerostat

Lighter-than-air types are characterised by one or more gasbags, typically with a supporting structure of flexible cables or a rigid framework called its hull. Other elements such as engines or a gondola may also be attached to the supporting structure.

Aerodynes

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Airframe diagram for anAgustaWestland AW101helicopter

Heavier-than-air types are characterised by one or more wings and a centralfuselage.The fuselage typically also carries a tail orempennagefor stability and control, and an undercarriage for takeoff and landing. Engines may be located on the fuselage or wings. On afixed-wing aircraftthe wings are rigidly attached to the fuselage, while on arotorcraftthe wings are attached to a rotating vertical shaft. Smaller designs sometimes use flexible materials for part or all of the structure, held in place either by a rigid frame or by air pressure. The fixed parts of the structure comprise theairframe.

Power

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Main article:Propulsion

The source of motive power for an aircraft is normally called thepowerplant,and includesengineormotor,propellerorrotor,(if any),jet nozzlesandthrust reversers(if any), and accessories essential to the functioning of the engine or motor (e.g.:starter,ignition system,intake system,exhaust system,fuel system,lubricationsystem,engine cooling system,andengine controls).[31][32][35]

Powered aircraft are typically powered byinternal combustion engines(piston[37]orturbine[38]) burningfossil fuels-- typicallygasoline(avgas) orjet fuel.A very few are powered byrocket power,ramjetpropulsion, or byelectric motors,or by internal combustion engines of other types, or using other fuels. A very few have been powered, for short flights, byhuman muscle energy(e.g.:Gossamer Condor).[39][40][41]

Avionics

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Main article:Avionics

The avionics comprise anyelectronicaircraft flight control systemsand related equipment, including electroniccockpitinstrumentation, navigation,radar,monitoring, andcommunications systems.[31][32][34][36]

Flight characteristics

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Flight envelope

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Main article:Flight envelope

The flight envelope of an aircraft refers to its approved design capabilities in terms ofairspeed,load factorand altitude.[42][43]The term can also refer to other assessments of aircraft performance such as maneuverability. When an aircraft is abused, for instance by diving it at too-high a speed, it is said to be flownoutside the envelope,something considered foolhardy since it has been taken beyond the design limits which have been established by the manufacturer. Going beyond the envelope may have a known outcome such asflutteror entry to a non-recoverable spin (possible reasons for the boundary).

Range

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TheBoeing 777-200LRis one of the longest-range airliners, capable of flights of more than halfway around the world.
Main article:Range (aeronautics)

The range is the distance an aircraft can fly betweentakeoffandlanding,as limited by the time it can remain airborne.

For a powered aircraft the time limit is determined by the fuel load and rate of consumption.

For an unpowered aircraft, the maximum flight time is limited by factors such as weather conditions and pilot endurance. Many aircraft types are restricted to daylight hours, while balloons are limited by their supply of lifting gas. The range can be seen as the average ground speed multiplied by the maximum time in the air.

TheAirbus A350-900ULRis among the longest range airliners.[44]

Flight dynamics

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Main article:Flight dynamics (fixed-wing aircraft)

Flight dynamics is the science of air vehicle orientation and control in three dimensions. The three critical flight dynamics parameters are theangles of rotationaroundthree axeswhich pass through the vehicle'scenter of gravity,known aspitch,roll,andyaw.

  • Roll is a rotation about the longitudinal axis (equivalent to the rolling orheelingof a ship) giving an up-down movement of the wing tips measured by the roll or bank angle.
  • Pitch is a rotation about the sideways horizontal axis giving an up-down movement of the aircraft nose measured by theangle of attack.
  • Yaw is a rotation about the vertical axis giving a side-to-side movement of the nose known as sideslip.

Flight dynamics is concerned with the stability and control of an aircraft's rotation about each of these axes.

Stability

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Theempennageof aBoeing 747-200

An aircraft that is unstable tends to diverge from its intended flight path and so is difficult to fly. A very stable aircraft tends to stay on its flight path and is difficult to maneuver. Therefore, it is important for any design to achieve the desired degree of stability. Since the widespread use of digital computers, it is increasingly common for designs to be inherently unstable and rely on computerised control systems to provide artificial stability.

A fixed wing is typically unstable in pitch, roll, and yaw. Pitch and yaw stabilities of conventional fixed wing designs requirehorizontal and vertical stabilisers,[45][46]which act similarly to the feathers on an arrow.[47]These stabilizing surfaces allow equilibrium of aerodynamic forces and to stabilise theflight dynamicsof pitch and yaw.[45][46]They are usually mounted on the tail section (empennage), although in thecanardlayout, the main aft wing replaces the canard foreplane as pitch stabilizer.Tandem wingandtailless aircraftrely on the same general rule to achieve stability, the aft surface being the stabilising one.

A rotary wing is typically unstable in yaw, requiring a vertical stabiliser.

A balloon is typically very stable in pitch and roll due to the way the payload is slung underneath the center of lift.

Control

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Flight control surfacesenable the pilot to control an aircraft'sflight attitudeand are usually part of the wing or mounted on, or integral with, the associated stabilizing surface. Their development was a critical advance in the history of aircraft, which had until that point been uncontrollable in flight.

Aerospace engineersdevelopcontrol systemsfor a vehicle's orientation (attitude) about itscenter of mass.The control systems include actuators, which exert forces in various directions, and generate rotational forces ormomentsabout theaerodynamic centerof the aircraft, and thus rotate the aircraft in pitch, roll, or yaw. For example, apitching momentis a vertical force applied at a distance forward or aft from the aerodynamic center of the aircraft, causing the aircraft to pitch up or down. Control systems are also sometimes used to increase or decrease drag, for example to slow the aircraft to a safe speed for landing.

The two main aerodynamic forces acting on any aircraft are lift supporting it in the air anddragopposing its motion. Control surfaces or other techniques may also be used to affect these forces directly, without inducing any rotation.

Environmental impact

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Main article:Environmental impact of aviation

Aircraft permit long distance, high speedtraveland may be a morefuel efficientmode of transportation in some circumstances. Aircraft haveenvironmental and climate impactsbeyondfuel efficiencyconsiderations, however. They are also relativelynoisycompared to other forms of travel and high altitude aircraft generatecontrails,which experimental evidence suggests mayalter weather patterns.

Uses for aircraft

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Aircraft are produced in several different types optimized for various uses;military aircraft,which includes not just combat types but many types of supporting aircraft, andcivil aircraft,which include all non-military types, experimental and model.

Military

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Boeing B-17Ein flight
Main article:Military aircraft

A military aircraft is any aircraft that is operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed service of any type.[48]Military aircraft can be either combat or non-combat:

  • Combat aircraft are aircraft designed to destroy enemy equipment using its own armament.[48]Combat aircraft divide broadly intofightersandbombers,with several in-between types, such asfighter-bombersandattack aircraft,includingattack helicopters.
  • Non-combat aircraft are not designed for combat as their primary function, but may carry weapons for self-defense. Non-combat roles include search and rescue, reconnaissance, observation, transport, training, andaerial refueling.These aircraft are often variants of civil aircraft.

Most military aircraft are powered heavier-than-air types. Other types, such as gliders and balloons, have also been used as military aircraft; for example, balloons were used for observation during theAmerican Civil WarandWorld War I,andmilitary gliderswere used duringWorld War IIto land troops.

Civil

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Agusta A109helicopter of theSwiss air rescue service
Main article:Civil aviation

Civil aircraft divide intocommercialandgeneraltypes, however there are some overlaps.

Commercial aircraftinclude types designed for scheduled and charter airline flights, carrying passengers,mailand othercargo.The larger passenger-carrying types are the airliners, the largest of which arewide-body aircraft.Some of the smaller types are also used ingeneral aviation,and some of the larger types are used asVIP aircraft.

General aviationis a catch-all covering other kinds ofprivate(where the pilot is not paid for time or expenses) and commercial use, and involving a wide range of aircraft types such asbusiness jets (bizjets),trainers,homebuilt,gliders,warbirdsandhot air balloonsto name a few. The vast majority of aircraft today are general aviation types.

Experimental

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Main article:Experimental aircraft

An experimental aircraft is one that has not been fully proven in flight, or that carries aSpecial Airworthiness Certificate,called an Experimental Certificate in United States parlance. This often implies that the aircraft is testing new aerospace technologies, though the term also refers to amateur-built and kit-built aircraft, many of which are based on proven designs.

A model aircraft, weighing six grams

Model

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Main article:Model aircraft

A model aircraft is a small unmanned type made to fly for fun, for static display, for aerodynamic research or for other purposes. Ascale modelis a replica of some larger design.

See also

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Lists

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Topics

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References

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  1. ^"Aircraft — Define Aircraft at Dictionary".Dictionary.Archivedfrom the original on 28 March 2015.Retrieved1 April2015.
  2. ^"Different Kinds & Types of Aircraft".wingsoverkansas.Archivedfrom the original on 21 November 2016.
  3. ^US patent 467069Archived23 February 2014 at theWayback Machine"Air-ship" referring to a compound aerostat/rotorcraft.
  4. ^Ezekiel Airship(1902)wright-brothers.orgArchived3 December 2013 at theWayback Machinealtereddimensions.netArchived22 February 2014 at theWayback Machine"airship," – referring to an HTA aeroplane.
  5. ^The Bridgeport Herald, August 18, 1901Archived3 August 2013 at theWayback Machine– "air ship" referring to Whitehead's aeroplane.
  6. ^Cooley Airship of 1910, also called the Cooley monoplane."Unbelievable Flying Objects".Archivedfrom the original on 2 November 2013.Retrieved10 February2014."Round Aircraft Designs".Archived fromthe originalon 2 April 2012.Retrieved7 September2011.– a heavier-than-air monoplane.
  7. ^Frater, A.;The Balloon Factory,Picador (2009), p. 163. Wright brothers' "airship."
  8. ^George Griffith,The angel of the Revolution,1893Archived22 February 2014 at theWayback Machine— "air-ship," "vessel" referring to a VTOL compound rotorcraft (not clear from the reference if it might be an aerostat hybrid.)
  9. ^Auckland Star, 24 February 1919Archived24 March 2014 at theWayback Machine"Ships of the air," "Air yachts" – passenger landplanes large and small
  10. ^The Sydney Morning Herald, Monday 11 April 1938– "ship of the airs," "flying-ship," referring to a large flying-boat.
  11. ^Smithsonian, America by airArchived18 January 2014 at theWayback Machine"Ships of the Air" referring to Pan Am's Boeing Clipper flying-boat fleet.
  12. ^Michael Halloran and Sean O'Meara,Wing in Ground Effect Craft Review,DSTO, Australia"Archived copy"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 22 May 2013.Retrieved24 August2012.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link),p51. Notes an agreement between ICAO and IMO that WIGs come under the jurisdiction of the International Maritime Organisation although there an exception for craft with a sustained use out of ground effect (OGE) to be considered as aircraft.
  13. ^"World's largest aircraft the Airlander makes maiden flight in UK,"Archived22 November 2016 at theWayback Machine16 August 2016, London 'Daily Telegraph' via Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
  14. ^"Airlander 10, the world's largest aircraft, takes off for the first time," 19 August 2016, CBS News (TV) retrieved 22 November 2016.
  15. ^Kottasova, Ivana"The world's largest aircraft crashes after 2nd test flight"Archived22 November 2016 at theWayback Machine,24 August 2016,CNN TechonCNN,the Cable News Network. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
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