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Amorites

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"Amorite" redirects here. For the language, seeAmorite language.
Cuneiform clay tablets from the Amorite Kingdom of Mari, 1st half of the 2nd millennium BC.

TheAmorites(/ˈæməˌraɪts/;Sumerian:𒈥𒌅[1],romanized:MAR.TU;Akkadian:𒀀𒈬𒊒𒌝,romanized:Amurrūmor𒋾𒀉𒉡𒌝/𒊎Tidnum;Hebrew:אֱמֹרִי,romanized:ʾĔmōrī;Koinē Greek:Ἀμορραῖοι) were an ancientNorthwest Semitic-speakingBronze Agepeople from theLevant.Initially appearing inSumerianrecords c. 2500 BC, they expanded and ruled most of the Levant,Mesopotamiaand parts ofEgyptfrom the 21st century BC to the late 17th century BC.

The Amorites established several prominentcity-statesin existing locations, such asIsin,Larsa,Mari,andEbla,and later foundedBabylonand theOld Babylonian Empire.They also founded theFourteenth Dynasty of Egyptduring the fragmented era of theSecond Intermediate Periodin theNile Delta,which was characterized by rulers bearing Amorite names such asYakbim Sekhaenre,and were likely part of the laterHyksos.[2][3]

The termAmurruin Akkadian and Sumerian texts refers to the Amorites,their principal deity,andan Amorite kingdom.The Amorites are mentioned in theHebrew Bibleas inhabitants ofCanaanboth before and after the conquest of the land underJoshua.[4]

History[edit]

Various Amorite states (Yamhad, Qatna, Mari, Andarig, Babylon and Eshnunna) and Assyria c. 1764 BC

Third millennium BC[edit]

In two Sumerian literary compositions written long afterward in the Old Babylonian period,Enmerkar and the Lord of ArattaandLugalbanda and the Anzu Bird,the Early Dynastic ruler of UrukEnmerkar(listed in theSumerian King List) mentions "the land of themar.tu".It is not known to what extent these reflect historical facts.[5]

Fifteenth dynasty of Egypt of the Hyksos, of whom the Amorites were part.

There are also sparse mentions about Amorites (often as MAR-DUki) in tablets from theEast Semitic-speaking kingdom ofEbla,dating from 2500 BC to the destruction of the city inc. 2250BC.[6]From the perspective of the Eblaites, the Amorites were a rural group living in the narrow basin of the middle and upper Euphrates in northern Syria.[7]The Eblaites used the term MAR.TU in an early time for a state and people east to Ebla (aroundEmarandTuttul), which means the name Amurru for the west is later than the name for the state or the people.[8]

For theAkkadian emperorsof central Mesopotamia,mar.tuwas one of the "Four Quarters" surrounding Akkad, along withSubartu(north),Sumer(south), andElam(east).[8]Naram-Sin of Akkadrecords in a royal inscription defeating a coalition of Sumerian cities and Amorites nearJebel Bishriin northern Syriac. 2240BC.[9]His successor,Shar-Kali-Sharri,recorded in one of his year names "In the year in whichSzarkaliszarriwas victorious over Amurru in the [Jebel Bishri] ".[10]

Artifacts from Amorite Kingdom of Mari, first half of 2nd millennium BC

By the time of the last days of theThird Dynasty of Ur,the immigrating Amorites had become such a force that kings such asShu-Sinwere obliged to construct a 270-kilometre (170 mi) wall from theTigristo theEuphratesto hold them off.[11][12]The Amorites are depicted in contemporary records as nomadic tribes under chiefs, who forced themselves into lands they needed to graze their herds. Some of the Akkadian literature of this era speaks disparagingly of the Amorites and implies that the Akkadian- and Sumerian-speakers ofMesopotamiaviewed their nomadic and primitive way of life with disgust and contempt. In the Sumerian myth "Marriage of Martu", written early in the2nd millennium BC,a goddess considering marriage to the god of the Amorites is warned:

Now listen, their hands are destructive and their features are those of monkeys; (An Amorite) is one who eats what (the Moon-god)Nannaforbids and does not show reverence. They never stop roaming about..., they are an abomination to the gods’ dwellings. Their ideas are confused; they cause only disturbance. (The Amorite) is clothed in sack-leather..., lives in a tent, exposed to wind and rain, and cannot properly recite prayers. He lives in the mountains and ignores the places of gods, digs up truffles in the foothills, does not know how to bend the knee (in prayer), and eats raw flesh. He has no house during his life, and when he dies he will not be carried to a burial-place. My girlfriend, why would you marry Martu?[13]

As the centralized structure of the Third Dynasty of Ur slowly collapsed, the city-states of the south such as Isin, Larsa and Eshnunna, began to reassert their former independence, and the areas in southern Mesopotamia with Amorites were no exception.[14]Elsewhere, the armies ofElamwere attacking and weakening the empire, making it vulnerable. Ur was eventually occupied by the Elamites. They remained until they were rejected by the Isin rulerIshbi-Erra,which marked the beginning of the Isin-Larsa period.[15]

2nd millennium BC[edit]

One of theRamesses III prisoner tiles,which is speculated by some scholars to represent an Amorite man.[16]

After the decline of Ur III, Amorite rulers gained power in a number of Mesopotamian city-states beginning in the Isin-Larsa period and peaking in the Old Babylonian period. In the north, the Amorite ruler ofEkallatum,Shamshi-Adad IconqueredAssurand formed the large, though short-lived Kingdom of Upper Mesoptamia.[17]In the south,Babylonbecame the major power under the Amorite rulerSumu-la-Eland his successors, including the notableHammurabi.Higher up the Euphrates, to the northwest, the Amorite kingdom ofMariarose, later to be destroyed by Hammurabi. Babylon itself would later be sacked by the Hittites, with its empire assumed by theKassites.West of Mari,Yamhadruled from its capital Halab, today's Aleppo, until it was destroyed by the Hittites in 16th century BC. The city ofEbla,under the control of Yamhad in this period, also had Amorite rulership.[18]

There is thought to have been an Amorite presence inEgyptfrom the 19th century BC. TheFourteenth Dynasty of Egypt,centred in theNile Delta,had rulers bearing Amorite names such asYakbim.Furthermore, increasing evidence suggests that the succeedingHyksosof Egypt were an amalgam of peoples fromSyriaof which the Amorites were also part.[2]Based on temple architecture,Manfred Bietakargues for strong parallels between the religious practices of the Hyksos atAvariswith those of the area aroundByblos,Ugarit,AlalakhandTell Brakand defines the "spiritual home" of the Hyksos as "in northernmost Syria and northern Mesopotamia", areas typically associated with Amorites at the time.[3]

In 1650 BC, the Hyksos established theFifteenth Dynasty of Egyptand ruled most ofLowerandMiddleEgypt contemporaneously with theSixteenthandSeventeenthdynasties ofThebesduring the chaoticSecond Intermediate Period.[19]

Fall[edit]

In the 16th century BC, the Amorite era ended in Mesopotamia with the decline and fall of Babylon and other Amorite-ruled cities. TheKassitesoccupied Babylon and reconstituted it under theKassite dynastyunder the name ofKarduniašaround 1595 BC. In far southern Mesopotamia, the nativeFirst Sealand dynastyhad reigned over theMesopotamian Marshesregion until the Kassites brought the region under their control. Innorthern Mesopotamia,the power vacuum left by the Amorites brought the rise of theMitanni(Ḫanigalbat) c. 1600 BC.

From the 15th century BC onward, the termAmurruis usually applied to the region extending north of Canaan as far asKadeshon theOrontes Riverin northern Syria.[20]

After the mid-2nd millennium BC, Syrian Amorites came under the domination of first theHittitesand, from the 14th century BC, theMiddle Assyrian Empire.They then appear to have been displaced or absorbed by other semi-nomadicWest Semitic-speaking peoples, known collectively as theAhlamuduring theLate Bronze Age collapse.TheArameansrose to be the prominent group amongst the Ahlamu.[20]From c. 1200 BC onward, the Amorites disappeared from the pages of history, but the name reappeared in theHebrew Bible.[21]

Language[edit]

Main article:Amorite language

The language was first attested in the 21st-20th centuries BC and was found to be closely related to theCanaanite,AramaicandSam'alianlanguages.[22]In the 18th century BC atMariAmorite scribes wrote in an Eshnunna dialect ofeast SemiticAkkadian language.Since the texts containnorthwest Semiticforms, words and constructions, theAmorite languageis thought to be a Northwest Semitic language. The main sources for the extremely limited extant knowledge of the Amorite language are the proper names and loanwords, not Akkadian in style, that are preserved in such texts.[23][15][24]Amorite proper names were found throughout Mesopotamia in the Old Babylonian period, as well as places as far afield asAlalakhin Turkey and modern day Bahrain (Dilmun).[25]They are also found in Egyptian records.[26]

Ugariticis also a Northwest Semitic language and is possibly an Amorite dialect.[27]

Religion[edit]

A bilingual list of the names of ten Amorite deities alongside Akkadian counterparts from theOld Babylonian periodwas translated in 2022. These deities are as follows:[28]: 118–119 

  • Dagan,who is identified withEnlil.Dagan was the supreme god in many cities in theEuphratesregion ofUpper Mesopotamia,especially at sites such as Mari,Tuttul,andTerqa.Babylonian texts refer to the chief god of the Amorites asAmurru(dmar.tu,read as "iluAmurru "), corresponding to their name for the ethnic group. They also identify his consort as the goddessAšratum.[29]
  • Kamiš, an otherwise poorly attested deity largely known from Akkadian and Amoritetheophoric names.He was significant atEbla,where a month was named after him. The bilingual identifies him with the godEathough other god lists identify him withNergal.
  • Ašratum,whose name is cognate withAsherahand is identified withBelet-ili.
  • Yaraḫum, the moon god, who is namedYarikhatUgarit.He is identified with the godSīn.
  • Rašapum,equated withNergaland also known from Ebla.
  • A god with an incompletely reconstructed name (possibly/ʔārum/) who is identified withIšum.
  • Ḫalamu, identified withŠubula,a deity in the netherworld god's circle.
  • Ḫanatum,who is here identified withIštar.
  • Pidray,previously known only from the Late Bronze Age Ugaritic texts and later. In the bilingual list she is identified withNanaya.
  • Aštiulḫālti,who is identified withIštaran,the tutelary deity of the city ofDer.

This list is not thought to represent a full Amorite pantheon, as it does not include important members such as the sun and weather deities.[28]: 139 

Biblical Amorites[edit]

Destruction of the Army of the AmoritesbyGustave Doré.

The termAmoritesis used in theBibleto refer to certain highland mountaineers who inhabited the land ofCanaan,described inGenesisas descendants ofCanaan,the son ofHam(Gen. 10:16). This aligns with Akkadian and Babylonian traditions that equatedSyro-Palestinewith the "land of the Amorites".[30]They are described as a powerful people of great stature "like the height of the cedars" (Amos 2:9) who had occupied the land east and west of theJordan.The height and strength mentioned in Amos 2:9 has led some Christian scholars, including Orville J. Nave, who wrote theNave's Topical Bible,to refer to the Amorites as "giants".[31]

InDeuteronomy,the Amorite king,Og,was described as the last "of the remnant of theRephaim"(Deut 3:11). The terms Amorite and Canaanite seem to be used more or less interchangeably but sometimes, Amorite refers to a specific tribe living in Canaan[32]

The Biblical Amorites seem to have originally occupied the region stretching from the heights west of theDead Sea(Gen. 14:7) toHebron(Gen. 13:8; Deut. 3:8; 4:46–48), embracing "allGileadand allBashan"(Deut. 3:10), with theJordan valleyon the east of the river (Deut. 4:49), the land of the "two kings of the Amorites",Sihonand Og (Deut. 31:4andJoshua 2:10; 9:10). Sihon and Og were independent kings whose people were displaced from their land in battle with the Israelites (Numbers 21:21–35)—though in the case of the war led by Og/Bashan it appears none of them survived and the land became part of Israel (Numbers 21:35). The Amorites seem to have been linked to theJerusalemregion, and theJebusitesmay have been a subgroup of them (Ezek. 16:3). The southern slopes of the mountains ofJudeaare called the "mount of the Amorites" (Deut. 1:7, 19, 20).

TheBook of Joshuaspeaks of the five kings of the Amorites were first defeated with great slaughter byJoshua(Josh. 10:5). Then, more Amorite kings were defeated at the waters ofMeromby Joshua (Josh. 11:8). It is mentioned that in the days ofSamuel,there was peace between them and the Israelites (1 Sam. 7:14). TheGibeoniteswere said to be their descendants, being an offshoot of the Amorites who made a covenant with the Hebrews (2 Samuel 21:2). WhenSaullater broke that vow and killed some of the Gibeonites, God is said to have sent a famine to Israel (2 Samuel 21:1).

In 2017, Philippe Bohstrom ofHaaretzobserved similarities between the Amorites and the Jews, since both historically existed as well-connected diasporic communities. He also believes that Abraham was among the Amorites who migrated to the Levant, around the same time that the Amorites conqueredUrat 1750 BC, due to his north Syrian heritage and shepherding-based lifestyles. Nonetheless, the Biblical authors only applied the Amorite ethnonym to the pre-Israelite inhabitants of the high mountains. Reasons include the polemical need to associate them with the "barbaric raw meat eating" Amorites that the Sumerians imagined them as. The authors also wanted to portray these inhabitants as having an ancient history.[33]

Origin[edit]

Terracotta of a couple, probablyInannaandDumuzi,Girsu,Amorite period, 2000-1600 BC. Louvre Museum AO 16676.

There are a wide range of views regarding the Amorite homeland.[34]One extreme is the view thatkur mar.tu/māt amurrimcovered the whole area between theEuphratesand theMediterranean Sea,theArabian Peninsulaincluded. The most common view is that the "homeland" of the Amorites was a limited area in central Syria identified with the mountainous region ofJebel Bishri.[35][36]

Genetics[edit]

Ancient DNA analysis on 28 human remains dating to the Middle and LateBronze Agefrom ancientAlalakh,an Amorite city with aHurrianminority, found that the inhabitants of Alalakh were a mixture ofCopper ageLevantines and Mesopotamians, and were genetically similar to contemporaneous Levantines.[37]

Racialism[edit]

The view that Amorites were fierce and tall nomads led to an anachronistic theory among someracialistwriters in the 19th century that they were a tribe of "Aryan"warriors, who at one point dominated the Israelites. This belief, which originated withFelix von Luschan,fit models ofIndo-European migrationsposited during his time, but Luschan later abandoned that theory.[38]Houston Stewart Chamberlainclaimed thatKing DavidandJesuswere bothAryansof Amorite extraction. The argument was repeated by the Nazi ideologueAlfred Rosenberg.[39]

However, the Amorites certainly spoke exclusively aSemitic language,followedSemitic religionsof theNear Eastand had distinctly Semitic personal names. Their origins are believed to have been the lands immediately to the west of Mesopotamia, in theLevant(nowSyria), and so they are regarded as one of theancient Semitic-speaking peoples.[40][41][42]

Amorite states[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^Frankfort, H.(1939).Cylinder seals: a Documentary Essay on the Art and Religion of the Ancient Near East.MacMillan and Co.,Pl. XXVIIIe+i
  2. ^abBurke, Aaron A. (2019)."Amorites in the Eastern Nile Delta: The Identity of Asiatics at Avaris during the Early Middle Kingdom".In Bietak, Manfred; Prell, Silvia (eds.).The Enigma of the Hyksos.Harrassowitz. pp. 67–91.ISBN9783447113328.
  3. ^abBietak, Manfred(2019). "The Spiritual Roots of the Hyksos Elite: An Analysis of Their Sacred Architecture, Part I". In Bietak, Manfred; Prell, Silvia (eds.).The Enigma of the Hyksos.Harrassowitz. pp. 47–67.ISBN9783447113328.
  4. ^van Seters, John, "The Terms ‘Amorite’ and ‘Hittite’ in the Old Testament", Vetus Testamentum, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 64–81, 1972
  5. ^Katz, Dina, "Ups and Downs in the Career of Enmerkar, King of Uruk", Fortune and Misfortune in the Ancient Near East: Proceedings of the 60th Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale Warsaw, 21–25 July 2014, edited by Olga Drewnowska and Malgorzata Sandowicz, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 201-210, 2017
  6. ^Archi, Alfonso, "Mardu in the Ebla Texts", Orientalia, vol. 54, no. 1/2, pp. 7–13, 1985
  7. ^Giorgio Bucellati, "Ebla and the Amorites",Eblaitica3,pp. 83-104, 1992
  8. ^abStreck, Michael P.,Das amurritische Onomastikon der altbabylonischen Zeit. Band 1: Die Amurriter, die onomastische Forschung, Orthographie und Phonologie, Nominalmorphologie,Ugarit-Verlag, 2000, p. 26
  9. ^Westenholz, Joan Goodnick, "Chapter 6. Naram-Sin and the Lord of Apišal", Legends of the Kings of Akkade: The Texts, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 173-188, 1997
  10. ^F. Thureau-Dangin, Recueil des tablettes chaldéennes, Paris, 1903
  11. ^Lieberman, Stephen J., "An Ur III Text from Drēhem Recording ‘Booty from the Land of Mardu.’", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 22, no. 3/4, pp. 53–62, 1968
  12. ^Buccellati, G., "The Amorites of the Ur III Period", Naples: Istituto Orientale di Napoli. Pubblicazioni del Semionario di Semitistica, Richerche 1, 1966
  13. ^Gary Beckman, "Foreigners in the Ancient Near East", Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 133, no. 2, pp. 203–16, 2013
  14. ^[1]Clemens Reichel, "Political Change and Cultural Continuity in Eshnunna from the Ur III to the Old Babylonian Period", Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, University of Chicago, 1996
  15. ^abMichalowski, Piotr, "Chapter 5. The Amorites in Ur III Times", The Correspondence of the Kings of Ur: An Epistolary History of an Ancient Mesopotamian Kingdom, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 82-121, 2011ISBN978-1575061948
  16. ^L. E. R. (1908)."Egyptian Portraiture of the XX Dynasty".Museum of Fine Arts Bulletin.6(36): 48.JSTOR4423408.
  17. ^Wygnańska, Zuzanna, "Burial in the Time of the Amorites. The Middle Bronze Age Burial Customs From a Mesopotamian Perspective", Ägypten Und Levante / Egypt and the Levant, vol. 29, pp. 381–422, 2019
  18. ^Matthiae, Paolo, "New Discoveries at Ebla: The Excavation of the Western Palace and the Royal Necropolis of the Amorite Period", The Biblical Archaeologist, vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 18–32, 1984
  19. ^Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997).The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C.Museum Tusculanum Press.ISBN978-87-7289-421-8.
  20. ^abLawson Younger, K., "The Late Bronze Age / Iron Age Transition and the Origins of the Arameans", Ugarit at Seventy-Five, edited by K. Lawson Younger Jr., University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 131-174, 2007
  21. ^John Van Seters, "The Terms ‘Amorite’ and ‘Hittite’ in the Old Testament", VT 22, pp. 68–71, 1972
  22. ^Woodard, Roger D. (10 April 2008).The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia.Cambridge University Press. p. 5.ISBN9781139469340.
  23. ^Gelb, I. J., "An Old Babylonian List of Amorites", Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 88, no. 1, pp. 39–46, 1968
  24. ^[2]Ignace J. Gelb, "Computer-aided Analysis of Amorite", Assyriological Studies 21, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980
  25. ^Knudsen, Ebbe Egede, "An Analysis of Amorite: A Review Article", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 34, no. 1/2, pp. 1–18, 1982
  26. ^Burke, Aaron (2013). "Introduction to the Levant During the Middle Bronze Age". In Steiner, Margreet L.; Killebrew, Ann E. (eds.).The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000-332 BCE.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-166255-3.
  27. ^Pardee, Dennis. "Ugaritic", inThe Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia(2008) (pp. 5–6). Roger D. Woodard, editor. Cambridge University Press,ISBN0-521-68498-6,ISBN978-0-521-68498-9(262 pages).
  28. ^abGeorge, Andrew; Krebernik, Manfred (2022). "Two Remarkable Vocabularies: Amorite-Akkadian Bilinguals!".Revue d'assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale.116(1): 113–66.doi:10.3917/assy.116.0113.S2CID255918382.
  29. ^Paul-Alain Beaulieu,The God Amurru as Emblem of Ethnic and Cultural Identityin "Ethnicity in Ancient Mesopotamia" (W. van Soldt, R. Kalvelagen, and D. Katz, eds.) Papers Read at the 48thRencontre Assyriologique Internationale,Leiden, July 1–4, 2002 (PIHANS 102; Nederlands Instituut voor her Nabije Oosten, 2005) 31-46
  30. ^Barton, George A. (1906)."Palestine before the Coming of Israel".The Biblical World.28(6): 360–373.doi:10.1086/473832.JSTOR3140778– via JSTOR.
  31. ^Nave's Topical Bible: Amorites,Nave, Orville J., Retrieved:2013-03-14
  32. ^Levin, Yigal (8 October 2013)."Who Was Living in the Land When Abraham Arrived?".TheTorah.Archived fromthe originalon 28 January 2024.
  33. ^Bohstrom, Philippe (6 February 2017)."Peoples of the Bible: The Legend of the Amorites".Haaretz.Archived fromthe originalon 26 January 2024.
  34. ^Alfred Haldar,Who Were the Amorites(Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1971), p. 7
  35. ^Minna Lönnqvist, Markus Törmä, Kenneth Lönnqvist and Milton Nunez,Jebel Bishri in Focus: Remote sensing, archaeological surveying, mapping and GIS studies of Jebel Bishri in central Syria by the Finnish project SYGIS.BAR International Series 2230, Oxford: Archaeopress, 2011ISBN9781407307923
  36. ^Zarins, Juris, "Early Pastoral Nomadism and the Settlement of Lower Mesopotamia", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 280, pp. 31–65, 1990
  37. ^Skourtanioti, Eirini; Erdal, Yilmaz S.; Frangipane, Marcella; Balossi Restelli, Francesca; Yener, K. Aslıhan; Pinnock, Frances; Matthiae, Paolo; Özbal, Rana; Schoop, Ulf-Dietrich; Guliyev, Farhad; Akhundov, Tufan (28 May 2020)."Genomic History of Neolithic to Bronze Age Anatolia, Northern Levant, and Southern Caucasus".Cell.181(5): 1158–1175.e28.doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.044.hdl:20.500.12154/1254.ISSN0092-8674.PMID32470401.S2CID219105572.
  38. ^"Are the Jews a Race?" by Sigmund Feistin "Jews and Race: Writings on Identity and Difference, 1880-1940", edited by Mitchell Bryan Hart, UPNE, 2011, p. 88
  39. ^[3]Hans Jonas,"Chamberlain and the Jews",New York Review of Books,5 June 1981
  40. ^Who Were the Amorites?, by Alfred Haldar, 1971, Brill Archive
  41. ^Semitic Studies, Volume 1,by Alan Kaye, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1991, p.867ISBN9783447031684
  42. ^The Semitic Languages,by Stefan Weninger, Walter de Gruyter, 23 Dec 2011, p.361ISBN9783110251586

Further reading[edit]

  • Albright, W. F., "The Amorite Form of the Name Ḫammurabi", The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 140–41, 1922
  • Bailey, Lloyd R, "Israelite ’Ēl Šadday and Amorite Bêl Šadê", Journal of Biblical Literature, vol. 87, no. 4, pp. 434–38, 1968
  • Burke, S., "Entanglement, the Amorite koine, and the Amorite Cultures in the Levant",Aram Society for the Syro-Mesopotamian Studies 26, pp. 357–373, 2014
  • Burke, Aaron A., "Amorites and Canaanites: Memory, Tradition, and Legacy in Ancient Israel and Judah", The Ancient Israelite World. Routledge, pp. 523–536, 2022ISBN9780367815691
  • George, Andrew, and Manfred Krebernik, "Two Remarkable Vocabularies: Amorite-Akkadian Bilinguals!", Revue d’assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale 116.1, pp. 113–166, 2022
  • Højlund, Flemming, "The Formation Of The Dilmun State And The Amorite Tribes",Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, vol. 19, pp. 45–59, 1989
  • Homsher, R. and Cradic, M., "The Amorite Problem: Resolving a Historical Dilemma", Levant 49, pp. 259–283, 2018
  • [4]Howard, J. Caleb, "Amorite Names through Time and Space", Journal of Semitic Studies, 2023
  • Streck, Michael P.,Das amurritische Onomastikon der altbabylonischen Zeit. Band 1: Die Amurriter, die onomastische Forschung, Orthographie und Phonologie, Nominalmorphologie,Ugarit-Verlag, 2000
  • Torczyner, H. Tur-Sinai, "The Amorite and the Amurrû of the Inscriptions", The Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 249–258, 1949
  • Vidal, Jordi, "Prestige Weapons in an Amorite Context",Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 70, no. 2, pp. 247–52, 2011
  • Wallis, Louis, "Amorite Influence in the Religion of the Bible",The Biblical World, vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 216–23, 1915
  • Wasserman, Nathan, and Yigal Bloch, "The Amorites: A Political History of Mesopotamia in the Early Second Millennium BCE", The Amorites, Brill, 2023ISBN978-90-04-54658-5
  • Zeynivand, Mohsen, "A Cylinder Seal With An Amorite Name From Tepe Musiyan, Deh Luran Plain",Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 71, pp. 77–83, 2019

External links[edit]

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