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Anfal campaign

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Anfal campaign
Part of theIran–Iraq War
LocationKurdistan Region,Iraq
DateFebruary–September 1988
TargetPeshmerga
Kurdish civilians
Iranian Armed Forces
Attack type
DeathsSeeDeath toll:
PerpetratorIraqBa'athist Iraq
MotiveCounterinsurgency,Anti-Kurdish sentiment,Arabization
ConvictedSaddam Hussein
Ali Hassan al-Majid
Hussein Rashid

TheAnfal campaign[a]was acounterinsurgencyoperation which was carried out byBa'athist Iraqfrom February to September 1988 during theIraqi–Kurdish conflictat the end of theIran–Iraq War.The campaign targeted ruralKurds[3]because its purpose was to eliminate Kurdish rebel groups andArabizestrategic parts of theKirkuk Governorate.[4]TheBa’athist regimecommitted atrocities on the local Kurdish population, mostly civilians.[5]

The Iraqi forces were led byAli Hassan al-Majid,on the orders of PresidentSaddam Hussein.The campaign's name was taken from the title ofthe eighth chapter of the Qur'an(al-ʾanfāl).

In 1993,Human Rights Watchreleased a report on the Anfal campaign based on documents captured by Kurdish rebels during the1991 uprisings in Iraq;HRW described it as a genocide and estimated between 50,000 and 100,000 deaths. This characterization of the Anfal campaign was disputed by a 2007Haguecourt ruling, which stated that the evidences from the documents were not sufficient to establish the charge of genocide.[b]Although many[specify]Iraqi Arabsreject that there were any mass killings of Kurdish civilians during Anfal,[6]the event is an important element constitutingKurdish national identity.

Background

Following theIraqi invasion of Iranin 1980, the rival Kurdish opposition parties in Iraq—thePatriotic Union of Kurdistan(PUK) andKurdistan Democratic Party(KDP) as well as other smaller Kurdish parties—experienced a revival in their fortunes. Kurdish fighters (peshmerga) fought a guerrilla war against the Iraqi government and established effective control over the Kurdish-inhabited mountainous areas of northern Iraq. As the war went on and Iran counterattacked into Iraq, the peshmerga gained ground in most Kurdish-inhabited rural areas while also infiltrating towns and cities. In 1983, afterthe joint KDP-Iranian captureofHaj Omran,the Iraqi government arrested 8,000Barzanimen and executed them. During the battle for Haj Omran, the Iraqi government also used gas weapons for the first time against both Kurdish and Iranian forces.[7]

Name

"Al Anfal", literally meaningthe spoils (of war),[8]was used to describe the military campaign of extermination and looting against the Kurds. It is also the title of theeighthsura,or chapter, of the Qur'an[8]which describes the victory of 313 followers of the new Muslim faith over almost 900 non-Muslims at theBattle of Badrin 624 AD. According to Randal,Jash(Kurdish collaborators with the Baathists) were told that taking cattle, sheep, goats, money, weapons and even women washalal(religiously permitted or legal).[9][better source needed]

Summary

The Anfal campaign began in February 1988 and continued until August or September and included the use of groundoffensives,aerial bombing,chemical warfare,systematic destruction ofsettlements,mass deportationand firing squads. The campaign was headed byAli Hassan al-Majidwho was a cousin of Iraqi PresidentSaddam Husseinfrom Saddam's hometown ofTikrit.[2]

The Iraqi Army was supported by Kurdish collaborators whom the Iraqi government armed, the so-calledJashforces, who led Iraqi troops to Kurdish villages that often did not figure on maps as well as to their hideouts in the mountains. TheJashforces frequently made false promises of amnesty and safe passage.[10]Iraqi state media extensively covered theAnfalcampaign using its official name.[2]Approximately 1,200 Kurdish villages were destroyed during theAnfalcampaign.[11]To many Iraqis,Anfalwas presented as an extension of the ongoingIran–Iraq War,although its victims were overwhelmingly Kurdish civilians.[2]

Campaign

In March 1987,Ali Hassan al-Majidwas appointedsecretary-generalof the Ba'ath Party's Northern Bureau,[12]which includedIraqi Kurdistan.

Footwear of a child found in an Anfal mass grave

Military operations and chemical attacks

Anfal, officially conducted in 1988, had eight phases (Anfal 1–Anfal 8) altogether, seven of which targeted areas controlled by thePatriotic Union of Kurdistan.TheKurdish Democratic Party-controlled areas in the northwestIraqi Kurdistan,were the target of the Final Anfal operation in late August and early September 1988.

Anfal 1

Monument at the mass grave of victims of theHalabja chemical attack

The first Anfal stage was conducted between 23 February and 18 March 1988. It started withartilleryandair strikesin the early hours of 23 February 1988. Then, several hours later, there were attacks at theJafali Valleyheadquarters of thePatriotic Union of Kurdistannear the Iranian border, and the command centers in Sargallu and Bargallu. There was heavy resistance by thePeshmerga.The battles were conducted in a theater around 1,154 square kilometres (445 sq. mi.).[13]The villages of Gwezeela, Chalawi, Haladin and Yakhsamar were attacked with poison gas. During mid March, the PUK, in an alliance with Iranian troops and other Kurdish factions, captured Halabja.[14]This led to thepoison gas attack on Halabjaon 16 March 1988,[14]during which several thousand Kurdish people were killed, most of them civilians.[15]

Anfal 2

During the second Anfal from 22 March and 2 April 1988, the Qara Dagh region, including Bazian and Darbandikhan, was targeted in theSuleimanya governorate.Again several villages were attacked with poison gas. Villages attacked with poisonous gas were Safaran, Sewsenan, Belekjar, Serko and Meyoo.[citation needed]The attacks began on 22 March afterNewruz,surprising the Peshmerga. Although of shorter duration, Peshmerga suffered more severe casualties in this attack than the first Anfal.[13]As a result of the attack, the majority of the population in the Qara Dagh region fled in the direction of Suleimanya. Many fugitives were detained by the Iraqi forces, and the men were separated from the women. The men were not seen again. The women were transported to camps. The population that managed to flee, fled to the Garmia region.[16]

Anfal 3

In the next Anfal campaign from 7 to 20 April 1988, theGarmian regioneast of Suleimanya was targeted. In this campaign, many women and children disappeared. The only village attacked with chemical weapons was Tazashar. Many were lured to come towards the Iraqi forces due to an amnesty announced through a loudspeaker of a mosque in Qader Karam from 10 to 12 April. The announced amnesty was a trap, and many who surrendered were detained. Some civilians were able to bribe Kurdish collaborators of the Iraqi Army and fled to Laylan or Shorsh.[17]Before the Anfal campaign, the mainly rural Garmian region counted over 600 villages around the towns ofKifri,KalarandDarbandikhan.[18]

Anfal 4

Anfal 4 took place between 3–8 May 1988 in the valley of theLittle Zab,which forms the border of the provinces ofErbilandKirkuk.The morale of the Iraqi army was on the rise due to the capture of theFaw Peninsulaon the 17–18 April 1988 from Iran in theIran–Iraq War.[19]Major poisonous gas attacks were perpetrated in Askar and Goptapa.[20]Again it was announced an amnesty was issued, which turned out to be false. Many of the ones who surrendered were arrested. Men were separated from the women.[21]

Anfal 5, 6 and 7

In these three consecutive attacks between 15 May and 16 August 1988, the valleys ofRawandizand Shaqlawa were targeted, and the attacks had different successes. The Anfal 5 failed completely; therefore, two more attacks were necessary to gain Iraqi government control over the valleys. The Peshmerga commander of the region,Kosrat Abdullah,was well prepared for a long siege with stores of ammunition and food. He also reached an agreement with the Kurdish collaborators of the Iraqi Army so that the civilians could flee. Hiran, Balisan, Smaquli, Malakan, Shek Wasan, Ware, Seran and Kaniba were attacked with poisonous gas. After the Anfal 7 attack, the valleys were under the control of the Iraqi government.[21]

Anfal 8

The last Anfal was aimed at the region controlled by theKDPnamed Badinan and took place from 25 August to 6 September 1988. In this campaign, the villages of Wirmeli, Barkavreh, Bilejane, Glenaska, Zewa Shkan, Tuka and Ikmala were targeted with chemical attacks. After tens of thousands of Kurds fled to Turkey, the Iraqi Army blocked the route to Turkey on 26 August 1988. The population who did not manage to flee was arrested, and the men were separated from the women and children. The men were executed, and the women and children were brought to camps.[22]

Detention camps

Detention camps were established to accommodate thousands of prisoners. Dibs was a detention camp for women and children and located near an army training facility for the Iraqi commando forces.[23]From Dibs, groups of detainees were transferred toNugra Salman[24]in adepressionin the desert about 120 km southwest ofSamawah,[25]in theMuthanna Governorate.Nugra Salman held an estimated 5,000 to 8,000 prisoners during the Anfal campaign.[24]Another detention camp was Topzawa near an army base near the highway leading out of Kirkuk.[26]

Arabization

Arabization,another major element of al-Anfal, was a tactic used by Saddam Hussein's regime to drive pro-insurgent populations out of their homes in villages and cities likeKirkuk,which are in the valuableoil fieldareas, and relocate them in the southern parts of Iraq.[27]The campaign used heavypopulation redistribution,most notably in Kirkuk, the results of which now plague negotiations between Iraq'sShi'aUnited Iraqi Allianceand the KurdishKurdistani Alliance.Saddam's Ba'athist regime built several public housing facilities in Kirkuk as part of his "Arabisation", shifting poorArabsfrom Iraq's southern regions to Kirkuk with the lure of inexpensive housing. Another part of the Arabisation campaign was the census of October 1987. Citizens who failed to turn up for the October 1987 census were no longer recognized as Iraqi citizens. Most of the Kurdish population who learned that a census was taking place did not take part in the census.[12]

Death toll

Precise figures of Anfal victims do not exist due to lack of records.[3]In its 1993 report,Human Rights Watchwrote that the death toll "cannot conceivably be less than 50,000, and it may well be twice that number".[1][3]This figure was based on an earlier survey by theSulaymaniyah–based Kurdish organization Committee for the Defence of Anfal Victims' Rights.[3]According to HRW, Kurdish leaders met with Iraqi government officialAli Hassan al-Majidin 1991 and mentioned a figure of 182,000 deaths; the latter reportedly replied that "it couldn't have been more than 100,000".[1][3]The 182,000 figure provided by the PUK was based on extrapolation[2]and "has no empirical relation to actual disappearances or killings",[3]though it "has assumed mythical status among Kurds".[28]In 1995, the Committee for the Defence of Anfal Victims' Rights released a report documenting 63,000 disappeared and stating that the entire death toll was lower than 70,000, with almost all these deaths occurring in the area of Anfal III.[3]According to Hiltermann, the figure of 100,000, although considered too low by many Kurds, is probably higher than the actual number of deaths.[3]

Aftermath

In September 1988, the Iraqi government was satisfied with its achievements. The male population between 15 and 50 had either been killed or fled.[dubious–discuss]The Kurdish resistance fled to Iran and was no longer a threat to Iraq. An amnesty was issued, and the detained women, children and elderly were released[29]but not permitted to return.[30]They were sent into camps known asmujamm'atwhere they lived under military rule until a regional autonomy for Iraqi Kurdistan was achieved in 1991.[30]Following, most survivors returned, and began to reconstruct the villages.[30]In Kurdish society, the Anfal survivors are known as Anfal mothers (Kurdish:Daykan-î Enfal),Anfal relatives (Kurdish:Kes-u-kar-î Enfal)or Anfal widows (Kurdish:Bewajin-î Enfal).[30]

Trials

Human Rights Watch unsuccessfully attempted to attract support for a lawsuit under theGenocide Conventionagainst Iraq at theInternational Court of Justice.It convinced the United StatesDepartment of State's legal bureau that Anfal met the legal criteria for genocide.[6]

Frans van Anraat

In December 2005, a court inThe HagueconvictedFrans van Anraatof complicity in war crimes for his role in selling chemical weapons to the Iraqi government. He was given a 15-year sentence.[31]The court also ruled that the killing of thousands of Kurds in Iraq in the 1980s was indeed an act of genocide.[31]In the 1948Genocide Convention,the definition of genocide is "acts committed with theintent to destroy,in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group ". The Dutch court said that it was considered" legally and convincingly proven that the Kurdish population meets the requirement under the Genocide Conventions as anethnic group.The court has no other conclusion than that these attacks were committed with the intent to destroy the Kurdish population of Iraq ".[31]

During another trial involving the legal appeal of Van Anraat,The Hagueappellate court upheld the previous conviction of his complicity in war crimes; but ruled that actions ofIraqi militaryduring Anfal operations cannot be regarded as constituting a "genocide".[32][33][34]The verdict of the Hague Court of Appeal stated in 9 May 2007 that tons of Iraqi documents collected by US government, based on which theHuman Rights Watchproduced its reports, were not enough to establish "a sufficient degree of certainty for a finding of fact in respect ofgenocidecan be derived ".[34]

Saddam Hussein

Main article:Trial of Saddam Hussein
Rizgary,former Sumud relocation camp for Anfal survivors (photographed 2011)

In an interview broadcast on Iraqi television on 6 September 2005, Iraqi PresidentJalal Talabani,a Kurdish politician of thePatriotic Union of Kurdistan,said that judges had directly extractedconfessionsfrom Saddam Hussein that he had orderedmass killingsand other crimes during his regime and that he deserves to die. Two days later, Saddam's lawyer denied that he had confessed.[35]

Anfal trial

In June 2006, theIraqi Special Tribunalannounced that Saddam Hussein and six co-defendants would face trial on 21 August 2006 in relation to the Anfal campaign.[36]In December 2006, Saddam was put on trial for the genocide during Operation Anfal. The trial for the Anfal campaign was still underway on 30 December 2006, whenSaddam Hussein was executedfor his role in the unrelatedDujail massacre.[37]

The Anfal trial recessed on 21 December 2006, and when it resumed on 8 January 2007, the remaining charges against Saddam Hussein were dropped. Six co-defendants continued to stand trial for their roles in the Anfal campaign. On 23 June 2007,Ali Hassan al-Majid,and two co-defendants,Sultan Hashem AhmedandHussein Rashid Mohammed,were convicted of genocide and related charges and sentenced to death byhanging.[38]Another two co-defendants (Farhan JubouriandSaber Abdel Aziz al-Douri) were sentenced tolife imprisonment,and one (Taher Tawfiq al-Ani) was acquitted on the prosecution's demand.[39]

Al-Majid was charged withwar crimes,crimes against humanityandgenocide.He was convicted in June 2007 and wassentenced to death.His appeal for the death sentence was rejected on 4 September 2007. He was sentenced to death for the fourth time on 17 January 2010 and washangedeight days later, on 25 January 2010.[40]Sultan Hashem Ahmed was not hanged due to opposition of the Iraqi President Jalal Talabani, who opposed capital punishment.[41]

The Anfal trial was widely criticized for its methodical defects marked by various acts of political meddling from theIraqi government.These involved the sacking of its presiding judge on September 2006 byIraqi Prime MinisterNouri al-Maliki;who perceived the judge as biased towards defendants.Human Rights Watchstated that many of the charges were "vague" and concluded that the defendants were unable to bring their witnesses due to safety issues withinIraq.Video interactions from witnesses of thedefendantswere also denied by the court; thus hampering the defendants' ability to challenge the claims of the prosecutors. The trial was marked by absence of fundamentaljudicial proceedings,such as the murder of three defense lawyers and ample utilization of anonymous witnesses by theprosecution;whose claims couldn't be cross-analyzed by the defendants.[42][43][44]Both within and outside Iraq, the trials by theSpecial Tribunalhave been widely dubbed as a "show parade" designed toexecute Saddamand deemed as illegitimate by numerous lawyers and human rights organizations.[45]

Sources

There have been few publications about the Anfal campaign and as of 2008, the only comprehensive account of it is that which was published by HRW.[46]Human Rights Watch's 1993 report on Anfal was based on Iraqi documents, examination of grave sites, and interviews with Kurdish survivors.[47]

In 1993, the United States government collected 18 tons of Iraqi government documents which were captured by the Peshmerga during the 1991 uprising and airlifted them to the United States.[48]In those files, HRW conducted research on the Anfal campaign in collaboration with United States federal government agencies such as theNational Archives and Records Administration(NARA), theDefense Intelligence Agency,and theDefense Department.[48]The US government provided Arabic translators andCD ROMscanners.[48]HRW accepted the US government role under the condition that personnel involved worked under its direction.[48]The files include documents which were collected by the Kurdish parties PUK and KDP, both parties hold the ultimate ownership of the documents that were airlifted to the US.[48]

Memorial to Anfal victims at theAmna Surakamuseum inSulaimaniyya

In exchange for access to the National Archives documents, HRW agreed to help the United States government find information about Iraqi atrocities. Joost Hiltermann, HRW's lead researcher on Anfal, referred to these files as "the good stuff…material to smear the enemy with".[49]Kanan Makiya,an Iraqi–American academic and pro-Iraq War advocate,[50]criticized HRW for promising that the records proved genocide. He warned that the records contained neither "smoking guns" nor do they contain records of the "explosive nature" as HRW claimed. Furthermore, he said that certain documents that seemed incriminating could have been planted by Kurdish rebels.[49]After the invasion of Iraq, Makiya said in December 2003 that the Iraqi document archives contained no "smoking gun" to convict Saddam Hussein of war crimes.[51]

After the United States invasion of Iraq in 2003, mass graves were discovered in parts of western Iraq that had been under Ba'athist control.[3]

Legacy

The event has become an important element in the constitution ofKurdish national identity.[52]TheKurdistan Regional Governmenthas set aside 14 April as a day of remembrance for the Al-Anfal campaign.[53]InSulaymanyaa museum was established in theformer prisonof theDirectorate of General Security.[54]ManyIraqi Arabsreject that any mass killings of Kurds occurred during the Anfal campaign.[6]

On 28 February 2013, theBritish House of Commonsformally recognized the Anfal as genocide following a campaign which was led by Conservative MPNadhim Zahawi,who is ofKurdish descent.[55]

See also

Monuments and Statues

In 2014, aGermanorganization inSulaimaniagreed withKurdishartistandsculptorShwan Kamalto build amonumentand sculpture inGarmianregion for Anfal.[56][57]

References

  1. ^Arabic:حملة الأنفال,romanized:Hamlat al-Anfal;Kurdish:شاڵاوی ئەنفال,romanized:Kampanyayê Enfalê
  2. ^Sources on the 2007 Hague court ruling:
    • "Dutch Court Concludes Anfal Campaign Wasn't Genocide".OpinioJuris.19 June 2007. Archived fromthe originalon 8 October 2009.The appellate court, however, did not simply conclude that van Anraat was unaware of Saddam's genocidal plan. It also held that the Anfal campaign did not amount to genocide. In its written judgment, the appeals panel said there was insufficient evidence to establish that the poison gas attacks on Kurdish villages in 1987 and 1988 amounted to genocide.
    • Gottlieb, Sebastian (10 May 2007)."Van Anraat case 'example'".Radio Netherlands.Archived fromthe originalon 8 September 2007.In contrast to the original court judgement, the Court of Appeal concluded that the events in Northern Iraq weren't genocide.
    • "ECLI:NL:GHSGR:2007:BA4676".de Rechtspraak.9 May 2007. Archived fromthe originalon 1 July 2013.the court points out that.. there are no documents in the file from which the findings and conclusions of the Special Rapporteur can be directly deduced and from which, in the context of criminal proceedings such as the present one, there are building blocks with a sufficient degree of certainty for a finding of fact in respect of genocide can be derived.
  1. ^abcBlack 1993,p. 345.
  2. ^abcdeMakiya, Kanan(1994).Cruelty and Silence: War, Tyranny, Uprising, and the Arab World.W. W. Norton & Company.pp. 163–168.ISBN9780393311419.
  3. ^abcdefghiHiltermann 2008,Victims.
  4. ^Kirmanj & Rafaat 2021,p. 163.
  5. ^Beeston, Richard (18 January 2010)."Halabja, the massacre the West tried to ignore".The Times.Archived fromthe originalon 23 January 2010.Retrieved28 August2013.
  6. ^abcHiltermann 2008,Interpretation of facts.
  7. ^Hiltermann 2008,Context.
  8. ^abMontgomery 2001,p. 70.
  9. ^Randal, Jonathan C.(4 March 2019).After Such Knowledge, What Forgiveness?: My Encounters With Kurdistan.Routledge.ISBN978-0-429-71113-8.
  10. ^Hardi 2011,p. 17.
  11. ^Leezenberg, Michiel (2004). "The Anfal Operations in Iraqi Kurdistan".Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts.Routledge.p. 379.ISBN9780415944304.In these operations alone, an estimated 1200 Kurdish villages were destroyed.
  12. ^abHardi 2011,pp. 16–17.
  13. ^abIhsan, Mohammed (17 June 2016).Nation Building in Kurdistan: Memory, Genocide and Human Rights.Routledge.ISBN978-1-317-09016-8– via Google Books.
  14. ^abHardi 2011,p. 19.
  15. ^Hiltermann, Joost R.(2007).A Poisonous Affair: America, Iraq, and the Gassing of Halabja.Cambridge University Press.pp. 2–3.ISBN9780521876865.The precise death toll from the Halabja gas attack is unknown but thought to be several thousand. Out of an area population of 70-80,000 and with the reported intensity of the bombardment this was perhaps a remarkably small number.
  16. ^Hardi 2011,pp. 19–20.
  17. ^Hardi 2011,p. 20.
  18. ^Mlodoch, Karin.The limits of Trauma discourse, Women Anfal survivors in Kurdistan-Iraq.Berlin:Zentrum Moderner Orient,Klaus Schwarz Verlag. p. 167.
  19. ^Black 1993,pp. 171–172.
  20. ^Black 1993,pp. 172–176.
  21. ^abHardi 2011,p. 21.
  22. ^Hardi 2011,pp. 21–22.
  23. ^Black, George, (1993), pp. 222–223
  24. ^abBlack, George; Staff, Middle East Watch; Watch (Organization), Middle East (1993).Genocide in Iraq: The Anfal Campaign Against the Kurds.Human Rights Watch. p. 226.ISBN978-1-56432-108-4.
  25. ^Sissakian, Varoujan K. (January 2020)."Origins and Utilizations of the Main Natural Depressions in Iraq".ResearchGate.pp. 23–24.
  26. ^Black, George, (1993), p.209
  27. ^Black 1993,p. 36.
  28. ^Hiltermann, Joost R.(2007).A Poisonous Affair: America, Iraq, and the Gassing of Halabja.Cambridge University Press.p. 134.ISBN9780521876865.
  29. ^Hardi 2011,p. 22.
  30. ^abcdMlodoch, Karin (2012).""We Want to be Remembered as Strong Women, Not as Shepherds": Women Anfal Survivors in Kurdistan-Iraq Struggling for Agency and Acknowledgement ".Journal of Middle East Women's Studies.8(1): 65.doi:10.2979/jmiddeastwomstud.8.1.63.ISSN1552-5864.JSTOR10.2979/jmiddeastwomstud.8.1.63.S2CID145055297– viaJSTOR.
  31. ^abc"Killing of Iraq Kurds 'genocide'".BBC.23 December 2005.Retrieved31 July2022.
  32. ^"Dutch Court Concludes Anfal Campaign Wasn't Genocide".OpinioJuris.19 June 2007. Archived fromthe originalon 8 October 2009.The appellate court, however, did not simply conclude that van Anraat was unaware of Saddam's genocidal plan. It also held that the Anfal campaign did not amount to genocide. In its written judgment, the appeals panel said there was insufficient evidence to establish that the poison gas attacks on Kurdish villages in 1987 and 1988 amounted to genocide.
  33. ^Gottlieb, Sebastian (10 May 2007)."Van Anraat case 'example'".Radio Netherlands.Archived fromthe originalon 8 September 2007.In contrast to the original court judgement, the Court of Appeal concluded that the events in Northern Iraq weren't genocide.
  34. ^ab"ECLI:NL:GHSGR:2007:BA4676".de Rechtspraak.9 May 2007. Archived fromthe originalon 1 July 2013.the court points out that Van der Stoel stated as a witness that he based his highly relevant reports on human rights violations in Iraq, H74 and H75, on "a large stream of documents, fourteen tons" while, with the exception of a few appendices to those reports, there are no documents in the file from which the findings and conclusions of the Special Rapporteur can be directly deduced and from which, in the context of criminal proceedings such as the present one, there are building blocks with a sufficient degree of certainty for a finding of fact in respect of genocide can be derived.
  35. ^Lawyer denies Saddam confessionBBC News, 8 September 2005
  36. ^Iraqi High Tribunal announces second Saddam trial to openAssociated Press, 27 June 2006
  37. ^Dictator Who Ruled Iraq With Violence Is Hanged for Crimes Against HumanityThe New York Times,30 December 2006
  38. ^Omar Sinan (25 June 2007)."Iraq to hang 'Chemical Ali'".Tampa Bay Times.Associated Press. Archived fromthe originalon 17 October 2015.Retrieved3 December2015.
  39. ^'Chemical Ali' sentenced to hangCNN, 24 June 2007
  40. ^"Saddam Hussein's henchman 'Chemical Ali' executed".The Daily Telegraph.25 January 2010.Archivedfrom the original on 12 January 2022.Retrieved31 August2013.
  41. ^"Iraqi president opposes minister's hanging".The Irish Times.Retrieved17 March2020.
  42. ^"Iraq: Dujail Judgment Marred by Serious Flaws".Human Rights Watch.21 June 2007. Archived fromthe originalon 23 March 2023.
  43. ^"Convictions in the Anfal Trial".Opinio Juris.24 June 2007. Archived fromthe originalon 14 August 2022.
  44. ^"Q & A: The Anfal Trial".Human Rights Watch.22 June 2007. Archived fromthe originalon 1 October 2022.
  45. ^Ashok, Abhinav (5 July 2020)."Iraq Under Saddam Hussein and His Flawed Trial".Legal Bites.Archived fromthe originalon 11 June 2023.
  46. ^Hiltermann 2008,Bibliography.
  47. ^Black 1993,p. 28.
  48. ^abcdeMontgomery 2001,pp. 78–79.
  49. ^abAlshaibi, Wisam."Weaponizing Iraq's Archives".Middle East Report(291 (Summer 2019) ed.).
  50. ^Beaumont, Peter (25 March 2007)."We failed, says pro-war Iraqi".The Guardian.Retrieved6 August2022.
  51. ^Pelletiere 2016,p. 62.
  52. ^Cockrell-Abdullah 2018,p. 70.
  53. ^"Anfal campaign receives national day of remembrance".Archived fromthe originalon 7 January 2019.Retrieved21 July2018.
  54. ^Majid, Bareez."The Museum of Amna Suraka: a Critical Case Study of Kurdistani Memory Culture".Leiden University.Retrieved3 August2022.
  55. ^"Historic Debate Secures Parliamentary Recognition of the Kurdish Genocide".Huffington Post.March 2013.Retrieved31 August2013.
  56. ^Länktext,ytterligare text.
  57. ^Länktext,ytterligare text.

Sources

Further reading

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