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Antillia

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This article is about the legendary island. For Mukesh Ambani's residence, seeAntilia (building).For the plant genus, seeAntillia (plant).For the Italian town, seeMontano Antilia.
Antillia
Portolan chartlocation
Map of Albino de Canepa, dated 1489. Phantom island of Antillia, with its Seven Cities, on top; the smaller companion island of Roillo is below it
In-universe information
TypePhantom island

Antillia(orAntilia) is aphantom islandthat was reputed, during the 15th-century age of exploration, to lie in theAtlantic Ocean,far to the west ofPortugalandSpain.The island also went by the name ofIsle of Seven Cities(Ilha das Sete CidadesinPortuguese,Isla de las Siete CiudadesinSpanish).

It originates from an oldIberianlegend, set during theMuslim conquest of Hispaniac. 714.Seeking to flee from the Muslim conquerors, seven ChristianVisigothicbishops embarked with their flocks on ships and set sail westwards into the Atlantic Ocean, eventually landing on an island (Antillia) where they founded seven settlements.

The island makes its first explicit appearance as a large rectangular island in the 1424portolan chartofZuane Pizzigano.Thereafter, it routinely appeared in most nautical charts of the 15th century. After 1492, when the northAtlantic Oceanbegan to be routinely sailed and became more accurately mapped, depictions of Antillia gradually disappeared. It nonetheless lent its name to the SpanishAntilles.

The routine appearance of such a large "Antillia" in 15th-century nautical charts has led to speculation that it might represent theAmericanlandmass,[1]and has fueled many theories ofpre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact.

Legend

[edit]
A full image of Canepa's 1489 map, featuring Antillia (on the west) in relation to theIberian Peninsula.

Stories of islands in the Atlantic Ocean, legendary and otherwise, have been reported sinceclassical antiquity.[2]Utopian tales of theFortunate Islands(or Isles of the Blest) were sung by poets likeHomerandHorace.Platoarticulated the utopian legend ofAtlantis.Ancient writers likePlutarch,Strabo,and, more explicitly,Pliny the ElderandPtolemy,testified to the existence of theCanary Islands.The names of some real islands re-emerged as distinct mythical islands with associated legends, e.g.capraria(the island of goats) andcanaria(the island of dogs) are often found on maps separately from the Canary Islands (e.g.Pizzigani brothers,1367).

The Middle Ages saw the emergence ofChristianversions of these tales. Notable among these are the Irishimmrama(tales of a hero's journey to theOtherworld), such as the immram ofUí Corra,or the sea voyages of the 6th-century Irish missionariesSaint BrendanandSaint Malo.These are the source for several legendary Atlantic islands such asSaint Brendan's Islandand the Island of Ima.[3]The sagas ofNorseseafarers toGreenlandandVinland,notably theGrœnlendinga sagaand thesaga of Erik the Red,have also been influential. Norse encounters with North Americanindigenous peoplesseem to have filtered into Irishimmrama.[4]

The peoples of theIberian peninsula,who were closest to the real Atlantic islands of theCanaries,MadeiraandAzores,and whose seafarers and fishermen may have seen and even visited them,[5]articulated their own tales. MedievalAndalusianArabsrelated stories of Atlantic island encounters in the legend (told byal-Masudi) of the 9th-century navigatorKhashkhashof Cordoba[6]and the 12th-century story (told byal-Idrisi) of the eightMaghrurin(Wanderers) of Lisbon.[7]

Given the tendency of the legends of different seafarers – Greek, Norse, Irish, Arab and Iberian – to cross-fertilize and influence each other,[8]the exact source of some legendary Atlantic islands – such as the mythical islands ofBrasil[9]and theIsle of Mam[10]– are extremely difficult to disentangle.

It is from Christian Iberia that the legend ofAntilliaemerged. According to the legend, in c. 714, during theMuslim conquest of Hispania,seven Christian bishops ofVisigothic Hispania,led by theBishop of Porto,embarked with their parishioners on ships and set sail westward into the Atlantic Ocean to escape the Arab conquerors. They stumbled upon an island and decided to settle there, burning their ships to permanently sever their link[11]to their now Muslim-dominated former homeland. The bishops erected seven settlements (the "Seven Cities" ) on the island. In one reading (fromGrazioso Benincasa), the seven cities are named Aira, Antuab, Ansalli, Ansesseli, Ansodi, Ansolli and Con.[12]

The legend, in this form, is told in various places. The principal source is an inscription onMartin Behaim's 1492 Nuremberg globe which reads (in English translation):

In the year 734 after the birth of Christ, when all Spain was overrun by the miscreants of Africa, this Island of Antillia, called also the Isle of the Seven Cities, was peopled by the Archbishop of Porto with six other bishops, and certain companions, male and female, who fled from Spain with their cattle and property. In the year 1414, a Spanish ship approached very near this Island.[13]

Inscription ofJohannes Ruysch,1508. TheIsle of Demonsfurther north may be Antillia's old companion,Satanazes.

The legend is also found inscribed in the 1507/08 map ofJohannes Ruysch,which reads (in English):

This island Antilia was once found by the Portuguese, but now when it is searched, cannot be found. People found here speak the Hispanic language, and are believed to have fled here in face of a barbarian invasion of Hispania, in the time of King Roderic, the last to govern Hispania in the era of the Goths. There is 1 archbishop here and 6 other bishops, each of whom has his own city; and so it is called the island of seven cities. The people live here in the most Christian manner, replete with all the riches of this century.[14]

Ruysch's inscription is reproduced almost verbatim in theLibroof Spanish historianPedro de Medina(1548).[15]Medina gives the island's dimensions as 87 leagues in length and 28 in width, with "many good ports and rivers", and says it is situated on thelatitudeof theStraits of Gibraltar,that sailors have seen it from a distance, but disappears when they approach it.[16]

The adjustment to the 714 date and the burning of the ships is due toFerdinand Columbus(1539), who also reports an alleged encounter with the islanders by a Portuguese ship in the time ofHenry the Navigator(c. 1430s–1440s).[17]António Galvão(1563) reports that a 1447 Portuguese ship stumbled on the island, and met its (Portuguese-speaking) inhabitants, who reported they had fled there in the "time ofRoderic"and asked whether the Moors still dominated Hispania.[18]More elaborate versions of this story have been told in more modern times.[19]

Yet another variant of the tale is told inManuel de Faria e Sousa(1628), of Sacaru, a Visigothic governor ofMérida.Besieged by the Muslim armies and finding his situation hopeless, Sacaru negotiated capitulation, and proceeded, with all who wished to follow him, to embark on a fleet for exile in theCanary islands.Faria e Sousa notes they may not have reached their destination, but may have ended up instead on an Atlantic Ocean island "populated by Portuguese, that has seven cities... which some imagine to be that one which can be seen fromMadeira,but when they wish to reach it, disappears ".[20]

The island is mentioned in a royal letter of KingAfonso V of Portugal(dated 10 November 1475), where he grants the knight Fernão Teles "the Seven Cities and any other populated islands" he might find in the western Atlantic Ocean.[21]It is mentioned again in a royal letter (dated 24 July 1486), issued by KingJohn II of Portugalat the request of Fernão Dulmo authorizing him to search for and "discover the island of Seven Cities".[22]

Already by the 1490s, there are rumors thatsilvercan be found in the island's sands.[23]In the 16th century, the legend gave rise to the independent Spanish legends of theSeven Cities of Gold,reputed by mercenaryconquistadorsto be fabulously wealthy and located somewhere on the mainland of America.

Etymology

[edit]
1455 map ofBartolomeo Pareto.Antilia is the large island on the western edge.

The termAntilliais probably derived from thePortuguese"Ante-Ilha" ( "Fore-Island", "Island of the Other", or "Opposite Island" ).[24]It may be a reference to the belief that the island lay directly "opposite" from mainland Portugal (as it is usually charted), consistent with the Seven Cities story. Its size and rectangular shape is a near-mirror image of theKingdom of Portugalitself. Some suggest theante-ilhaetymology might be older, possibly related in meaning to the "Aprositus" ( "the Inaccessible" ), the name reported byPtolemyfor one of theFortunate Isles.[25]

Others regard the "ante-ilha" etymology as unsatisfactory, on the basis that "ante", in geographical usage, suggests it sits opposite another island, not a continent.[26]As a result, alternative etymological theories ofAntilliaabound. One theory was that "Antillia" is merely a poorly-transcribed reference to Plato's "Atlantis".[27]Another is that it is a corruption ofGetulia,an ancient Roman name for a geographical location in northwestern Africa.[28]Another theory, famously forwarded byAlexander von Humboldt,is that it comes from theArabical-Tinoral-Tennyn,for "dragon",a reference to the old Arab legends about sea dragons on the edge of the ocean (frequently depicted in Arab maritime charts), and that the island may have been known asJezirat al Tennyn,or "Dragon's Isle", in Andalusian Arab legend.[29]

One more recent hypothesis (although not finding wide acceptance), is thatAntilliamay mean "in front ofThule".[30]Sometimes writtenTile,Thule was a semi-mythical reference toIceland,already spoken of inclassicalsources. If so, thenante Tile,the "island before Thule", might very well beIreland,which might have had seven "cities" at the time.[31]This theory, however, seems highly speculative. Ireland (Hibernia) was well-known and appears distinctly on all 15th-century maps.

In a fresh work on the subject, the author Demetrio Charalambous notes that in medieval maps, the name of the island is written Antylia, which is inconsistent with the interpretation commonly accepted that the name means "ante-ilha" in Portuguese. No medieval map records the name "Antilha", by which the author dismisses the name as being Portuguese. Instead, he noted that the first cartographers to mention the island (although they did not represent it) were Francesco and Domenico Pizigano in 1367, who called it Antullia. From this follows that the name means "Anti-Tullia", i.e. Anti-Thule, later transformed into Antyllia, and finally Antillia.[32]According to his interpretation, the name denotes the island opposite to Tyle, but this does not mean it is before Iceland, but beyond it, as represented in the maps. The name means the island opposite to Tyle by sailing southwest, and therefore refers to America.

Cartographic representation

[edit]

The rediscovery of theCanary Islandsby Europeans in the 14th century revived an interest in Atlantic island myths.[citation needed]With the existence of lands out in the Atlantic Ocean confirmed, 14th-century European geographers began plumbing the old legends and plotting and naming many of these mythical islands on their nautical charts, alongside the new discoveries. Mythical Atlantic islands litter the early 14th-centuryportolan chartsofPietro VesconteandAngelino Dulcert.

Some historians believe the legend ofAntilliawas first insinuated cartographically in the 1367 portolan of the Venetian brothersDomenico and Francesco Pizzigano.This was insinuated by an inscription (albeit with no island) on the western edge of the map, which was read by some 19th-century historians as referring to "statues on the shores ofAtullia"(ante ripas Atulliae) beyond which sailors should not pass.[33]However, later readings have suggested it should be read as the statues ofArcules(Hercules), and that the inscription's reference is probably to thePillars of Hercules,thenon plus ultra(outer limits) of ancient navigation, and not Antillia.[34]

1424 map ofZuane Pizzigano.First clear depiction ofAntillia(large red rectangle),Ymana(futureRoyllo,small blue island to the west),Satanazes(large blue rectangle to the north) andSaya(futureDamnar,umbrella-shaped red isle far north)

Antillia makes its first unambiguous appearance in the 1424portolan chartofVenetiancartographerZuane Pizzigano,as part of a group of four islands, lying far in the Atlantic Ocean some 250 leagues west ofPortugal,and 200 leagues west of theAzoresarchipelago (which also usually depicted in contemporary charts). Pizzigano drew Antillia as a large, red, rectangular island, indented with bays and dotted with seven settlements, with the inscriptionista ixola dixemo antilia( "this island is called antillia" ). Some sixty leagues north of it is the comparable large blueSatanazesisland (ista ixolla dixemo satanazes,called Satanagio/Satanaxio/Salvagio in later maps), capped by a small umbrella-shapedSaya(called "Tanmar" or "Danmar" in later maps). Some twenty leagues west of Antilia is the small blue companion island ofYmana(the 'Royllo' of later maps). These four islands will be collectively drawn together in many later 15th-century maps, with the same relative size, position and shape Pizzigano gave them in 1424. They are commonly referred to collectively as the "Antillia group" or (to use Beccario's label) theinsulae de novo rep(er)te( "islands newly reported" ).

Cartographic appearances of Antillia (in chronological order):[35]

  1. 1424 map ofZuane PizziganoofVeniceasista ixolla dixemo antilia
  2. 1435 map ofBattista BeccarioofGenoa
  3. 1436 map ofAndrea BiancoofVenice
  4. 1455 map ofBartolomeo Paretoof Genoa – omits Satanazes
  5. 1463 map ofGrazioso BenincasaofAncona
  6. 1463 map of Pedro Roselli ofMajorca
  7. 1466 map of Pedro Roselli
  8. 1468 map of Pedro Roselli
  9. 1460s anonymousWeimar map(attrib. to Conte di Ottomano Freducci of Ancona) – labelled assepte civit[36]
  10. 1470 map of Grazioso Benincasa
  11. c. 1475 map of Cristoforo Soligo of Venice – omits Satanazes, Antillia labelled asy de sete zitade[36][what language is this?]
  12. 1474 "map" ofPaolo Toscanelli– map missing, but Antilia referenced in letter.
  13. 1476 map of Andrea Benincasa of Ancona (son of Grazioso) – omits Satanazes
  14. 1480 map of Albino de Canepa of Venice
  15. 1482 map of Grazioso Benincasa
  16. c. 1482 map of Grazioso Benincasa (different from above)
  17. 1482 map of Jacme Bertran of Majorca
  18. 1487 map of anonymous Majorcan cartographer
  19. 1489 map of Albino de Canepa
  20. 1492 Nuremberg globe ofMartin Behaim– omits Satanazes, first with inscription relating legend.[37]
  21. 1493 anonymous Laon globe
  22. c. 1500 Paris map ( "Columbus map" ) of anonymous Portuguese/Genoese (?) cartographer.[38]
  23. 1507-08 map ofJohannes Ruysch– relocates Satanazes toIsle of Demons(?), relates legend.

As is evident, on some maps (e.g. Pareto, Soligo, Behaim), Antillia appears without Satanazes.[39]

Significantly, although included in his map of 1436, the Antillia group is omitted in the laterAndrea Biancomap of 1448, although some authors believe that two rectangular islands depicted by Bianco much further south (in the environs ofCape Verde), and labelled merelydos ermanos( "two brothers" ) may be a reference to Antilia and Satanazes.

The controversial and possibly fakeVinland map,dated by its supporters around 1440, shows the outlines of Antillia and Satanazes islands (but not the two smaller ones) under the general labelMagnae insulae Beati Brandani(great islands of St Brendan).

Antillia (and all its companions) are conspicuously omitted in the map ofGabriel de Vallseca(1439), theGenoese map(1457), theFra Mauro map(1459) and the maps ofHenricus Martellus Germanus(1484, 1489) andPedro Reinel(c. 1485). With a few exceptions (e.g. Ruysch), Antillia disappears from almost all known maps composed afterChristopher Columbus'svoyagesto theAmericasin the 1490s (e.g. it is absent on the1500 mapofJuan de la Cosa,theCantino planisphereof 1502, etc.)

It appears in virtually all of the known survivingPortolan chartsof the Atlantic – notably those of the Genoese B. Beccario or Beccaria (1435), the Venetian Andrea Bianco (1436), and Grazioso Benincasa (1476 and 1482).[40]It is usually accompanied by the smaller and equally legendary islands ofRoyllo,St Atanagio, and Tanmar, the whole group often classified asinsulae de novo repertae,newly discovered islands.[41]

Andea Bianco, 1436. Antillia at right

On these maps, Antillia was typically depicted on a similar scale to that of Portugal, lying around 200 miles west of the Azores. It was drawn as an almost perfect rectangle, its long axis running north–south, but with seventrefoilbays shared between the east and west coasts. Each city lay on a bay. The form of the island occasionally becomes more figurative than the semi-abstract representations of Bartolomeo de Pareto, Benincasa and others:Bianco,for instance, shifts its orientation to northwest–southeast, transmutes generic bays into river mouths (including a large one on the northeastern coast), and elongates a southern tail into acapewith a small cluster ofisletsoffshore.

Around the time of Spain's discovery of South America, Antillia dwindles substantially in size onBehaim's globe and later charts. Contrary to the earlier descriptions of the two island groups as distinct entities, a 16th-century notion relegates Antillia to the island ofSão Miguel,the largest of theAzores,where a national park centering on two lakes still bears the nameSete Cidades National Park.

Medieval beliefs and the Age of Discovery

[edit]

A Portuguese legend tells how the island was settled in the early 8th century in the face of theMoorishconquest ofIberiaby the Archbishop ofPorto,six otherbishopsand their parishioners to avoid the ensuing Moorish invasion. Each congregation founded a city, namely, Aira, Anhuib, Ansalli, Ansesseli, Ansodi, Ansolli and Con,[42]and once established, burnt their caravel ships as a symbol of their autonomy. The reporting of this settlement comes courtesy of a young couple who eloped back to Europe on a rare trading ship[43]and reported the seven cities as a model of agricultural, economic and cultural harmony. Centuries later, the island became known as a proto-utopiancommonwealth, free from the disorders of less favoured states.[44]

Since these events predated theKingdom of Portugaland the clergy's heritage marked a claim to significant strategical gains, Spain counterclaimed that the expedition was, in fact, theirs.[45]One of the chief early descriptions of the heritage of Antillia is inscribed on the globe which the geographerMartin Behaimmade atNurembergin 1492. Behaim relates the Catholic escape from the barbarians, though his date of 734 is probably a mistake for 714. The inscription adds that a Spanish vessel sighted the island in 1414,[41]while a Portuguese crew claimed to have landed on Antillia in the 1430s.

In a later version of the legend, the bishops fled fromMérida, Spain,when Moors attacked it around the year 1150.[citation needed]

Toscanelli's notions of the geography of the Atlantic Ocean. Antillia at the middle-right.

With this legend underpinning the growing reports of a bountiful civilisation midway between Europe andCipangu,or Japan,[46]the quest to discover the Seven Cities attracted significant attention. However, by the last decade of the 15th century, the Portuguese state's official sponsorship of such exploratory voyages had ended,[47]and in 1492, under the Spanish flag ofFerdinand and Isabella,Christopher Columbusset out on his historic journey toAsia,citing the island as the perfect halfway house by the authority ofPaul Toscanelli.[48]Columbus had supposedly gained charts and descriptions from a Spanish navigator, who had "sojourned... and died also" at Columbus's home in Madeira, after having made landfall on Antillia.[49]

FollowingJohn Cabot's first 1497 voyage toNewfoundland,several people believed he had discovered Antillia. Upon Cabot's return to England, two residents of Bristol – the Italian merchant Raimondo de Soncino (in a letter to the Duke of Milan, dated August 24, 1497) and Bristol merchant John Day (in a letter to Christopher Columbus, written c. December 1497) – refer to Cabot making landfall and coasting the "Island of Seven Cities".

Later influence

[edit]

Others followingd'Anghierasuggested contenders in the West Indies for Antillia's heritage (most often eitherPuerto RicoorTrinidad), and as a result the Caribbean islands became known as theAntilles.As European explorations continued in the Americas, maps reduced the scale of the island Antillia, tending to place it mid-Atlantic, whereas theSeven Cities of Goldwere attributed to mainland Central or North America, as the various European powers vied for territory in the New World.

See also

[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related toAntillia.

References

[edit]
  1. ^Cortesão (1970):p.12)
  2. ^Beazley (1897-1906, 1899:p.lxxii)
  3. ^O'Curry (1861:p.289ff); Beazley (1897, vol.1,p.230ff); Babcock (1922: Ch. 3)
  4. ^Fridtjof Nansen(1911: vol.2,p.9)
  5. ^BothPlutarch(Life of Sertorius) andPliny the Elderreported that fishermen from Gades (Cadiz) routinely visited Atlantic islands to the southwest.
  6. ^Beazley (1897: vol.1,p.465)
  7. ^Beazley (1906: vol. 3,p.532). Cortesão (1970: p.8)
  8. ^Nansen (1911: vol. 2,p.54)
  9. ^Alexander von Humboldt(1837)Examen critique,Vol. 2,p.216ff.;See also Babckock (1922: Ch.4)
  10. ^Babcock (1922:Ch.6)
  11. ^For this often-emulatedtrope,seeAeneidV, influenced by the tradition thatAlexander the Greatburned his ships on the Aegean shore and influencing the reference made byFrancisco Cervantes de Salazarin 1546 toHernàn Cortésburning his ships on the Mexican coast. The Moorish commanderTariq ibn Ziyadalso ordered his ships to be burned.
  12. ^Cortesão (1954 (1975):p.140)
  13. ^Beazley (1897: vol. 1,p.234). See also Babcock (1922:p.72)
  14. ^Cortesão (1954 (1975):p.127)
  15. ^Pedro de Medina(1548 (1595 ed.),p.119). Curiously, Pedro de Medina says the inscription comes from a "very old" nautical map made by "Tolomeo" at the direction of "Papa Urbano". Presumably, he means a map based on (rather than by)Ptolemy.The last pope by that name wasPope Urban VI(r. 1378-1389). If Medina has not mistaken his popes, and if there was such a map, then that map would contain the oldest reference to Antillia on record.
  16. ^Medina (p.119)
  17. ^Ferdinand Columbus,Historia del Almirante(1539: ch. 8p.45).
  18. ^António Galvão(1563:p.72)
  19. ^A rather fancified version of the tale is told inHigginson(1883:p.93), who relates that news of the island's existence was first brought to Europe by an eloping pair of lovers who fled the island.
  20. ^Sousa, Manuel de Faria e (1677).Epítome de las historias portuguesas: dividido en quatro partes(in Spanish). por Francisco Foppens.
  21. ^Cortesão (1954 (1975)pp. 124-5). A similar grant might have been made earlier in 1473 to Infanta D. Brites, of "an island, that appeared beyond the island of Santiago", but was not found when it was sought. ibid.
  22. ^Cortesão (1954 (1975) p. 125)
  23. ^In the Paris map ( "Columbus Map" ) of c. 1500 (La Ronciere, 1924), the inscription by Antillia reads:Hec Septem Civitatum insula vocatur, nunc Portugallensium colonia efecta, ut Gromite citantur Hispanorum, in qua reperiri inter arenas argentum perhibetur.( "Here is the island called of the Seven Cities, a colony inhabited by Portuguese, according to some Spanish sailors, in the sands of which silver can be found." )
  24. ^Cortesão (1954 (1975): p.107).
  25. ^Gaffarel (1882:p.204)
  26. ^This objection was already articulated by Vicenzio Formaleoni (1783:p.27-28), one of the first to draw scholarly attention to Antillia.
  27. ^Babcock (1922:p.148). D'Avezac (1845:p.27) briefly entertained this theory. The Atlantis etymology was also considered, and discarded, by Humboldt (1837:p.192). See Cortesão (1954 (1975): p.118). It has however, remained extant among some modern "Atlantis" theorists. Lewis Spence (1925) suggested that Antilla is the remnant of Atlantis, which had broken up following a natural disaster. Spence (p.87) cites Brasseur de Bourgbourg, Bancroft and Le Plongeon as supporters of this theory, "none of them authorities of any great weight, I fear, and all inclined to rashness."
  28. ^This was first forwarded by Crone (1938) and initially favored by Morison (1940). See Diffie and Winius (1977: p.441). Although commonly associated with the North African hinterlands, Crone asserts that "Getulia" is identified by some Medieval geographers as the ancient name of the location of whereHerculeswas alleged to have set up his pillars (Pillars of Hercules). However, later, Morison (1955: p.469) embraces the 'ante-ilha' hypothesis, stating its "fairly obvious" that "the name means nothing more or less than opposite island or island over against". Crone (1955) published a note acknowledging the alternative reading of the 1367 inscription he believed was Getulia as "Arcules" (Hercules), stating it "deserves consideration", although it remains unclear whether he had abandoned his own Getulia reading.
  29. ^Alexander von Humboldt(1837)Examen critique,Vol. 2,p.211.This hypothesis was in fact first proposed by Buache (1806:p.27-28). See also d'Avezac (1845: p.27).
  30. ^Barreto (1992: p.163) published this hypothesis.
  31. ^According to Barreto (1992: p.163), Ireland had sevencitiesat the time, which he lists asCork,Limerick,Waterford,Wexford,Dublin,DundalkandBelfast,all of which happen to be situated on the coast, at or not too far from bays. However, the author of this article could not find corroboration for Barreto's statement. On a side note, J. Godkin (1867,Ireland and her Churches,p.23) notes that in old Irish churches, a diocese typically had not one, butseven"bishops".
  32. ^Charalambous, Demetrio, "Descubrimiento en el mar de papel", Buenos Aires, 1995. See also "The Enigma of the isle of gold", in Revista de Historia de América, number 118, July–December 1994.
  33. ^Jean-Nicholas Buache (1806:[1]), Konrad Kretschmer (1892:195-7), A.E. Nordenskiöld (1897: p.164).
  34. ^This was first proposed by Hennig (1945) and supported by Armando Cortesão (1954 (1975)p.106). Cortesão (p.74) notes that an inscription about Hercules's "statues" to mark the edge of safe navigation was common practice in Arab charts. Crone (1938) first proposed to read it asGetulliae(Getulia), but later (Crone, 1947) acknowledged the Hercules reading.
  35. ^List from Armando Cortesão (1954 (1975 ed.):p.156)
  36. ^abCortesão, p.125
  37. ^Cortesão, p.125–126
  38. ^The "Columbus Map", held by theBibliothèque nationale de Francein Paris and dated tentatively between 1490 and 1500, was attributed by La Ronciere (1924) toChristopher Columbushimself, possibly under the supervision ofBartholomew Columbus.Although this is now doubted, it is still sometimes called the "Columbus map". Cortesão (1954) identifies the author as Portuguese, others as a Genoese living in Portugal.
  39. ^Cortesão (1954 (1975): p.134)
  40. ^See also- Bartolomeo de Pareto, 1455; Petrus Roselli, 1468, held by the Hispanic Society of America; attr. Toscanelli, 1474: original is lost, but a copy survives in Columbus's notes
  41. ^abOne or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain:Chisholm, Hugh,ed. (1911). "Antilia".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 126.
  42. ^Pizzigano map,1424
  43. ^For a modern recantation of the various early sources, seeTales of the Enchanted Islands of the Atlantic,Thomas Wentworth-Higginson, 1899.
  44. ^Chisholm 1911.
  45. ^Tales of the Enchanted Islands of the Atlantic,Thomas Wentworth-Higginson, 1989.
  46. ^Paul Toscanelli's 1474 letter to the Spanish Court, 'Toscanelli and Columbus', H. Vignaud, 1902
  47. ^"RA Skelton," Explorers' Maps: Chapters in the Cartographic Record of Geographical Discovery "".Archived fromthe originalon 2011-03-20.Retrieved2017-08-24.
  48. ^Paul Toscanelli's 1474 letter to the Spanish Court, RA Skelton, "Explorers' Maps: Chapters in the Cartographic Record of Geographical Discovery"
  49. ^Peter Martyr d'Anghiera,De Orbe Novo,1511–1125https:// gutenberg.org/ebooks/12425

Sources

[edit]
  • Babcock, W.H. (1920) "Antillia and the Antilles",Geographical Review,vol. 9 (2), p. 109-24.
  • Babcock, W.H. (1922)Legendary islands of the Atlantic: a study in medieval geographyNew York: American Geographical Society.online
  • Barreto, M. (1988)O português Cristóvão Colombo,1992 trans. asThe Portuguese Columbus: secret agent of King John II.New York: Macmillan.
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