Antonio López de Santa Anna

In thisSpanish name,the first or paternalsurnameisLópez de Santa Annaand the second or maternal family name isPérez de Lebrón.

His Most Serene Highness Antonio López de Santa Anna
Daguerreotypeof General Santa Anna,c. 1853
8thPresident of Mexico
In office 20 April 1853 – 5 August 1855
Preceded by	Manuel María Lombardini
Succeeded by	Martín Carrera
In office 20 May – 15 September 1847
Preceded by	Pedro María de Anaya
Succeeded by	Manuel de la Peña y Peña
In office 21 March – 2 April 1847
Preceded by	Valentín Gómez Farías
Succeeded by	Pedro María de Anaya
President of the Mexican Republic
In office 4 June – 12 September 1844
Preceded by	Valentín Canalizo
Succeeded by	José Joaquín de Herrera
In office 14 May – 6 September 1843
Preceded by	Nicolás Bravo
Succeeded by	Valentín Canalizo
In office 10 October 1841 – 26 October 1842
Preceded by	Francisco Javier Echeverría
Succeeded by	Nicolás Bravo
In office 20 March – 10 July 1839
Preceded by	Anastasio Bustamante
Succeeded by	Nicolás Bravo
President of the United Mexican States
In office 24 April 1834 – 27 January 1835
Vice President	Valentín Gómez Farías
Preceded by	Valentín Gómez Farías
Succeeded by	Miguel Barragán
In office 27 October – 15 December 1833
Vice President	Valentín Gómez Farías
Preceded by	Valentín Gómez Farías
Succeeded by	Valentín Gómez Farías
In office 18 June – 5 July 1833
Vice President	Valentín Gómez Farías
Preceded by	Valentin Gómez Farías
Succeeded by	Valentín Gómez Farías
In office 17 May – 3 June 1833
Vice President	Valentín Gómez Farías
Preceded by	Valentín Gómez Farías
Succeeded by	Valentín Gómez Farías
Vice President of the Mexican Republic
In office 16 April 1837 – 17 March 1839
President	Anastasio Bustamante
Preceded by	Valentin Gomez Farias
Succeeded by	Nicolas Bravo
Personal details
Born	(1794-02-21)21 February 1794 Xalapa,Veracruz,New Spain
Died	21 June 1876(1876-06-21)(aged 82) Mexico City,Mexico
Resting place	Panteón del Tepeyac, Mexico City
Political party	Liberal(until 1833) Conservative(from 1833)
Spouses	María Inés de la Paz García ​ ​ (m.1825; died 1844)​ María de los Dolores de Tosta ​ ​ (m.1844)​
Awards	Order of Charles III Order of Guadalupe
Signature
Nickname	The Napoleon of the West
Military service
Allegiance	Kingdom of Spain Mexican Empire United Mexican States
Years of service	1810–1855
Rank	General
Battles/wars	Mexican War of Independence Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico Casa Mata Plan Revolution Zacatecas rebellion of 1835 Texas Revolution Pastry War Mexican–American War

Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón,usually known asAntonio López de Santa Anna(Spanish pronunciation:[anˈtonjoˈlopesðesanˈtana];21 February 1794 – 21 June 1876),or justSanta Anna,was a Mexican soldier, politician, andcaudillowho served as the 8thpresident of Mexicomultiple times between 1833 and 1855. He also served asVice President of Mexicofrom 1837 to 1839. He was a controversial and pivotal figure in Mexican politics during the 19th century, to the point that he has been called an "uncrowned monarch",and historians often refer to the three decades after Mexican independence as the "Age of Santa Anna".

Santa Anna was in charge of the garrison atVeracruzat the timeMexico won independencein 1821. He would go on to play a notable role in the fall of theFirst Mexican Empire,the fall of theFirst Mexican Republic,the promulgation of theConstitution of 1835,the establishment of theCentralist Republic of Mexico,theTexas Revolution,thePastry War,the promulgation of theConstitution of 1843,and theMexican–American War.He became well known in the United States due to his role in the Texas Revolution and in the Mexican–American War.

Throughout his political career, Santa Anna was known for switching sides in the recurring conflict between theLiberal Partyand theConservative Party.He managed to play a prominent role in both discarding the liberalConstitution of 1824in 1835 and in restoring it in 1847. He came to power as a liberal twice in 1832 and in 1847 respectively, both times sharing power with the liberal statesmanValentín Gómez Farías,and both times Santa Anna overthrew Gómez Farías after switching sides to the conservatives. Santa Anna was also known for his ostentatious anddictatorialstyle of rule, making use of the military to dissolveCongressmultiple times and referring to himself by the honorific title ofHis Most Serene Highness.

His intermittent periods of rule, which lasted from 1832 to 1853, witnessed theloss of Texas,a series of military failures during the Mexican–American War, and the ensuingMexican Cession.His leadership in the war and his willingness to fight to the bitter end prolonged that conflict: "more than any other single person it was Santa Anna who deniedPolk's dream of a short war. "Even after the war was over, Santa Anna continued to cede national territory to the Americans through theGadsden Purchasein 1853.

After he was overthrown and exiled in 1855 through the liberalPlan of Ayutla,Santa Anna began to fade into the background in Mexican politics even as the nation entered the decisive period of theReform War,theSecond French Intervention in Mexico,and the establishment of theSecond Mexican Empire.An elderly Santa Anna was allowed to return to the nation by PresidentSebastián Lerdo de Tejadain 1874, and he died in relative obscurity in 1876.

Historians debate the exact number of his presidencies, as he would often share power and make use ofpuppet rulers;biographer Will Fowler gives the figure of six termswhile theTexas State Historical Associationclaims five.Historian of Latin America, Alexander Dawson counts eleven times that Santa Anna assumed the presidency, often for short periods.TheUniversity of TexasLibraries cites the same figure of eleven times, but adds Santa Anna was only president for six years due to short terms.

Santa Anna's legacy has subsequently come to be viewed as profoundly negative, with historians and many Mexicans ranking him as "the principal inhabitant even today of Mexico's black pantheon of those who failed the nation".He is considered one of the most unpopular and controversial Mexican presidents of the 19th century.

Early life

Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón was born inXalapa,Veracruz,Nueva España(New Spain), on 21 February 1794 into a respected Spanish family. He was named after his father,licenciadoAntonio López de Santa Anna y Pérez (born 1761), a university graduate and a lawyer; his mother was Manuela Pérez de Lebrón y Cortés (died 1814).

Santa Anna's family prospered in Veracruz, where the merchant class dominated politics. His paternal uncle, Ángel López de Santa Anna, was a public clerk (escribano) and became aggrieved when the town council of Veracruz prevented him from moving toMexico Cityto advance his career. Since the late 18th-centuryBourbon Reforms,theSpanish crownhad favored peninsular-born Spaniards over American-born; young Santa Anna's family was affected by the growing disgruntlement ofcreoleswhose upward mobility was thwarted.

Santa Anna's mother favored her son's choice of a military career, supporting his desire to join theSpanish Army,rather than be a shopkeeper as his father preferred. His mother's friendly relationship with theintendant(governor) of Veracruz secured Santa Anna's military appointment despite the fact that he was underage. His parents' marriage produced seven children, four sisters and two brothers, and Santa Anna was close to his sister Francisca and brother Manuel, who also joined the army.

Career

Santa Anna's origins on Mexico'seastern coasthad important ramifications for his military career, as he had developed immunity fromyellow fever,endemic to the region. The port of Veracruz and environs were known to be unhealthy for those not native to the region,so he had a personal strategic advantage against military officers from elsewhere. Being an officer in a time of war was a way that a provincial, middle-class man could vault from obscurity to a position of leadership. Santa Anna distinguished himself in battle, a path that led him to a national political career.

Santa Anna's provincial origins made him uncomfortable in the halls of power in Mexico City, which were dominated by cliques of elite men, and thus he frequently made retreats to his base in Veracruz. He cultivated contact with ordinary Mexican men and pursued entertainments such ascockfighting.Over his career, Santa Anna was a populistcaudillo,astrongmanwielding both military and political power, similar to others who emerged in the wake ofSpanish American wars of independence.

War of Independence, 1810–1821

Santa Anna's early military career during theMexican War of Independence,which entailed fighting the insurgency before switching sides against the crown, presaged his many shifts in allegiance during his later political career. In June 1810, the 16-year-old Santa Anna joined the Fijo de Veracruz infantry regiment.In September of that year, secular clericMiguel Hidalgo y Costillasparked a spontaneous mass uprising in theBajío,Mexico's rich agricultural area. Although some creole elites had chafed as their upward mobility had been thwarted by the Bourbon Reforms, the Hidalgo Revolt saw most creoles favoring continued crown rule. In particular, Santa Anna's family "saw themselves as aligned to the peninsular elite, whom they served, and were in turn recognized as belonging".

Initially Santa Anna, like most creole military officers, fought for the crown against the mixed-raced insurgents for independence; his commanding officer was ColonelJosé Joaquín de Arredondo.In 1811 he was wounded in the left hand by an arrow while fighting in the town of Amoladeras, in the intendancy (administrative district) ofSan Luis Potosí.In 1813 he served inTexasagainst theGutiérrez–Magee Expeditionand at theBattle of Medina,in which he was cited for bravery. Santa Anna was promoted quickly; he became a second lieutenant in February 1812 and first lieutenant before the end of that year. During the initial rebellion, the young officer witnessed Arredondo's fiercecounterinsurgencypolicy of mass executions. The early fighting against the rebels gave way toguerrilla warfareand a militarystalemate.

When royalist officerAgustín de Iturbideswitched sides in 1821 and allied with insurgentVicente Guerrero,fighting for independence under thePlan of Iguala,Santa Anna also joined the fight for independence. Political developments in Spain, where liberals had ousted KingFerdinand VIIand began implementing the Spanish liberalconstitution of 1812,made many elites in Mexico reconsider their options.

Rebellion against the Mexican Empire of Iturbide, 1822–1823

Further information:Casa Mata Plan Revolution

Iturbide, nowEmperorAugustin I, rewarded Santa Anna with the command of the vital port of Veracruz, the gateway from theGulf of Mexicoto the rest of the nation and site of acustoms house.However, Iturbide subsequently removed Santa Anna from the post, prompting Santa Anna to rise in rebellion in December 1822 against Iturbide. He already had significant power in his home region of Veracruz, and "he was well along the path to becoming the regionalcaudillo."Santa Anna claimed in hisPlan of Veracruzthat he rebelled because Iturbide had dissolved the Constituent Congress. He also promised to support free trade with Spain, an important principle for his home region of Veracruz.

Although Santa Anna's initial rebellion was important, Iturbide had loyal military men who were able to hold their own against the rebels in Veracruz. However, former insurgent leaders Guerrero andNicolás Bravo,who had supported Iturbide's Plan de Iguala, returned to their base in southern Mexico and raised a rebellion against Iturbide. The commander of imperial forces in Veracruz, who had fought against the rebels, changed sides and joined the rebels. The new coalition proclaimed thePlan of Casa Mata,which called for the end of the monarchy, restoration of the Constituent Congress, and creation of arepublicand afederal system.

No longer the main player in the movement against Iturbide or the creation of new political arrangements, Santa Anna sought to regain his position as a leader and marched forces toTampico,then to San Luis Potosí, proclaiming his role as the "protector of the federation". Representatives from San Luis Potosí and other north-central regions, such asMichoacán,Querétaro,andGuanajuato,met to decide their own position towards the federation. Santa Anna pledged his military forces to the protection of these key areas. "He attempted, in other words, to co-opt the movement, the first of many examples in his long career where he placed himself as the head of a generalized movement so it would become an instrument of his advancement."

Santa Anna and the early Mexican Republic

In May 1823, following Iturbide'sabdicationas emperor in March, Santa Anna was sent to command inYucatán.At the time, Yucatán's capital ofMéridaand the port city ofCampechewere in conflict. Yucatán's closest trade partner was Cuba, a Spanish colony. Santa Anna took it upon himself to plan a landing force from Yucatán in Cuba, which he envisioned would result in Cuban colonists welcoming their "liberators", most especially himself. One thousand Mexicans were already on ships to sail to Cuba when word came that the Spanish were reinforcing their colony, so the invasion was called off.

Former insurgent generalGuadalupe Victoria,a liberal federalist, became the first president of theMexican republicin 1824, following the creation of theconstitution of 1824.Victoria came to the presidency with little factional conflict, and served out his entire four-year term. However, theelection of 1828was quite different, with considerable political conflict in which Santa Anna became involved.

Even before the election, there was unrest in Mexico, with some conservatives affiliated with theScottish RiteFreemasonsplotting rebellion. The so-called Montaño rebellion in December 1827 called for the prohibition ofsecret societies,implicitly meaning liberalYork RiteFreemasons, and the expulsion of U.S. diplomatJoel Roberts Poinsett,a promoter of federal republicanism. Although Santa Anna was believed to be a supporter of the Scottish Rite conservatives, and Santa Anna was himself a member of the Scottish Rite,in the Montaño rebellion he eventually threw his support to the liberals. In his home state of Veracruz, the governor had thrown his support to the rebels, and in the aftermath of the rebellion's failure, Santa Anna as vice-governor stepped into the governorship.

In the 1828 election, Santa Anna supported Guerrero, who was a candidate for the presidency. Another important liberal,Lorenzo de Zavala,also supported Guerrero. However, conservativeManuel Gómez Pedrazawon the indirect elections for the presidency, with Guerrero coming in second. Even before all the votes had been counted, Santa Anna raised a rebellion and called for the nullification of the election results, as well for a new law expelling Spanish nationals who he believed to have been in league with the conservatives. The rebellion initially had few supporters, although southern Mexican leaderJuan Álvarezsoon Santa Anna, while Zavala, under threat of arrest by the conservativeSenate,fled to the mountains and organized his own rebellion. Zavala brought the fighting into Mexico City, with his supporters seizing an armory, theAcordada.President-elect Gómez Pedraza resigned and soon after went intoexile,clearing the way for Guerrero to assume office. Santa Anna gained prominence for his role in Gómez Pedraza's ouster, and was lauded as a defender of federalism and democracy.

Military action in Pueblo Viejo during theBattle of Tampico,September 1829

In 1829, Spain made afinal attemptto retake Mexico, invading Tampico with a force of 2,600 troops. Santa Anna marched against theBarradas Expeditionwith a much smaller force and defeated the Spaniards, many of whom were suffering from yellow fever. The defeat of the Spanish Army not only firmly established Santa Anna as a national hero but also consolidated the independence of the new Mexican republic. From this point forward, Santa Anna styled himself the "Victor of Tampico" and the "Savior of the Patria". His main act of self-promotion was to call himself the "Napoleonof the West ".

Three months later, in December 1829, Vice-presidentAnastasio Bustamante,a conservative, mounted a successfulcoup d'etatagainst President Guerrero, who left Mexico City to lead a counter-rebellion in the south. Guerrero was captured and executed after a summary trial in 1831, which shocked the nation.In 1832, Santa Anna seized the customs revenues from Veracruz and declared himself in rebellion against Bustamante. The bloody conflict ended with Santa Anna forcing the resignation of Bustamante's cabinet, and an agreement was brokered for new elections in 1833.

"Absentee President", 1833–1835

See also:Plan of Cuernavaca

Dr.Valentín Gómez Farías,Santa Anna's vice president 1833–34, who enacted liberal reforms

Santa Anna was elected president on 1 April 1833, but while he desired the title, he was not interested in governing. According to Mexican historianEnrique Krauze,"It annoyed him and bored him, and perhaps frightened him."A biographer of Santa Anna describes his role during this period as the "absentee president".Vice-presidentValentín Gómez Faríastook over the responsibility of governing the nation while Santa Anna retired toManga de Clavo,hishaciendain Veracruz. Gómez Farías was a moderate, but he had a radical liberal congress with which to contend, perhaps a reason that Santa Anna left executive power to him.

Mexico was faced with an empty treasury and an 11 million peso debt incurred by the Bustamante government. Gómez Farías could not cut back on the bloated expenditures on the army and sought other revenues. Taking a chapter out of the late Bourbon Reforms, he targeted theRoman Catholic Church.Anticlericalism was a tenet ofMexican liberalism,and the church had supported Bustamante's government, so targeting that institution was a logical move.Tithing(a 10% tax on agricultural production) was abolished as a legal obligation, and church property and finances were seized. The church's role in education was reduced and theRoyal and Pontifical University of Mexicoclosed. All this caused concern among Mexican conservatives.

Gómez Farías sought to extend these reforms to the frontier province ofAlta California,promoting legislation tosecularizetheFranciscanmissions there. In 1833 he organized the Híjar-Padrés colony to bolster non-mission civilian settlement, as well as defend the province against perceivedRussiancolonial ambitions from the trading post atFort Ross.However, for liberal intellectual and Catholic priestJosé María Luis Mora,selling church property was the key to "transforming Mexico into a liberal, progressive nation of small landowners." Sale of nonessential church property would bring in much-needed revenue to the treasury. The army was also targeted for reform, since it was the largest single expenditure in the national budget. On Santa Anna's suggestion, the number ofbattalionswas to be reduced as well as the number of generals and brigadiers.

The government soon issued a law, theLey del Caso,which called for the arrest of 51 politicians, including Bustamante, for holding "unpatriotic" beliefs and their expulsion from the country. Gómez Farías claimed that Santa Anna was the driving force for the law, which evidence seems to support.With increasing resistance from the church as well as the army, the Plan of Cuernavaca was issued, likely orchestrated by former general and governor of the Federal District,José María Tornel.The plan called for repeal of theLey del Caso;discouraged tolerance of the influence ofMasonic lodges,where politics was pursued in secrecy; declared void the laws passed byCongressand the local legislatures in favor of the reforms; requested the protection of Santa Anna to fulfill the plan and recognize him as the only authority; removed from office deputies and officials who carried out enforcement of the reform laws and decrees; and provided military force to support Gómez Farías in implementing the plan.

As opinion turned against the reforms, Santa Anna was persuaded to return to the presidency and Gómez Farías resigned. This set the stage for conservatives to reshape Mexico's government from a federalist republic to a unitary central republic.

Central Republic, 1835

Main article:Centralist Republic of Mexico

Further information:Siete LeyesandRebellion in Zacatecas

Santa Anna in a Mexican military uniform

For conservatives, the liberal reform of Gómez Farías was radical and threatened the power of the elites. Santa Anna's actions in allowing this first reform (followed by a more sweeping one in 1855) might have been a test case for liberalism. At this point, Santa Anna was a liberal; by giving the moderate Gómez Farías responsibility for the reforms, he could haveplausible deniabilityand closely monitor the reaction to a comprehensive attack on the special privileges of the army and the church, as well as confiscation of church wealth, enacted by Congress.

In May 1834, Santa Anna ordered the disarmament of the civic militia and urged Congress to abolish the controversialLey del Caso.On 12 June he dissolved Congress and announced his decision to adopt the Plan of Cuernavaca, forming a new Catholic, centralist and conservative government.Santa Anna brokered a deal where, in exchange for preserving the privileges of the church and the army, the church promised a monthly donation to the government of 30,000–40,000 pesos."The santanistas [supporters of Santa Anna] succeeded in achieving what the radicals had failed to do: forcing the Church to assist the republic's daily fiscal needs with its funds and properties."

On 4 January 1835, Santa Anna returned to hishacienda,placingMiguel Barragánas acting president. He soon replaced the 1824 constitution with the new document known as the "Siete Leyes"(" The Seven Laws "). Santa Anna did not involve himself with the conservative effort to replace the federalist constitution with a unitary central government, seemingly uneasy with their political path." Although he has been blamed for the change to centralism, he was not actually present during any of the deliberations that led to the abolition of the federalist charter or the elaboration of the 1836 Constitution. "

Several states openly rebelled against the changes, including Alta California,Nuevo México,Tabasco,Sonora,Coahuila y Tejas,San Luis Potosí, Querétaro,Durango,Guanajuato, Michoacán, Yucatán,Jalisco,Nuevo León,Tamaulipas,andZacatecas.Several of these states formed their own governments: theRepublic of the Rio Grande,theRepublic of Yucatán,and theRepublic of Texas.Their fierce resistance was possibly fueled by Santa Anna'sreprisalscommitted against his defeated enemies.TheNew York Posteditorialized that "had Santa Anna treated the vanquished with moderation and generosity, it would have been difficult if not impossible to awaken that general sympathy for the people of Texas which now impels so many adventurous and ardent spirits to throng to the aid of their brethren."

The Zacatecas militia, the largest and best supplied of the Mexican states, led byFrancisco García Salinas,was well armed with.753 caliber British 'Brown Bess'musketsand Baker.61rifles.But, after two hours of combat on 12 May 1835, Santa Anna's "Army of Operations"defeated the Zacatecan militiaand took almost 3,000 prisoners. He allowed his army to lootZacatecas Cityfor forty-eight hours. After conquering Zacatecas, he planned to move on to Coahuila y Tejas to quell the rebellion there, which was being supported bysettlers from the United States.

Texas Revolution 1835–1836

Further information:Texas Revolution

Fall of the Alamo to Santa Anna's forces, 6 March 1836

In 1835, Santa Anna repealed the Mexican constitution, which ultimately led to the beginning of the Texas Revolution. His reasoning for the repeal was that American settlers in Texas were not paying taxes ortariffs,claiming they were not recipients of any services provided by the Mexican government; as a result, new settlers were not allowed there. The new policy was a response to the U.S. attempts to purchase Texas from Mexico.Like other states discontented with the central government, the Texas Department of the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas rebelled in late 1835 and declared itself independent on 2 March 1836. The northeastern part of the state had been settled by numerous American immigrants.Moses Austin,the father ofStephen F. Austin,had his party accepted by Spanish authorities in exchange for defense against foreign threats. However, Mexico had declared independence from Spain before the elder Austin died.

Santa Anna marched north to bring Texas back under Mexican control by a brutalshow of force.His expedition posed challenges of manpower, logistics, supply and strategy far beyond what he was prepared for, and it ended in disaster. To fund, organize and equip his army, Santa Anna relied, as he often did, on forcing wealthy men to "loan" him funds. He recruited hastily, sweeping up many derelicts and ex-convicts, as well asIndianswho could not understand Spanish commands.

Having expected tropical weather, Santa Anna's army suffered from cold, a lack of proper clothing and food shortages. Stretching a supply line far longer than ever before, there were not enough horses, mules, cattle and wagons available, resulting in units never having enough food, fuel, or feed. The medical facilities were minimal and poorly supplied. Morale sank as soldiers realized there were not enoughchaplainsto properly bury their bodies. Hostile Indians picked off stragglers and foragers. Waterborne sicknesses spread quickly when the men were forced to drink any water they could find on the trail. The officers proved to be mostly incompetent, yet the highly insulated and rigid hierarchy of the army meant that Santa Anna was kept ignorant of these problems.

Santa Anna's forces killed 189 Texan defenders at theBattle of the Alamoon 6 March 1836, and executed more than 342 Texan prisoners at theGoliad Massacreon 27 March 1836. However, his forces suffered unexpectedly heavy casualties. In an 1874 letter, Santa Anna asserted that killing the defenders of Alamo was his only option, stressing that Texan commanderWilliam B. Traviswas to blame for the degree of violence during the battle. Santa Anna believed that Travis was disrespectful towards him, and that if he had spared the Texans, it would have allowedSam Houstonto establish a dominant position that could threaten him later.

"Surrender of Santa Anna"byWilliam Henry Huddleshows the Mexican president and general surrendering to a wounded Sam Houston,battle of San Jacinto

The Mexican victory at the Alamo bought time for Houston and his Texas forces. During the siege, theTexian Navyhad more time to plunder ports along the Gulf of Mexico, and theTexian Armygained more experience and weaponry. Despite Houston's lack of ability to maintain strict control of the Army, they completely routed Santa Anna's much larger army at theBattle of San Jacintoon 21 April 1836. The day after the battle, a small Texan force led byJames Austin Sylvestercaptured Santa Anna near a marsh; the general had hastily dressed himself in a dead Mexican dragoon's uniform but was quickly recognized.

After three weeks in captivity.Texas PresidentDavid G. Burnetand Santa Anna signed theTreaties of Velascostating that "in his official character as chief of the Mexican nation, he acknowledged the full, entire, and perfect Independence of the Republic of Texas." In exchange, Burnet and the Texas government guaranteed Santa Anna's safety and transport to Veracruz. Meanwhile, in Mexico City, a new government declared that Santa Anna was no longer president and that the Treaties were null and void. While Santa Anna was held captive in Texas, Poinsett offered a harsh assessment of his situation: "Say to General Santa Anna that when I remember how ardent an advocate he was of liberty ten years ago, I have no sympathy for him now, that he has gotten what he deserves." Santa Anna replied: "Say to Mr. Poinsett that it is very true that I threw up my cap for liberty with great ardor, and perfect sincerity, but very soon found the folly of it. A hundred years to come my people will not be fit for liberty. They do not know what it is, unenlightened as they are, and under the influence of Catholic clergy, a despotism is a proper government for them, but there is no reason why it should not be a wise and virtuous one."

Redemption, dictatorship, and exile

French bombardment of the fort of San Juan de Ulúa in thePastry War

After some time in exile, and after meetingU.S. PresidentAndrew Jacksonin 1837, Santa Anna was allowed to return to Mexico. He was transported aboard theUSSPioneerto retire to hishaciendain Veracruz. There he wrote a manifesto in which he reflected on his experiences and decision-making in Texas.

In 1838, Santa Anna found a chance for redemption from the loss of Texas. After Mexico rejected demands for financial compensation for losses suffered by its citizens,Francesent forces that landed in Veracruz in thePastry War.The Mexican government gave Santa Anna control of the army and ordered him to defend the nation by any means necessary. Santa Anna engaged the French at Veracruz but was forced to retreat after a failed assault, sustaining injuries in his left leg and hand by cannon fire. His shattered ankle requiredamputationof much of his leg, which he ordered buried with full military honors.Despite Mexico's final capitulation to French demands, Santa Anna used his war service and visible sacrifice to the nation to re-enter Mexican politics.

Santa Anna was severely wounded and narrowly escaped capture in the French attack on Veracruz in 1838.

Antonio López de Santa Anna.

Soon after, with Bustamante's presidency descending into chaos, supporters asked Santa Anna to take control of the provisional government. Santa Anna was made president for the fifth time, taking over a nation with an empty treasury. The war with France had weakened the country, and the people were discontented. Also, a rebel army led by GeneralsJosé de UrreaandJosé Antonio Mexía,was marching towards Mexico City in opposition to Santa Anna. Commanding the army, Santa Anna crushed the rebellion inPuebla.

Santa Anna ruled in a moredictatorialfashion than during his first administration. His government banned anti-Santanista newspapers and jaileddissidentsto suppress opposition. In 1842, he directed amilitary expedition into Texas.The action inflicted numerous casualties with no political gain, but Texans began to be persuaded of the potential benefits ofannexationby the more powerful U.S.

Following the 1842 elections, at which a new Congress was elected which opposed his rule,Santa Anna attempted to restore the treasury by raising taxes. Several Mexican states stopped dealing with the central government in response, and Yucatán and Laredo declared themselves independent republics. With resentment growing, Santa Anna stepped down and fled Mexico City in December 1844. The buried leg he left behind in the capital was dug up by a mob and dragged through the streets until nothing was left of it.Fearing for his life, Santa Anna tried to elude capture, but in January 1845 he was apprehended by a group of Native Americans nearXico.They turned him over to authorities, and he was imprisoned. Santa Anna's life was ultimately spared, but he was exiled to Cuba.

Mexican–American War, 1846–1848

Main article:Mexican–American War

Battle of Buena Vista

In 1846, following American victories atPalo AltoandResaca de la Palmain the Mexican-American War, PresidentMariano Paredeswas removed from office, with the new government seeking to reinstate the constitution of 1824, with Santa Anna again assuming the presidency. Santa Anna, who had been in exile for only a year, returned to Mexico on 6 August 1846, two days after Paredes' ouster. He wrote to the new government stating he had no aspirations to the presidency but would eagerly use his military experience in the new conflict with the U.S.

U.S. PresidentJames K. Polkhad hoped to acquire territory in the north by purchase or force, but the Mexican government was not willing to yield. In a gambit to change the dynamic, Polk sent agents to secretly meet with the exiled Santa Anna. They thought they had extracted a promise from him that they would lift ablockadeof the Mexican coast to allow him to return and that he would broker a deal. Once back in Mexico at the head of an army, however, Santa Anna reneged on the deal and took up arms against the U.S. invasion.

With no path now for a quick resolution to the conflict in the north, Polk authorized an invasion to take Mexico City, redirecting the bulk of GeneralZachary Taylor's troops to GeneralWinfield Scott's army. Santa Anna mobilized troops and artillery and rapidly marched north. His forces outnumbered Taylor's, but his troops were exhausted, ill-clothed, hungry and equipped with inferior weapons when the two armies clashed at theBattle of Buena Vistaon 22–23 February 1847. Hard fighting over two days brought an inconclusive result, with Santa Anna withdrawing from the field of battle overnight just as complete victory was at hand, taking war trophies such as cannons andbattle flagsas evidence of his victory. With Scott's armylanding at Veracruz,Santa Anna's home ground, he rapidly moved southward to engage with the invaders and protect the capital. For the Mexicans it would have been better if Scott could have been prevented from leaving the Gulf Coast, but they could not prevent Scott's march onXalapa.Santa Annaset defenses at Cerro Gordo.U.S. forces outflanked him and against strong odds defeated his army.

With that battle, the way was clear for Scott's forces to advance further onto Mexico City. Santa Anna's aim was to protect the capital at all costs and waged defensive warfare, placing strong defenses on the most direct road into the city at El Peñon, which Scott then avoided. Battles atContreras,Churubusco,andMolino del Reywere lost. At Contreras, Mexican GeneralGabriel Valencia,an old political and military rival of Santa Anna's, did not recognize his authority as supreme commander and disobeyed his orders as to where his troops should be placed. Valencia's Army of the North was routed. TheBattle for Mexico Cityand theBattle of Chapultepec,like the others, were hard fought losses, and American forces took the capital. "Despite his many faults as a tactician and his overbearing political ambition, Santa Anna was committed to fighting to the bitter end. His actions would prolong the war for at least a year, and more than any other single person it was Santa Anna who denied Polk's dream of a short war."

Perhaps Santa Anna's most personal and ignominious incident in the war was the capture during theBattle of Cerro Gordoof his prosthetic cork leg,which remains as a war trophy in the U.S. held by the Illinois State Military Museum but no longer on display.A second leg, apeg,was also captured by the4th Illinoisand was reportedly used by the soldiers as a baseball bat; it is displayed at the home of Illinois GovernorRichard J. Oglesby(who served in the regiment) inDecatur.Santa Anna had a replacement leg made which is displayed at the Museo Nacional de Historia in Mexico City.

The prosthetic leg later played a role in international politics. As relations between the U.S. and Mexico warmed during the run-up toWorld War II,Illinois was rumored to be ready to return the prosthetic to Mexico and, in 1942, a bill was introduced in the state legislature. The Association of Limb Manufacturers wanted to be part of therepatriationceremonies. The state passed a non-binding resolution to return the prosthetic, but theNational Guarddenied the transfer.As of 2016 the leg still resided in the Illinois State Military Museum inSpringfield.

President for the last time, 1853–1855

See also:Second Mexican RepublicandPlan of Ayutla

Gadsden Purchase of 1854, territory purchased by the U.S. for a better transcontinental railway route

Following Mexico's defeat in 1848, Santa Anna went into exile inKingston,Jamaica.Two years later, he moved toTurbacoinNew Granada(now Colombia). In April 1853, he was invited to return to Mexico by conservatives who had overthrown a weak liberal government, initiated under the Plan de Hospicio, drawn up by the clerics in the cathedral chapter ofGuadalajara.Usually, revolts were fomented by military officers; this one was fomented by churchmen.Santa Anna was elected president on 17 March 1853. He honored his promises to the church, revoking a decree denying protection for the fulfillment of monastic vows, a reform promulgated twenty years earlier by Gómez Farías.TheJesuits,who had been expelled from Spanish realms by the crown in 1767, were allowed to return to Mexico ostensibly to educate poorer classes, and much of their property, which the crown had confiscated and sold, was restored to them.

Although he gave himself exalted titles, Santa Anna's situation was quite vulnerable. He declared himself dictator-for-life with the title "Most Serene Highness". His full title in this final period of power was "Hero [benemérito] of the nation, General of Division, Grand Master of the National and Distinguished Order of Guadalupe, Grand Cross of the Royal and Distinguished Spanish Order of Carlos III, and President of the Mexican Republic. "The reality was that this administration was no more successful than his earlier ones, dependent on loans from moneylenders and support from conservative elites, the church, and the army.

A major miscalculation was Santa Anna's sale of territory to the U.S. in what became known as theGadsden Purchase.La Mesilla,the land in northwest Mexico that the U.S. wanted, was much easier terrain for the building of atranscontinental railwayin the U.S. The purchase money for the land was supposedly to go to Mexico's empty treasury. Santa Anna was unwilling to wait until the final transaction went through and the boundary line established, wanting access to the money immediately. He bargained with American bankers to get immediate cash, while they gained the right to the revenue when the sale closed. Santa Anna's short-sighted deal netted the Mexican government only $250,000 against credit of $650,000 going to the bankers.James Gadsdenthought the amount was likely much higher.A group of liberals including Alvarez,Benito Juárez,andIgnacio Comonfortoverthrew Santa Anna under the Plan of Ayutla, which called for his removal from office. He went into exile yet again in 1855.

Personal life

Portrait of Doña Dolores Tosta de Santa AnnabyJuan Cordero,1855. Note her tiara. Santa Anna was considered by some an uncrowned monarch of Mexico.

Santa Anna married twice, both times to wealthy young women. At neither wedding ceremony did he appear, legally empowering his future father-in-law to serve as a proxy at his first wedding and a friend at his second.One assessment of the two marriages is that they werearranged marriagesof convenience, bringing considerable wealth to Santa Anna and that his lack of attendance at the ceremonies "appears to confirm that he was purely interested in the financial aspect o[f] the alliance."

Santa Anna's first and favorite haciendaManga de Clavo,which his first wife's dowry enabled him to purchase. Painting byJohann Moritz Rugendas.Kuperferstichkabinett, Staatliche Museen Zu Berlin, Id. Number: VIII E. 2440, 1831–1834.

In 1825, Santa Anna marriedInés García,the daughter of wealthy Spanish parents in Veracruz, and the couple had four children: María de Guadalupe, María del Carmen, Manuel, and Antonio López de Santa Anna y García.By 1825, Santa Anna had distinguished himself as a military man, joining the movement for independence. When Iturbide lost support, Santa Anna had been in the forefront of leaders seeking to oust him. Although his family was of modest means, Santa Anna was of good creole lineage; the García family may well have seen a match between their young daughter and the up-and-coming Santa Anna as advantageous. Inés'dowryallowed Santa Anna to purchase the first of his haciendas, Manga de Clavo, in Veracruz.

The first Spanish ambassador to Mexico and his wife,Fanny Calderón de la Barca,visited with Inés at Manga de Clavo, where they were well-received with a breakfast banquet. Calderón de la Barca observed that "After breakfast, the Señora having dispatched an officer for her cigar-case, which was gold with a diamond latch, offered me a cigar, which I having declined, she lighted her own, a little paper 'cigarette', and the gentlemen followed her good example."

Two months after the death of his wife Inés in 1844, the 50-year-old Santa Anna married 16-year-old María de Los Dolores de Tosta. The couple rarely lived together; de Tosta resided primarily in Mexico City, and Santa Anna's political and military activities took him around the country.They had no children, leading biographer Will Fowler to speculate that either the marriage was primarily platonic or de Tosta was infertile.

Several women claimed to have borne Santa Annanaturalchildren. In his will, he acknowledged and made provisions for four: Paula, María de la Merced, Petra, and José López de Santa Anna. Biographers have identified three more: Pedro López de Santa Anna, and Ángel and Augustina Rosa López de Santa Anna.

Later years and death

Santa Anna photographed byGeorge G. Rockwood,c.1870

From 1855 to 1874, Santa Anna lived in exile in Cuba, the United States, Colombia, andSaint Thomas.He had left Mexico because of his unpopularity with the Mexican people after his defeat in 1848. Santa Anna participated ingamblingand businesses with the hopes that he would become rich. During his many years in exile, he was a passionate fan of the sport ofcockfighting;he had many roosters that he entered into competitions and would have his roosters compete with cocks from all over the world.

In the 1850s, Santa Anna traveled toNew York Citywith a shipment ofchicle,which he intended to sell for use inmaking carriage wheels.He attempted but was unsuccessful in convincing U.S. wheel manufacturers that this substance could be more useful in tires than the materials they were originally using. Although he introduced chewing gum to the U.S., Santa Anna did not make any money from the product.Thomas Adams,the American assigned to aid Santa Anna while he was in the U.S., experimented with chicle in an attempt to use it as a substitute for rubber. He bought one ton of the substance from Santa Anna, but his experiments proved unsuccessful. Instead, Adams helped to found the chewing gum industry with a product that he called "chiclets".

In 1865, Santa Anna attempted to return to Mexico and offer his services during theFrench invasion,seeking once again to play the role as the country's defender and savior, only to be refused by Juárez. Later that year aschoonerowned by Gilbert Thompson, son-in-law ofDaniel Tompkins,brought Santa Anna to his home inStaten Island,where he tried to raise money for an army to return and take over Mexico City.

The house inMexico Citywhere Santa Anna spent the last years of his life and wrote most of his memoirs.

In 1874, Santa Anna took advantage of a generalamnestyissued by PresidentSebastián Lerdo de Tejadaand returned to Mexico, by then crippled and almost blind fromcataracts.He died at his home in Mexico City on 21 June 1876 at age 82. Santa Anna was buried with full military honors in a glass coffin in Panteón del Tepeyac Cemetery.

Legacy

Grave of Santa Anna and his second wife, Sra. Dolores Tosta de Santa Anna

Santa Anna was highly controversial at the time and ever since. In the 2007 biography by Will Fowler, he was depicted as, "a liberal, a Republican, an army man, a hero, a revolutionary, a regional strongman, but never a politician. He presented himself as a mediator who was both anti-party and anti-politics in the decades when the new country of Mexico was wracked by factional infighting. He was always more willing to lead an army than to lead his country".

In popular culture

• He features in several 19th century British sea shanties, frequently as "santianna","Santy Anno "or other variations, which have been recorded many times by 20th century folk musicians.
• He is played by Rubén Padilla (Mexican actor, not to be confused with the homonymous American athlete) in the John Wayne filmThe Alamo.
• Fox animated seriesKing of the Hillseason 2 episode 18 "The Final Shinsult" largely revolves around Santa Anna's prosthetic leg.
• In the 1998 filmThe Mask of Zorro,Santa Anna is mentioned and is portrayed byJoaquim de Almeidain an alternate ending.
• He is played byEmilio Echevarríain the 2004 filmThe Alamo.
• He is played by J. Carrol Naish in the 1955 filmThe Last Command.
• He is played by Olivier Martinez in the History Channel's miniseriesTexas Rising(2015)
• He is played by Raul Julia in a cast of TV and future stars such as Alec Baldwin in the movieThe Alamo: 13 days to glory(1987)

See also

• History of democracy in Mexico
• List of heads of state of Mexico

Sources

• Camnitzer, Luis (2009). Weiss, Rachel (ed.).On Art, Artists, Latin America, and Other Utopias.University of Texas Press. p. 199.ISBN9780292783492.
• Fowler, Will (2000).Tornel and Santa Anna: the writer and the caudillo, Mexico, 1795–1853.Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 20.ISBN978-0-313-30914-4.
• Fowler, Will (2009).Santa Anna of Mexico.U of Nebraska Press.ISBN978-0-8032-2638-8.
• Olavarría y Ferrari, Enrique de (1880).Vicente Riva Palacio(ed.).México a través de los siglos(in Spanish). México: Ballescá y Cía. pp. 210–226.
• Mead, Teresa (2016).A History of Modern Latin America(2 ed.). UK: John Wiley & Sons Inc. pp.126–127.ISBN978-1405120517.

Further reading

• Alemán, Jesse. "The Ethnic in the Canon; or, on Finding Santa Anna's" Wooden Leg "." MELUS 29.3/4 (2004): 165–182.
• Anna, Timothy E.Forging Mexico, 1821–1835.Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1998
• Calcott, Wilfred H.Santa Anna: The Story of the Enigma Who Once Was Mexico.Hamden CT: Anchon, 1964.
• Camnitzer, L. "The two versions of Santa Anna's leg and the ethics of public art."On art, artists, Latin America and other utopias(1995): 199–207.ISBN9780292783492
• Chartrand, Rene, and Younghusband, Bill.Santa Anna's Mexican Army 1821–48(2004)excerpt and text search
• Cole, David A. "The Early Career of Antonio López de Santa Anna," PhD dissertation. Christ Church, University of Oxford 1977.
• Costeloe, Michael P.The Central Republic in Mexico, 1835–1846: Hombres de Bien in the Age of Santa Anna.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1993.
• Crawford, Ann F.;The Eagle: The Autobiography of Santa Anna;State House Press;
• Díaz Díaz, Fernando.Caudillos y caciques: Antonio López de Santa Anna y Juan Álvarez.Mexico City: El Colegio de México 1972.
• Flores Mena, Carmen.El general don Antonio López de Santa Anna (1810–1833).Mexico City: UNAM 1950.
• Fowler, Will (2007),Santa Anna of Mexico,Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press;a favorable scholarly biography
• Fowler, Will.Mexico in the Age of Proposals, 1821–1853(1998)
• Fowler, Will.Tornel and Santa Anna: The Writer and the Caudillo, Mexico, 1795–1853(2000)excerpt and text search
• Fowler, Will. "All the President's Women: The Wives of General Antonio López de Santa Anna in 19th century Mexico",Feminist Review,No. 79, Latin America: History, war, and independence (2005),
• Fuentes Mares, José.Santa Anna: Aurora y ocaso de un comediante.Mexico City: Jus 1956.
• González Pedrero, Enrique.País de un solo hombre: el México de Santa Anna. Volumen II. La sociedad de fuego cruzado 1829–1836.Fondo de Cultura Económica:Mexico City 2004.ISBN968-16-6377-2
• Green, Stanley C.The Mexican Republic: The First Decade 1823–1832.Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press 1987
• Hardin, Stephen L.,and McBride, Angus.The Alamo 1836: Santa Anna's Texas Campaign(2001)excerpt and text search
• Jackson, Jack. "Santa Anna's 1836 Campaign: Was It Directed Toward Ethnic Cleansing?"Journal of South Texas(March 2002) 15#1 pp. 10–37; argues that it was
• Jackson, Jack, and Wheat, John.Almonte's Texas,Texas State Historical Assoc.
• Jones, Oakah L., Jr.Santa Anna.New York: Twayne Publishers 1968.
• Knight, Alan."The Several Legs of Santa Anna: A Saga of Secular Relics." Past & Present, Volume 206, Issue suppl_5, 2010, pp. 227–255,https://doi.org/10.1093/pastj/gtq019
• Krauze, Enrique,Mexico: Biography of Power.New York: HarperCollins 1997.ISBN0-06-016325-9
• Lord, Walter(1961),A Time to Stand,Lincoln, NE:University of Nebraska Press,ISBN0-8032-7902-7,popular history
• Mabry, Donald J.,"Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna",2 November 2008; essay by scholar
• Muñoz, Rafael F.Santa Anna: El dictador resplandeciente.Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica 1983.
• Paquel, Leonardo.Antonio López de Santa Anna.Mexico City: Instituto de Mexicología 1990.
• Roberts, Randy & Olson, James S.,A Line in the Sand: The Alamo in Blood and Memory(2002)
• Santoni, Pedro;Mexicans at Arms-Puro Federalist and the Politics of WarTCU Press;
• Scheina, Robert L.Santa Anna: A Curse Upon MexicoWashington, D.C.: Brassey's 2003.excerpt and text search
• Trueba, Alfonso.Santa Anna.Mexico City: Jus 1958.
• Valadés, José C.México, Santa Anna, y la guerra de Texas.Mexico City: Editorial Diana 1979.
• Vázquez, Josefina Zoraida.Don Antonio López de Santa Anna: Mito y Enigma.Mexico City: Condumex 1987.
• Yañez, Agustín.Santa Anna: Espectro de una sociedad.Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica 1993.

External links

• Santa Anna Letters on thePortal to Texas History
• Antonio López de Santa AnnainA Continent Divided: The U.S. – Mexico War,Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington
• The Handbook of Texas Online:Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna
• Benson Latin American Collection – Antonio López de Santa Anna Collection
• Sketch ofSanta AnnafromA pictorial history of Texas, from the earliest visits of European adventurers to A.D. 1879,hosted by thePortal to Texas History.
• Archontology.org, Home » Nations » Mexico » Heads of State » LÓPEZ de SANTA ANNA, Antonio
• Texas Prisoners in Mexico 3 August 1843FromTexas Tides