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Approximant

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This article is about the concept in linguistics. For the concept in mathematics, seeApproximant (continued fraction).
Not to be confused withApproximate.
This article containsphonetic transcriptionsin theInternational Phonetic Alphabet(IPA).For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.For the distinction between[ ],/ /and ⟨⟩, seeIPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

Approximantsarespeech soundsthat involve thearticulatorsapproaching each other but not narrowly enough[1]nor with enough articulatory precision[2]to createturbulent airflow.Therefore, approximants fall betweenfricatives,which do produce a turbulent airstream, andvowels,which produce no turbulence.[3]This class is composed of sounds like[ɹ](as inrest) andsemivowelslike[j]and[w](as inyesandwest,respectively), as well aslateralapproximants like[l](as inless).[3]

Terminology[edit]

BeforePeter Ladefogedcoined the termapproximantin the 1960s,[4]the termsfrictionless continuantandsemivowelwere used to refer to non-lateral approximants.

Inphonology,approximantis also adistinctive featurethat encompasses allsonorantsexceptnasals,includingvowels,taps,andtrills.[5]

Semivowels[edit]

Main article:Semivowel

Some approximants resemble vowels in acoustic and articulatory properties and the termssemivowelandglideare often used for these non-syllabic vowel-like segments. The correlation between semivowels and vowels is strong enough that cross-language differences between semivowels correspond with the differences between their related vowels.[6]

Vowels and their corresponding semivowels alternate in many languages depending on the phonological environment, or for grammatical reasons, as is the case withIndo-European ablaut.Similarly, languages often avoid configurations where a semivowel precedes its corresponding vowel.[7]A number of phoneticians distinguish between semivowels and approximants by their location in a syllable. Although he uses the terms interchangeably,Montreuil (2004:104) remarks that, for example, the final glides of Englishparandbuydiffer from Frenchpar('through') andbaille('tub') in that, in the latter pair, the approximants appear in thesyllable coda,whereas, in the former, they appear in thesyllable nucleus.This means that opaque (if not minimal) contrasts can occur in languages likeItalian(with the i-like sound ofpiede'foot', appearing in the nucleus:[ˈpi̯ɛˑde],and that ofpiano'plan', appearing in the syllable onset:[ˈpjaˑno])[8]and Spanish (with a near minimal pair beingabyecto[aβˈjekto]'abject' andabierto[aˈβi̯erto]'opened').[9]

Approximant-vowel correspondences[10][11]
Vowel Corresponding
approximant 		Place of
articulation 		Example
i j** Palatal Spanishamplío('I extend') vs.amplió('he extended')
y ɥ Labialized palatal Frenchaigu('sharp') vs.aiguille('needle')
ɯ ɰ** Velar Korean음식 ('food') vs.의사 ('doctor')
u w Labialized velar Spanish continúo ('I continue') vs. continuó ('he/she/it continued') and ('you continued') used only in the formal treatment of 'usted'.
ɑ ʕ̞ Pharyngeal [example needed]
ɚ ɻ Postalveolar,retroflex* North American Englishwaitervs.waitress
^*Because of the articulatory complexities of the American English rhotic, there is some variation in its phonetic description. A transcription with the IPA character for analveolar approximant([ɹ]) is common, though the sound is morepostalveolar.Actual retroflexion may occur as well and both occur as variations of the same sound.[12]However,Catford (1988:161f) makes a distinction between the vowels of American English (which he calls "rhotacized" ) and vowels with "retroflexion" such as those that appear inBadaga;Trask (1996:310), on the other hand, labels both asr-coloredand notes that both have a lowered thirdformant.[13]
^**Because the vowels[iɯ]are articulated with spread lips, spreading is implied for their approximant analogues,[jɰ].However, these sounds generally have little or no lip-spreading. The fricative letters with a lowering diacritic, ⟨ʝ˕ ɣ˕⟩, may therefore be justified for a neutral articulation between spread[jɰ]and rounded[ɥw].[14]

In articulation and often diachronically,palatalapproximants correspond tofront vowels,velarapproximants toback vowels,and labialized approximants torounded vowels.In American English, therhoticapproximant corresponds to the rhotic vowel. This can create alternations (as shown in the above table).

In addition to alternations, glides can be inserted to the left or the right of their corresponding vowels when they occur next to a hiatus.[15]For example, inUkrainian,medial/i/triggers the formation of an inserted[j]that acts as a syllable onset so that when the affix/-ist/is added to футбол ('football') to make футболіст 'football player', it is pronounced[futbo̞ˈlist],but маоїст ('Maoist'), with the same affix, is pronounced[mao̞ˈjist]with a glide.[16]Dutchfor many speakers has a similar process that extends to mid vowels:[17]

  • bioscoop→[bijɔskoːp]('cinema')
  • zee+en→[zeːjə(n)]('seas')
  • fluor→[flyɥɔr]('fluorine')
  • reu+en→[røɥə(n)]('male dogs')
  • Rwanda→[ruʋandɐ]('Rwanda')[18]
  • Boaz→[boʋas]('Boaz')[18]

Similarly, vowels can be inserted next to their corresponding glide in certain phonetic environments.Sievers' lawdescribes this behaviour forGermanic.

Non-high semivowels also occur. In colloquialNepalispeech, a process ofglide-formationoccurs, where one of two adjacent vowels becomes non-syllabic; the process includes mid vowels so that[dʱo̯a]('cause to wish') features a non-syllabic mid vowel.[19]Spanish features a similar process and even nonsyllabic/a/can occur so thatahorita('right away') is pronounced[a̯o̞ˈɾita].[20]It is not often clear, however, whether such sequences involve a semivowel (a consonant) or a diphthong (a vowel), and in many cases, it may not be a meaningful distinction.

Although many languages havecentral vowels[ɨ,ʉ],which lie between back/velar[ɯ,u]and front/palatal[i,y],there are few cases of a corresponding approximant[ȷ̈].One is in the Korean diphthong[ȷ̈i]or[ɨ̯i][21]though it is more frequently analyzed as velar (as in the table above), andMapudungunmay be another, with three high vowel sounds,/i/,/u/,/ɨ/and three corresponding consonants,/j/,and/w/,and a third one is often described as a non-labialized voiced velar fricative; some texts note a correspondence between this approximant and/ɨ/that is parallel to/j/–/i/and/w/–/u/.An example isliq/ˈliɣ/([ˈliɨ̯]?) ('white').[22] It has been noted that the expected symbols for the approximant correlates of[ɨ],[ʉ]are ⟨ɉ, ɥ̶⟩[23]or ⟨ɉ, w̶⟩.[24]

Approximants versus fricatives[edit]

In addition to less turbulence, approximants also differ from fricatives in the precision required to produce them.[25]When emphasized, approximants may be slightly fricated (that is, the airstream may become slightly turbulent), which is reminiscent of fricatives. For example, theSpanishwordayuda('help') features a palatal approximant that is pronounced as a fricative in emphatic speech.[26]Spanish can be analyzed as having a meaningful distinction between fricative, approximant, and intermediate/ʝʝ˕j/.[27]However, such frication is generally slight and intermittent, unlike the strong turbulence of fricative consonants.

For places of articulation further back in the mouth, languages do not contrast voiced fricatives and approximants. Therefore, the IPA allows the symbols for the voiced fricatives to double for the approximants, with or without a loweringdiacritic.[citation needed]

Occasionally, the glottal "fricatives" are called approximants, since[h]typically has no more frication than voiceless approximants, but they are oftenphonationsof the glottis without any accompanying manner or place of articulation.

Central approximants[edit]

Approximants with a dedicated IPA symbol are in bold.

Lateral approximants[edit]

In lateral approximants, the center of tongue makes solid contact with the roof of the mouth. However, the defining location is the side of the tongue, which only approaches the teeth, allowing free passage of air.

Coarticulated approximants[edit]

Voiceless approximants[edit]

Voiceless approximantsare not recognized by all phoneticians as a discrete phonetic category. There are problems in distinguishing voiceless approximants from voicelessfricatives.

Phonetic characteristics[edit]

Fricativeconsonants are generally said to be the result of turbulent airflow at a place of articulation in the vocal tract.[29]However, an audible voiceless sound may be made without this turbulent airflow:Pike (1943)makes a distinction between "local friction" (as in[s]or[z]) and "cavity friction" (as in voiceless vowels like[ḁ]and[ɔ̥]).[30]More recent research distinguishes between "turbulent" and "laminar" airflow in the vocal tract.[31]It is not clear if it is possible to describe voiceless approximants categorically as having laminar airflow (or cavity friction in Pike's terms) as a way of distinguishing them from fricatives.Ball & Rahilly (1999)write that "the airflow for voiced approximants remains laminar (smooth), and does not become turbulent. Voiceless approximants are rare in the languages of the world, but when they do occur the airflow is usually somewhat turbulent."[32]Audible voiceless sounds may also be produced by means of turbulent airflow at the glottis, as in[h];in such a case, it is possible to articulate an audible voiceless sound without the production of local friction at a supraglottal constriction.Catford (1977)describes such sounds, but classes them assonorants.[33]

Distinctiveness[edit]

Voiceless approximants are rarely if ever distinguished phonemically from voiceless fricatives in the sound system of a language.Clark & Yallop (1995)discuss the issue and conclude "In practice, it is difficult to distinguish between a voiceless approximant and a voiceless fricative at the same place of articulation... there is no evidence that any language in the world makes such a distinction crucial."[34]

Disagreement over use of the term[edit]

Voiceless approximants are treated as a phonetic category by (among others)Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996),Catford (1977),andBickford & Floyd (2006).However, the termvoiceless approximantis seen by some phoneticians as controversial. It has been pointed out that ifapproximantis defined as a speech sound that involves the articulators approaching each other but not narrowly enough to create turbulent airflow, then it is difficult to see how avoicelessapproximant could be audible.[35]AsJohn C. Wellsputs it in his blog, "voiceless approximants are by definition inaudible... If there's no friction and no voicing, there's nothing to hear."[36]A similar point is made in relation to frictionless continuants byO'Connor (1973):"There are no voiceless frictionless continuants because this would imply silence; the voiceless counterpart of the frictionless continuant is the voiceless fricative."[37]Ohala & Solé (2010)argue that the increased airflow arising from voicelessness alone makes a voiceless continuant a fricative, even if lacking a greater constriction in the oral cavity than a voiced approximant.[38]

Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996)argue thatBurmeseandStandard Tibetanhave voiceless lateral approximants[l̥]andNavajoandZuluvoiceless lateral fricatives[ɬ],but also say that "in other cases it is difficult to decide whether a voiceless lateral should be described as an approximant or a fricative".[39]Asu, Nolan & Schötz (2015)compared voiceless laterals inEstonian Swedish,Icelandic,andWelshand found that Welsh-speakers consistently used[ɬ],that Icelandic-speakers consistently used[l̥],and that speakers of Estonian Swedish varied in their pronunciation. They conclude that there is "a range of variants within voiceless laterals, rather than a categorical split between lateral fricatives and voiceless approximant laterals".[40]

Occurrence in Western American English[edit]

Voiceless lateral approximants can occur after voiceless stops asallophoneof its voiced counterpart, especially after thevoiceless velar plosive/k/,inWestern American English.[41]

Nasalized approximants[edit]

Examples are:

InPortuguese,thenasal glides[j̃]and[w̃]historically became/ɲ/and/m/in some words. InEdo,the nasalized allophones of the approximants/j/and/w/are nasal occlusives,[ɲ]and[ŋʷ].

What are transcribed as nasal approximants may include non-syllabic elements ofnasal vowelsor diphthongs.

See also[edit]

Look upapproximantin Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Notes[edit]

  1. ^Ladefoged (1975:277)
  2. ^Martínez-Celdrán (2004:201), citingLadefoged & Maddieson (1996)
  3. ^abMartínez-Celdrán (2004),p. 201.
  4. ^Martínez-Celdrán (2004:201), pointing toLadefoged (1964:25)
  5. ^Hall (2007),p. 316.
  6. ^Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:323), citingMaddieson & Emmorey (1985)
  7. ^Rubach (2002:680), citingKawasaki (1982)
  8. ^Montreuil (2004:104)
  9. ^Saporta (1956:288)
  10. ^Martínez-Celdrán (2004:202)
  11. ^Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:323)
  12. ^Hallé et al. (1999:283) citingDelattre & Freeman (1968),Zawadzki & Kuehn (1980),andBoyce & Espy-Wilson (1997)
  13. ^Both cited inHamann (2003:25–26)
  14. ^John Esling (2010) "Phonetic Notation", in Hardcastle, Laver & Gibbon (eds)The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences,2nd ed., p. 699.
  15. ^Rubach (2002:672)
  16. ^Rubach (2002:675–676)
  17. ^Rubach (2002:677–678)
  18. ^abThere is dialectal and allophonic variation in the realization of/ʋ/.For speakers who realize it as[ʋ],Rubach (2002:683) postulates an additional rule that changes any occurrence of[w]from glide insertion into[ʋ].
  19. ^Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:323–324)
  20. ^Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003:256–257)
  21. ^"Ahn & Iverson (2006)"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2011-07-20.Retrieved2010-12-31.
  22. ^Listen to arecordingArchivedFebruary 26, 2006, at theWayback Machine
  23. ^Martin Ball & Joan Rahilly (2011) The symbolization of central approximants in the IPA.Journal of the International Phonetic Association.41 (2), p. 231–237.
  24. ^Ball, Martin J.; Müller, Nicole (2011).Phonetics for communication disorders.Psychology Press. p. 70.ISBN978-0-8058-5363-6.
  25. ^Boersma (1997:12)
  26. ^Martínez-Celdrán (2004:204)
  27. ^Martínez-Celdrán, E. (2004) "Problems in the classification of approximants".Journal of the International Phonetic Association,34, 201–10.
  28. ^abThere have been repeated requests that the IPA created dedicated symbols for[β̞]and[ð̞]– typically modifications of the base letters such asturned⟨β⟩and⟨ð⟩or reversed⟨β⟩and⟨ð⟩– but so far the IPA has deemed that there is insufficient need for them.
  29. ^Ashby & Maidment (2005),pp. 56–7.
  30. ^Pike (1943),pp. 71, 138–9.
  31. ^Shadle (2000),pp. 37–8.
  32. ^Ball & Rahilly (1999),pp. 50–1.
  33. ^Catford (1977),pp. 122–3.
  34. ^Clark & Yallop (1995),p. 48.
  35. ^Akamatsu (1992),p. 30.
  36. ^Wells, J. C. (7 April 2009)."[h]: Fricative or approximant?".John Wells' Blog.Retrieved23 December2020.
  37. ^O'Connor (1973),p. 61.
  38. ^Ohala & Solé (2010),p. 43.
  39. ^Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996),pp. 198–9.
  40. ^Asu, Nolan & Schötz (2015),p. 5.
  41. ^Grønnum (2005),p. 154.

References[edit]

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