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Aram (region)

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The Levant c. 830 BCE

Aram(Imperial Aramaic:𐡀𐡓𐡌,romanized:ʾĀrām;Hebrew:אֲרָם,romanized:ʾĂrām;Syriac:ܐܪܡ) was ahistorical regionmentioned in earlycuneiformsand in theBible,populated byArameans.The area did not develop into a larger empire but consisted of a number of small states in present-daySyria.Some of the states are mentioned in theOld Testament,Damascusbeing the most outstanding one, which came to encompass most of Syria. Furthermore, Aram-Damascus is commonly referred to as simply Aram in the Old Testament.[1]

After the final conquest by the risingNeo-Assyrian Empirein the second half of the 8th century and also during the later consecutive rules of theNeo-Babylonian Empire(612–539 BCE) and theAchaemenid Empire(539–332 BCE), the region of Aram lost most of its sovereignty. During theSeleucidperiod (312-64 BCE), the termSyriawas introduced asHellenisticdesignation for this region.[2][3]By the beginning of the 5th century, that practice also started to affect terminology of Aramean ecclesiastical and literary elites, andSyrianlabels started to gain frequency and acceptance not only in Aramean translations of Greek works, but also in original works of Aramean writers.[4]

Aramaiceventually replacedAkkadianas thelingua francaof the entire region and became the administrative and commercial language of several empires such as theAchaemenid Empireand theNeo-Babylonian Empire.[5][6]Early on, theChristian Biblewastranslated into Aramaic,and by the 4th century the local Aramaic dialect of Edessa (Urhay) developed into aliterary language,known as Edessan Aramaic (Urhaya).[7][8]

Etymology[edit]

Various Neo-Hittite and Aramean (orange shades) western states in the 8th century BC
Aramean eastern states (various non-green shades) in the 9th century BC

Thechoronymof the name Aram refers to the geographical region in which they lived and meansHigh(landers).[9]ThetoponymA-ra-muappears in an inscription at theEast Semiticspeaking kingdom ofEblalisting geographical names, and the termArmi,which is theEblaiteterm for nearbyIdlib,occurs frequently in theEbla tablets(c. 2300 BCE). One of the annals ofNaram-Sin of Akkad(c. 2250 BCE) mentions that he captured "Dubul, theensíofA-ra-me"(Arameis seemingly agenitiveform), in the course of a campaign againstSimurrumin the northern mountains.[10]Other early references to a place or people of "Aram" have appeared at the archives ofMari(c. 1900 BCE) and atUgarit(c. 1300 BCE). The termsAramandArameanfrequently occur in the letters of a governor's archive fromNippur.The written text informed about farmers fromBīt-Aramreferring to the region of Aram.[11]

The wordAḫlamūwas attested since the Old Babylonian period, first as a designation for the Amorites and later for the Arameans. In the Assyrian royal inscriptions the termAḫlamūand the nameA-ra-muare sometimes combined to form a double designation for Arameans.[12]

Early Jewish tradition claims that the name is derived from the biblicalAram, son of Shem,a grandson ofNoahin the Bible.[13]

History[edit]

TheArameansappear to have displaced the earlier SemiticAmorite(Aḫlamū) populations of ancient Syria during the period from 1100 BC to 900 BC, which was aDark Agefor the entireNear East,North Africa,Caucasus,Mediterraneanregions, with great upheavals and mass movements of people. The early history of the Arameans is tied to that of theAḫlamūandSutûwho were already known in the Late Bronze Age and who seem to have played a role in the period's demise. TheArameansrose to be the prominent group amongst the Ahlamu, and from c. 1200 BC on, the Amorites disappeared from the pages of history and the term Ahlamu underwent a semantic shift, becoming an accepted term forAramean.From then on, the region that they had inhabited became known as Aram andEber-Nari.

The Arameans emerged in a region which was largely under the domination of theMiddle Assyrian Empire(1365–1050 BC) and quickly posed a threat to the Assyrian polity which was largely located west of the Euphrates. In order to nullify this threat,Tiglath-Pileser I(1115–1077 BC) ofAssyriaperformed many campaigns in Aramean territory, although the numerous campaigns that the Assyrian records recorded that he took indicate that Assyrian military campaigns were unsuccessful at exercising power or dominance over the Arameans. Some scholars believe that the Arameans tookNinevehin this time. In the 11th century BC, Assyria fell into decline which may have been caused by the incursions of the emerging Arameans, allowing the Arameans to establish a string of states across the Levant and make notable expansions into Assyrian territory in this time such as in theKhabur Valley.During the period 1050 – 900 BC Arameans came to dominate most of what is now Syria but was then calledEber-NariandAramea.[14][15]

Two medium-sizedAramaeankingdoms,Aram-DamascusandHamath,along with several smaller kingdoms and independent city-states, developed in the region during the early first millennium BCE. The most notable of these wereBit Adini,Bit Bahiani,Bit Hadipe,Aram-Rehob,Aram-Zobah,Bit-Zamani,Bit-HalupeandAram-Ma'akah,as well as the Aramean tribal polities of theGambulu,LitauandPuqudu.

There was some synthesis with neoHittitepopulations in northernSyriaand south centralAnatolia,and a number of small so calledSyro-Hittite statesarose in the region, such asTabal.The eastMediterraneancoast was largely dominated byPhoeniciancity states such asTyre,Sidon,BerytusandArvad.

With the advent of theNeo Assyrian Empire,the region was invaded on several occasions, since the middle of the 9th century,[16]and finally fell under the control of Assyrian kings during the second half of the 8th century BCE.[17]Large numbers of people living in the region were deported into Assyria,Babyloniaand elsewhere.[18]A fewstelesthat name kings of this period have been found, such as the 8th-centuryZakkur stele.The Assyrians and Babylonians themselves adopted a Mesopotamian form of Aramaic, known asImperial Aramaicin the 8th century BC, whenTiglath-pileser IIImade it thelingua francaof his vast empire. TheNeo Aramaicdialects still spoken by theindigenousAssyriansandMandeansof northern Iraq, south east Turkey, north east Syria and north west Iran, descend from this language.

The Neo Assyrian Empire was riven by unremitting civil war from 626 BC onward, weakening it severely, and allowing it to be attacked and destroyed by a coalition of its former vassals between 616 and 605 BCE. The region of Aram was subsequently fought over by theNeo-Babylonian EmpireandEgyptians,the latter of whom had belatedly come to the aid of their former Assyrian overlords. The Babylonians prevailed and Aram became a part of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (612–539 BC) where it remained namedEber-Nari.

ThePersianAchaemenid Empire(539–332 BC) overthrew the Babylonians and conquered the region. They retained the Imperial Aramaic introduced by the Assyrians, and the name of Eber-Nari.

In 332 BC the region was conquered by theGreekruler,Alexander the Great.Upon his death in 323 BC this area became part of theGreekSeleucid Empire,at which point Greek replaced the Assyrian introducedImperial Aramaicas the official language of Empire, as were the namesEber-Nariand Aramea. This area and other parts of the former Assyrian Empire to the east (including Assyria itself) were renamedSyria(Seleucid Syria), a 9th-century BCHurrian,LuwianandGreekcorruption of Assyria (seeEtymology of SyriaandName of Syria), which had for centuries until this point referred specifically to the land ofAssyriaand theAssyrians,which in modern terms actually covered the northern half ofIraq,north eastSyria,south eastTurkeyand the north western fringes ofIran,and not the bulk ofmodern SyriaandLebanonand its largelyArameanandPhoenicianinhabitants.[19]

It is from this period that the laterSyria vs Assyrianaming controversyarises, the Seleucids confusingly applied the name not only to theMesopotamianland of Assyria itself, but also to the lands west ofEuphrateswhich had never been part of Assyria itself, but merely Aramean, Phoenician,Neo-HittiteandSuteaninhabited colonies. When they lost control of Assyria itself to theParthians,the nameSyriasurvived but was dislocated from its original source, and was applied only to the land west ofEuphratesthat had once been part of the Assyrian empire, while Assyria-proper went back to being called Assyria (and alsoAthura/Assuristan). However, this situation led to both Assyrians and Arameans being dubbedSyriansand laterSyriacsinGreco-Romanculture.

This area, by now calledSyria,was fought over bySeleucidsandParthiansduring the 2nd century BCE, and later still by theRomansandSassanidPersians.Palmyra,a powerfulArameankingdom arose during this period, and for a time it dominated the area and successfully resisted Roman and Persian attempts at conquest. The region eventually came under the control of theByzantine Empire.Christianitybegan to take hold from the 1st to 3rd centuries AD, and the Aramaic language gradually supplantedCanaaniteinPhoeneciaandHebrewinPalestine.

In the mid-7th century AD the region fell to theArabIslamicconquest.Aramaicsurvived among a sizable portion of the population of Syria, who resistedArabization.However, the nativeWestern Aramaicof the Aramean Christian population of Syria is spoken today by only a few thousand people, the majority having now adopted theArabiclanguage.MesopotamianEastern Aramaic,which still contains a number of loanwords from theAkkadian,as well as structural similarities, still survives among the majority of ethnically distinctAssyrians,who are mainly based in northernIraq,north-easternSyria,south-easternTurkeyand north-westernIran.

Culture[edit]

After the fall of the last Aramean kingdoms and city-states the Arameans isolated themselves mainly inNorthern Mesopotamiaand continued to maintain their culture and identity underMuslim ruletill this day. Over one hundred dialects of Aramaic were spoken in the Middle East in the first half of the twentieth century byArameansand smaller groups ofJews,MandeansandMuslims.[20]

Religion[edit]

Ancient Aramean Religion[edit]

Records of the religion and worship habits among ancient Arameans are fairly scarce. The Aramean pagan pantheon mainly consisted of common Semitic gods who were also worshipped by otherAncient Semitic-speaking peopleskin to the Arameans. Their greatest god wasHadad,the god of thunderstorms and fertility. He was also known as Ramman meaning “thunderer.” Another widespread name for this deity in Aramaic was Rahmana ( “merciful” ). In the inscriptions left byAramean kingsthis god is often referred to as their protector. Hadad was usually depicted as a bearded soldier striking with thunder or holding a double-edged sword in his hand. The bull was the symbolic animal of Hadad on which he often depicted as standing on the bull’s back. The bull’s head that symbolizes Hadad can be seen on coins dating back to the 4th century BC, which were unearthed nearby the ancient Aramean city ofMabbug,which the Greeks called Hierapolis ( “sacred city” ). The main temple built in Hadad’s name was located inAram-Damascus.The fate of this temple is remarkable, under theRoman Empireit was rebuilt as a Temple of Jupiter, during Byzantine times it was turned into a church and after the Arab conquest of Syria it became the biggest mosque of modern day Syria, namedUmayyad Mosque.The name Bar-Hadad, which several Aramean kings bore, literally meansson of Hadad.It was a royal title, so no one else had the right to be called by that name. Eventually the name lost its distinction, and despite its pagan origins, the Arameans preserved the name after the adoption of Christianity. After the Arameans became christianized there even was a bishop called Bar-Hadad.[21][22]

It appears from their inscriptions as well as from their names that the Arameans also worshipped otherMesopotamiangods such asSin,Ishtar(whom they calledAstarte),Shamash,Tammuz,BelandNergal,but also someCanaanite-Phoeniciandeities such as the storm-god,El,the supreme deity of Canaan, in addition toAnat(‘Atta) and others.[22]

Language[edit]

With the spread of the Arameans in large numbers throughoutMesopotamiaand theLevanttheAramaiclanguage became thelingua francaof the whole Middle-East. It has served as a language of public life and administration of ancient kingdoms and empires, and also as a language of divine worship and religious study. It subsequently branched into severalNeo-Aramaiclanguages that are still spoken in modern times.[23][24][2][25][26]

Architecture and art[edit]

Relief from the Aramean citadel ofBit Gabbari

Aramean cities were enclosed by a city wall and a fortified upper town or citadel on which palaces and other representative buildings are located. The entrance of the palaces of the kings mostly included several steles of winged bulls or lions as a sign of power and dominance. Surprisingly, no temples have been excavated on the citadels of the major Aramean cities. The only remarkable exception is the temple in antis in Tell Afis. The fact that the main temple ofSam'alwas not located in the capital city but on the rocky hill called Gerçin about seven kilometers north of Zincirli may indicate different solutions in the use of religious spaces.[27][28]

TheAramean kingsshowed a different headgear and stylization of hair and beard compared to other nations at that time. They distinguished themselves by their exclusive headgears, medium-length beards and large curved noses. Especially a braid hanging down in front of their headgear was a typical form of Aramean art.[27][28]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^BibleGateway, ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE BIBLE, "Aram, Aramaeans",[1].Retrieved 28 October 2022.
  2. ^abLipiński 2000.
  3. ^Younger 2016.
  4. ^Minov 2020,p. 255-263.
  5. ^"Aramaic language | Description, History, & Facts | Britannica".10 April 2024.
  6. ^Akopian 2017,p. 87.
  7. ^Brock 1992a,p. 16.
  8. ^Brock 1992b,p. 226.
  9. ^Herbert Niehr,The Arameans in Ancient Syria,Brill, 2014, pg. 338
  10. ^Lipiński 2000,p. 26-40.
  11. ^Herbert Niehr,The Arameans in Ancient Syria,Brill, 2014, pg. 340
  12. ^Herbert Niehr,The Arameans in Ancient Syria,Brill, 2014, pg. 344
  13. ^SeeGenesis10:22
  14. ^W.T. Pitard,Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 2,De Gruyter, 2009, pg. 638
  15. ^Marti Nissinen, "Assyria" in (ed. Herbet Niehr) The Arameans in Ancient Syria (Brill, 2014, pp. 273-274)
  16. ^Lipiński 2000,p. 375-376.
  17. ^Lipiński 2000,p. 406-407.
  18. ^Lipiński 2000,p. 315.
  19. ^Rollinger 2006,p. 283-287.
  20. ^"Aramaic and Endangered Languages - Ideas | Institute for Advanced Study".10 December 2015.
  21. ^"Aramean Religion | Encyclopedia".
  22. ^abAkopian 2017,p. 51.
  23. ^Sokoloff 1983.
  24. ^Beyer 1986.
  25. ^Creason 2008,pp. 108–44.
  26. ^Gzella 2015.
  27. ^abErhan Tamur (2017). "Style, Ethnicity and the Archaeology of the Aramaeans: The Problem of Ethnic Markers in the Art of the Syro-Anatolian Region in the Iron Age".Forum Kritische Archäologie.6.doi:10.6105/journal.fka.2017.6.1.
  28. ^ab"The Hattian and Hittite Civilizations".yumpu.

Sources[edit]

External links[edit]

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