Aratta
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Arattais a land that appears inSumerian mythssurroundingEnmerkarandLugalbanda,two early and possibly mythical kings ofUrukalso mentioned on theSumerian king list.
Role in Sumerian literature
Aratta is described as follows in Sumerian literature:
- It is a fabulously wealthy place full ofgold,silver,lapis lazuliand other precious materials, as well as the artisans to craft them.[1]
- It is remote and difficult to reach.
- It is home to the goddessInana,who transfers her allegiance from Aratta toUruk.
- It is conquered byEnmerkarofUruk.
Mentions in Sumerian literature
Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta[2]- The goddessInannaresides in Aratta, butEnmerkarofUrukpleases her more than does the lord of Aratta, who is not named in this epic. Enmerkar wants Aratta to submit to Uruk, bring stones down from the mountain, craft gold, silver and lapis lazuli, and send them, along with "kugmea" ore to Uruk to build a temple. Inana bids him send a messenger to Aratta, who ascends and descends the "Zubi" mountains, and crossesSusa,Anshan, and "five, six, seven" mountains before approaching Aratta. Aratta in turn wants grain in exchange. However Inana transfers her allegiance to Uruk, and the grain gains the favor of Aratta's people for Uruk, so the lord of Aratta challenges Enmerkar to send a champion to fight his champion. Then the godIshkurmakes Aratta's crops grow.
Enmerkar and En-suhgir-ana[3]- The lord of Aratta, who is here namedEn-suhgir-ana(orEnsuhkeshdanna), challenges Enmerkar of Uruk to submit to him over the affections of Inanna, but he is rebuffed by Enmerkar. A sorcerer from the recently defeatedHamazithen arrives in Aratta, and offers to make Uruk submit. The sorcerer travels toEreshwhere he bewitches Enmerkar's livestock, but a wise woman outperforms his magic and casts him into the Euphrates; En-suhgir-ana then admits the loss of Inanna, and submits his kingdom to Uruk.
Lugalbanda in the Mountain Cave[4]- is a tale ofLugalbanda,who will becomeEnmerkar's successor. Enmerkar's army travels through mountainous territory to wage war against rebellious Aratta. Lugalbanda falls ill and is left in a cave, but he prays to the various gods, recovers, and must find his way out of the mountains.
Lugalbanda and the Anzud Bird[5]-Lugalbandabefriends theAnzudbird, and asks it to help him find his army again. WhenEnmerkar's army is faced with a setback, Lugalbanda volunteers to return toUrukto ask the goddessInana's aid. He crosses through the mountains, into the flat land, from the edge to the top ofAnshanand then to Uruk, where Inana helps him. She advises Enmerkar to carry off Aratta's "worked metal and metalsmiths and worked stone and stonemasons" and all the "moulds of Aratta will be his". Then the city is described as having battlements made of green lapis lazuli and bricks made of "tinstone dug out in the mountains where the cypress grows".
Other mentions in Sumerian literature
- Praise Poem of Shulgi (Shulgi Y):[6]"I filled it with treasures like those of holy Aratta."
- Shulgi and Ninlil's barge:[7]"Aratta, full-laden with treasures"
- Proverbs:[8][9][10]"When the authorities are wise, and the poor are loyal, it is the effect of the blessing of Aratta."
- Unprovenanced Proverbs:[11]"When the authorities are wise, and the poor are passed by, it is the effect of the blessing of Aratta."
- Hymn to Hendursanga (Hendursanga A):[12]"So that Aratta will be overwhelmed (?), Lugalbanda stands by at your (Hendursanga's) behest."
- Hymn to Nisaba (Nisaba A):[13]"In Aratta he (Enki?) has placed E-zagin (the lapis lazuli temple) at her (Nisaba's) disposal."
- The building of Ninngirsu's temple (Gudea cylinder):[14]"pure like Kesh and Aratta"
- Tigito Suen (Nanna I):[15]"the shrine of my heart which I (Nanna) have founded in joy like Aratta"
- Inana and Ibeh:[16]"the inaccessible mountain range Aratta"
- Gilgamesh and Huwawa (Version B):[17]"they know the way even to Aratta"
- Temple Hymns:[18]Aratta is"respected"
- The Kesh Temple Hymn:[19]Aratta is"important"
- Lament for Ur:[20]Aratta is"weighty (counsel)"
Location hypotheses
Early 20th century scholars initially tookArattato be an epithet of the Sumerian cityShuruppakrelated to its local name for the godEnlil;[21]however that is no longer seen to be the case. Although Aratta is known only frommyth,[22] someAssyriologistsandarchaeologistshave speculated on possible locations where Aratta could have been, using criteria from the myths:[23][24]
- Land travelers must pass throughSusaand the mountainousAnshanregion to reach it.
- It is a source of, or has access to valuable gems and minerals, in particularlapis lazuli,that are crafted on site.
- It is accessible toUrukby watercourse, yet remote from Uruk.
- It is close enough to march a 27th-century BC Sumerian army there.
In 1963,Samuel Noah Kramerthought that a "Mount Hurum" in a Lugalbanda myth (which he titled "Lugalbanda on Mount Hurrum" at the time) might have referred to theHurrians,and hence speculated Aratta to be nearLake Urmia.[25] However, "Mount Hurum","hur-ru-um kur-ra-ka",in what is now calledLugalbanda in the Mountain Cave,[4]is today read "mountain cave",[26] and Kramer subsequently introduced the title "Lugalbanda, the Wandering Hero" for this story.[27]
Other speculations referred to the early gem trade route, the "Great Khorasan Road"from theHimalayan Mountains[28] toMesopotamia,which ran through northernIran.[29][30][31]
Anshan, which had not yet been located then, was assumed to be in the centralZagrosmountain range.[32]
However, whenAnshan[33] was identified asTall-i Malyanin 1973,[34]it was found to be 600 km south-east of Uruk, far removed from any northerly routes or watercourses from Uruk, and posing the logistical improbability of getting a 27th-century BC Sumerian army through 550 km ofElamiteterritory to wage war with Aratta.[35]
Nevertheless, there have been speculations referring to eastern Iran as well.[36][37]Dr.Yousef Majidzadehbelieves theJiroft culturecould be Aratta.
By 1973, archaeologists were noting that there was no archaeological record of Aratta's existence outside of myth,[22]and in 1978 Hansman cautions against over-speculation.[38]
Writers in other fields have continued to hypothesize potential Aratta locations. A "possible reflex" has been suggested in SanskritĀraṭṭaorArāṭṭamentioned in theMahabharataand other texts.[39][40] Alternatively, the name is compared with the toponymAraratorUrartu.[41]
References
- ^Cohen (1973),p. 55 notes:"Aratta became a epithet for" abundance "and" glory "."
- ^"The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.Retrieved30 December2018.
- ^"The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.Retrieved30 December2018.
- ^ab"The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.Retrieved30 December2018.
- ^"The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.Retrieved30 December2018.
- ^"The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.Retrieved30 December2018.
- ^"The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.Retrieved30 December2018.
- ^"The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.Retrieved30 December2018.
- ^"The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.Retrieved30 December2018.
- ^"The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.Retrieved30 December2018.
- ^"The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.Retrieved30 December2018.
- ^"The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.Retrieved30 December2018.
- ^"The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.Retrieved30 December2018.
- ^"The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.Retrieved30 December2018.
- ^"The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.Retrieved30 December2018.
- ^"The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.Retrieved30 December2018.
- ^"The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.Retrieved30 December2018.
- ^"The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.Retrieved30 December2018.
- ^"The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.Retrieved30 December2018.
- ^"The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".Etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk.Retrieved30 December2018.
- ^Langdom, Stephen H. "Early Babylonia and its CitiesArchived2011-10-05 at theWayback Machine."Cambridge Ancient History.Accessed 19 Dec 2010.
- ^abCohen (1973),p. 61. Cohen states:"it is indeed strange that the name of such an important trade center should as yet remain unknown to us from any economic, administrative or other non-literary texts from the Ur III or Old Babylonian period".
- ^Kramer (1963);Gordon (1967);Cohen (1973)
- ^Herrmann (1968);Hansman (1972);Hansman (1978);Majidzadeh (1976)
- ^Kramer (1963) p. 275.
- ^see e.g.Lugalbanda in the Mountain Cave,ETCSL (2006)line 102, etc.; Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie (1990) vol. 7,p. 121; Black (1998)p. 136; Vanstiphout (2003)p.110-111, etc.
- ^Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie (1990) vol. 7,p. 121
- ^The only source oflapis lazulifor the ancient world wasBadakhshan,Afghanistan(see Clark (1986)p. 67).
- ^Gordon (1967),p. 72, note 9. TheSanandajarea.
- ^Herrmann (1968),p. 54. South or southeast of theCaspian Sea(cited inMajidzadeh (1976)).
- ^Cohen (1973),p. 60. TheHamadanarea.
- ^e.g.Gordon (1967),p. 72 note 9.Kermanshah;Mallowan (1969),p. 256.Bakhtiariterritory (cited inMallowan (1985),p. 401, note 1).
- ^In contrast to Aratta,Anshanis well documented beyond literary texts (c.f. Hansman (1985)pp. 25-35).
- ^Reiner, Erica (1973) "The Location of Anšan",Revue d'Assyriologie67, pp. 57-62 (cited inMajidzadeh (1976),Hansman (1985)).
- ^Cohen (1973),p. 59 Cohen also notes that the farthest east that any Assyrian king ever went wasHamadan.
- ^Hansman, John F. (1972, 1978).Shahr-i Sokhta.
- ^Majidzadeh (1976):Shahdad;Majidzadeh (2004):Jiroft.
- ^Hansman (1978):"In the case of Aratta, where no inscriptions or texts are currently available to favor any one site, the mechanics of identification depend largely on inductive inquiry. At best such methods provide indications from which a location may be postulated as being reasonable or possible. But one cannot assume too much, for then the hypothesis becomes subjective rather than objective."
- ^Michael Witzel(Aryan and non-Aryan Names in Vedic India1999, p. 8People.fas.harvard.edu
- ^"Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts"EJVS2001, p. 18-19
- ^Rohl, David(1998).Legend: The Genesis of Civilisation.Century Publishing.ISBN0-7126-8017-9.
Bibliography
- Black, Jeremy (1998).Reading Sumerian Poetry.Cornell University Press.p. 136.ISBN0-8014-3339-8.
- Black, J.A.; Cunningham, G.; Ebeling, J.; Flückiger-Hawker, E.; Robson, E.; Taylor, J. & Zólyomi, G. (1998–2006)."The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature".Oxford University Press.Archivedfrom the original on 11 April 2008.Retrieved2008-03-15.
- Cohen, Sol (1973).Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta(Ph.D.).University of Pennsylvania.pp. 55–61.ProQuest302716331.
- Gordon, Edmund I. (1967). "The Meaning of the IdeogramdKASKAL.KUR = "Underground Water-Course" and its Significance for Bronze Age Historical Geography ".Journal of Cuneiform Studies.21:70–88.doi:10.2307/1359360.JSTOR1359360.S2CID163463497.
- Hansman, John F. (1978). "The Question of Aratta".Journal of Near Eastern Studies.37(4): 331–336.doi:10.1086/372671.JSTOR544047.S2CID162250050.
- Hansman, John F. (1985)."Anshan in the Elamite and Archaemenian Periods".The Cambridge History of Iran.Vol. 2.Cambridge University Press.pp. 25–35.ISBN0-521-20091-1.Retrieved2005-03-15.
- Hansman, John F. (1972). "Elamites, Achaemenians and Anshan".Iran.10:118, footnote 97.doi:10.2307/4300468.JSTOR4300468.cited inMajidzadeh (1976)andHansman (1978)
- Herrmann, Georgina(1968). "Lapis Lazuli: The Early Phase of its Trade".Iraq.30(1): 36, 54.doi:10.2307/4199836.JSTOR4199836.S2CID130955760.cited inCohen (1973),Majidzadeh (1976)
- Kramer, Samuel Noah(1952).Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta: A Sumerian Epic Tale of Iraq and Iran.University Museum,University of Pennsylvania.
- Kramer, Samuel Noah(1963).The Sumerians.University of Chicago Press.p.275.ISBN0-226-45238-7.
- Majidzadeh, Yousef(1976). "The Land of Aratta".Journal of Near Eastern Studies.35(2): 105–114.doi:10.1086/372470.JSTOR545195.S2CID162240805.
- Majidzadeh, Yousef(2004).Jiroft: the Earliest Oriental Civilization.
- Mallowan, Max(1985)."Cyrus the Great".The Cambridge History of Iran.Vol. 2.ISBN0-521-20091-1.Retrieved2005-03-15.
- Mallowan, Max(1969). "Elamite Problems".Proceedings of the British Academy.LV.London: 256.cited in Mallowan (1985) p. 401, note 1
- Potts, Daniel T. (2004). "Exit Aratta: Southeastern Iran and the Land of Marhashi".Name-ye Iran-e Bastan.4/1:1–11.
- Reiner, Erica (1973). "The Location of Anšan".Revue d'Assyriologie.67:57–62.cited inMajidzadeh (1976),Hansman (1985)
- Vanstiphout, Herman L. J. (2003). Cooper, Jerrold S. (ed.).Epics of Sumerian Kings: The Matter of Aratta.Society of Biblical Literature. pp. 110–111, etc.ISBN1-58983-083-0.
- "Lugalbanda".Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie.Vol. 7.Walter de Gruyter.1990. p. 121.ISBN3-11-010437-7.Retrieved2008-03-15.
