Tibetan art

Large shrine statue ofMaitreya,Thiksey Monastery,Ladakh,1970

The vast majority of survivingTibetan artcreated before the mid-20th century is religious, with the main forms beingthangka,paintings on cloth, mostly in a technique described asgouacheordistemper,Tibetan Buddhist wall paintings,and small statues in bronze, or large ones in clay,stuccoor wood. They were commissioned byreligious establishmentsor by pious individuals for use within the practice ofTibetan Buddhismand were manufactured in large workshops by monks and lay artists, who are mostly unknown. Various types of religious objects, such as thephurbaor ritual dagger,are finely made and lavishly decorated. Secular objects, in particular jewellery and textiles, were also made, with Chinese influences strong in the latter.

Thankaof AshtamahabhayaTara,late 12th century,gouacheoncotton.

Himalayan artis an overall term for Tibetan art together with the art ofBhutan,Nepal,Ladakh,Kashmirand neighbouring parts ofMongoliaand China whereTibetan Buddhismis practiced.Sino-Tibetan artrefers to works in a Tibetan style and with Tibetan Buddhisticonographyproduced in either China or Tibet, often arising from patronage by Chinese emperors. The artists seem to have been a mixture of Tibetan and Chinese, with someNewarifrom Nepal,and the place of manufacture is often uncertain between the two. The less common term ofTibeto-Chinesemay be used when the Tibetan element is the stronger.

Yab-yum"bronze" with pigments and gilding

Tibetan religious art has been described as "almost unbelievably conservative", to a large extent representing "the perpetuation of the forms andiconographyof the last phase of Buddhist art of India ", ending about the 12th century. This was thePala-Sena art of north-east India, relatively close to Tibet, and the home of key figures likeAtisha,a missionary fromNalandainBihar.After thedecline of Buddhism in Indiasoon after, very little survives from the Indian Buddhist art of this or earlier periods except monumental sculpture, and art historians must deduce much about this vanished culture from Tibetan works.Other influences on Tibetan art over the centuries came fromChineseandNepaleseBuddhist art.Landscape backgrounds were adopted fromChinese paintingfrom about the 14th century for some thanka,and Chineseornamentalstyles became dominant around 1700.

The finest achievements are typically considered to be in painted thanka and small bronzes (oftengilt-bronze), where the best works have very high levels of technical skill. These were generally private works, only seen within monasteries, and often specifically designed for meditation. More public art includes large statues for prayer halls, large appliqué thankas for temporary display duringTibetan festivalsonthangka walls,andsand mandalas,also temporary.

Self-portrait by the leadingMongolianmonkZanabazar(1635–1715)

Artists

Painters and at least the modellers of sculpture were mostly monks, but less so for those made in China, or by the many Nepali artists who worked in or for Tibet. Manyapplied artswere made by lay craftspeople, sometimes working to designs for ornament supplied by monks. Apart from works from recent decades the names of the artists involved are unknown, except in the case of a few leading artist monks, such asChöying Dorje, 10th Karmapa(1604–1674), and theMongolianZanabazar(1635–1715).

There have recently been rather controversial attempts to attribute some surviving works to a well-documented and significant Nepali artist called Aniko orAnige(1245–1306), who worked in painting, sculpture and architecture in Tibet and China, but it remains uncertain if anything by him, rather than his sons or followers, has survived.

Painting

Main article:Thangka

Paintings come in several types and sizes. The most important is thethangka,a broad term for portable paintings on cloth or paper that can be stored rolled-up. Larger ones may also be called "banners", and the really large ones for display onthangka wallsat festivals are mostly made fromappliquécloth, with only minimal painting.Even relatively small thangkas which are much taller than they are wide may be called banners.

The usual painting technique isgouacheon finecotton,but other cloth may be used. Painting was over anunderdrawing.Colours were originally bright, though many old paintings have faded. Most, and all before the 16th century, are square or have a vertical "portrait" format,and most are under a metre tall.There are also images in silktapestryusing the Chinesekesitechnique.The earliest thangka to survive are some from theblocked-up cavenearDunhuangthat date from a period of Tibetan occupation there in the 10th century.

Two pages from a 14th or 15th-century manuscript

Tsaklior "initiation cards" are small painted (or sometimes printed) images on cloth, glued to a card backing, usually showing a relatively simple image of a sacred figure, or a pair. They were produced in sets of perhaps six to over a hundred, and used for instructing monks and also the temporary consecration and protection of sites or objects. The figure may be identified in ink on the back. They are one of a number of Tibetan forms without close comparators in neighbouring Buddhist countries.

Most monasteries and temples in Tibet hadwall paintings,a large percentage of which have been destroyed or badly damaged. These were painted over several plaster-like layers of "clay, chopped-up straw, and dung" in the same technique as thangkas.They usually cover the entire wall above a certain level, using much the same subjects and styles as thangkas. Paintings and other works were ritually consecrated upon completion.

Book covers more often included painted decoration than the pages of the book. This is usually on the inside of the wood cover, so the painting is protected.Initially books had the very long, thin, shape of Indianpalm leaf manuscriptswhatever material was used, allowing only a long row oftsakli-like single figures. Later different shapes were used, allowing larger thangka-style compositions. [[1]]

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  Largeappliquéfestival thangka hung in the courtyard atJakar DzonginBhutan
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  Tsaklifrom a large set, 15th century, 16 x 14.5 cm
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  Section of wall painting inBasgo monastery,Ladakh
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  Modern mural atStakna Gompa,Ladakh

Sculpture

Avalokiteshvara,11th-century, West Tibet. Brass with copper & tin inlay, coloured wax, traces of gilding, and pigment.

The most common material for smaller sculptures is metal, usually "bronze",which is oftengilded.Modern scientific analysis shows that the actual compositions of Tibetan "bronze" (orcopper alloy) are even more variable than in bronze from other parts of the world, being very oftenbrassand sometimes almost purecopper.The compositions sometimes vary considerably from one end of a statue to the other. Tibetan foundries seem to have used whatever base metal was available, and not to have been too careful in ensuring proper mi xing. Pieces made in China or Mongolia are generally much more homogenous.

Precious metals may be used, especially for Imperial Chinese commissions,but figures mainly in gold or silver are very rare;evidently some were made, but they have presumably been recycled asbullionlater on. A very high-qualityyab-yumpair in theHermitage Museumwith an inscribed date to the MingYonglereign of 1403–1425 is made of copper and about 40% gold, but this is a rarity.

Tibet has deposits of gold, but under the influence of Bon, mining was regarded as rather immoral, and only the meagre product of panning in rivers was acceptable. Large inflows of gold came from China only after the MongolYuan dynastybegan to heavily patronize Tibetan Buddhism in the late 13th century.

Metal sculptures sometimes have colour added by a variety of techniques including inlays, partial gilding,lacquerpaint, coloured wax, and using alloys with different metal mixtures, especiallyzincto give different colours. Jewels may be inserted into the metal. The usual basic casting technique islost wax casting;many works, especially in later periods, are cast in several pieces, then joined.Small relics of distinguished teachers were often placed inside the hollow statues, wrapped in paper with writing identifying them.

Large shrine statue,Kumbum Monastery

Many of the common materials forsculptureare not often used in Tibet. Wood was expensive, and generally used for buildings, furniture and caskets rather than sculpture (the wood reliefs at theJokhanginLhasaare by Nepali sculptors brought in for the purpose).Wood doorway surrounds in monasteries sometimes had figurative carvings.But small works in wood, ivory, terracotta and stone are found. Stone is mainly used for smallstelescarved in relief, orrock reliefscarved into cliffs beside paths, which were then painted.

Large sculptures, almost all sacred figures in a meditating or teaching seated position, are mostly for the altars of temples or prayer halls. The Tibetan prototype for these is theJowo,a bronze statue of the Buddha in Lhasa, supposedly brought from China by aTang dynastyprincess marrying the Tibetan king. Most later Tibetan examples are made of clay orrammed earthover a hollow interior stuffed with straw, with wood supports for the largest. They are then painted and partly gilded, and often finished withvarnish.

Tsa-tsaare small relief plaques or miniaturechortensmade in moulds with clay or rammed earth. Many are left in places considered holy, and the chorten-shaped ones play a part in funerary rituals. Some include ashes from the cremated remains of a deceased person, or objects symbolizing them. Others, like their Indian predecessors, work as souvenirs of pilgrimages, and are taken home to be displayed.

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  18th-centurytsa-tsaofAmitayus,in pressedloam
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  17th-century monk portrait. Silvered copper, with gilding
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  Sino-Tibetan bodhisattva inChinese porcelain,late 18th or 19th century

Other media for Buddhist art

Making asand mandalawithchak-pur.Colouredprayer flagsare hung around the working area. France, 2008

There are types of Buddhist art that are deliberately temporary, for use in rituals and meditation. The best known of these is thesand mandala,a largely geometric image made up with grains of sand or minerals, where necessary dyed to give several bright colours. These are placed onto a drawn pattern on a flat and even ground surface with great skill, using cone-shaped funnels calledchak-purand fingers. Themandalais generally square or round, and can be between two and three metres across. Making the mandala is itself a religious act, and the image's temporary nature is part of the teaching. Many are made for festivals, and after a few days on display they are simply swept away. The same patterns are often used in painted thangkas, with or without figures, which are generally not attempted in sand.

Tormaare sculpted ritual offerings made of edible materials, withyak butterand flour the most common and often the only main ingredients, along with colourings. They are therefore a form ofbutter sculpture.Eggs, milk and other ingredients even including meat may be used. They are used in various contexts, the most common of which is being placed on altars. Very large ones may be made for special festivals. Some are eaten after a period of ritual use.

15/16th century carved and lacquered wood manuscript cover. The design includesstupasand canopies within geometric designs, the auspicious symbols (ashtamangala) including the "Precious Umbrella" that symbolizes the wholesome activity of preserving beings from harmful forces; the "Victory Banner" that celebrates the activities of one's own and others' body and mind over obstacles, as well as the "Vase of Treasure" for an endless reign of wealth and prosperity.

Many types of object for both religious or secular use were lavishly decorated in the same styles, mi xing metalwork with gemstones. These include vases, offering plates and model mountain "mandala plates",containers and other objects for altars, rituals, and the private use of senior monks, as well as use by wealthy lay persons. In recent centuries China was the main influence on the rich ornamentation used, with Nepal and India prominent earlier.

Tibetan Buddhism has a number of distinctive ritual instruments, some for use on general altars, and others for special tantric rituals; some are used in both. There are also musical instruments used in religious ceremonies, but these are not covered here. Many of the instruments are shared with theHindu tantratradition. Most are usually in bronze, and the most important are thevajra(ordorje), a small ritual weapon that is normally accompanied by a small bell, thephurbadagger,kartikaflaying knife, thekhatvangastaff or wand,and thekapala,askull cup,using a real skull, but often with an elaborate metalwork setting. Thekanglingthigh-bone trumpet, also mainly real bone, may also have metal mounts.

Bone fittings for a ritual apron

Oraclessuch as theNechung or "Official State Oracle"have extremely elaborate costumes and other special ritual implements for giving their predictions. The costumes include much carved bone, as do some of those for performers in thecham dancesand adepts in some tantric rituals. Apart from necklaces and other jewellery forms, there are "aprons" with bone plaques large enough to hold complex relief carvings.

Woodblock printingwas used for both text and images, or a combination. This was both on paper for books or single sheets, or on textiles, where it was very widely used forprayer flags.As with theprayer wheelsoutside religious buildings, usually made of brass with the prayer inscribed inrelief,setting the text in motion, whether by the wind in the case of flags, or by hand turning in the case of the wheels, was believed to increase the efficacy of the prayer ormantra.Designs including theWind Horseare among the most popular. Usually, the design for the wooden block was drawn by a monk, but carving the block was done by lay craftspeople outside the monastery.

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  Tormain Vancouver
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  kartikaflaying knife, withvajrahandle, made inBeijingin 1407
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  Vajraand bell, 18th-century
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  Dorje,ghantha(bell) andaksamala(prayer beads)
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  Printedprayer flagswith theWind Horse

Secular art

Set of plates for a saddle, c. 1400, in iron, gold, lapis lazuli, turquoise (and modern leather)

Traditional Tibetan society had a relatively small but wealthy upper class, as well as prosperous merchants. These patronised the religious arts (most wealthy men had spent some of their youth in monastic training), but also the usual range of secular forms. Monasteries also contained secular art in such forms as woolenTibetan rugs.The usual form of these before 1950 is thekhadenor sleeping carpet, also used for sitting or meditating on, with either geometric of simple figural designs, the latter often versions of Chinese motifs. The imitation tiger-skin "tiger rug" at least began as a substitute for real tiger-skins, which Buddhist and Hindu tantric masters are often shown sitting on in Indian art, or wearing as a cloak. But it seems to have become a prestigious thing to sit on for all types of person.

Some of theTsarongfamily inLhasa,1936

Tibetan clothing for the wealthy was elaborate and very brightly coloured. Chinese silks were much used, and imitated locally. Otherwise women wore skirts of local hand-woven cloth with lines of different colours. The clothing of the poor in 19th-century photographs generally appears very ragged, at least for working men. Tibetan jewellery, worn in profusion by both sexes, was chunky rather than highly refined, usually mainly in silver.Turquoisewas one of the gemstones mined in Tibet, and much used. Elite Tibetan women wore their hair elaborately tied high over the head on formal occasions, hanging jewellery on it. Various personal items such as saddles and horse trappings could be highly decorated in similar techniques. Thechab chab,worn by women, is a brooch from which a set of small useful tools such as spoons, picks and knives hang by short chains. Thechuckmuck,not exclusive to Tibet, is a fire-lighting kit, typically hung from the belt by a short strap.Thokchaare smallamuletsof various shapes made (or supposed to be made) frommeteoric iron,which were in use well before Buddhism arrived.

Furniture, in recent centuries tending to loosely follow Chinese forms, can be very finely made, and are usually highly decorated. Caskets, boxes and covers for manuscripts and storage chests were also important. Tibetan horse trappings, arms and armour for the elite were often highly decorated;a reasonable number have survived because there was relatively little evolution in what was used for fighting until the 20th century, and also because items were given asvotive offeringsto monasteries.

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  SmallTibetan sitting rugwith traditionalGau(amulet) design, c. 1900
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  Silver Chab chab
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  18th century cabinet, lacquer and gilding on wood, iron. The decoration includes skulls and skeletons.

Buddhist iconography

14th-centurymandalaofJnanadakini.Thangka,74.9 x 83.8 cm, perhaps painted in Tibet by a Nepali.

A high proportion of both thangkas and sculptures have as their main subject a single sacred figure, or two of them embracing in theyab-yumposition. These are very often surrounded with other figures, much smaller, often representing a wide range of persons or qualities.Buddhist symbolsoften appear. The main figures are buddhas,bodisattvas,the various types of "deity" in Tibetan Buddhism, and sometimes distinguished monks of the past,who may be regarded as bodhisattvas. Very often the figures at the top represent the "lineage" of teachings relating to the main figure, including a mixture of semi-legendary early and foundational figures, and more recent monks.

Large numbers of these areyidamsor meditation deities.The appearance of these and their surrounding elements is set out in great detail in texts, which the thangkas follow closely, and monks are required to memorize and meditate on these for very long periods. In many cases it is eventually explained to the initiate that the deity has no existence outside the mind of persons meditating on them, and the purpose of the exercise is to realize within the meditator the qualities the deity embodies, as part of the Buddhist practices ofrefugeanddeity yoga.

Yamāntaka,"destroyer of Death", a wrathful aspect ofMañjuśrī,thebodhisattvaof wisdom, 18th century

Tibetan art is especially rich, compared to that of other Buddhist countries, in depictions of "fierce" figures, sometimes called a figure's "wrathful aspect"or" expression ". These are to be understood as protective figures, versions of buddhas or bodhisattvas that can also be shown in their pacific aspect. Indeed, thanks to the very complex Tibetan understanding of their nature, important figures have a number of different" aspects ", which may be depicted very differently. Sometimes these are shown in compartments around the edge of the composition.They are often depicted standing on much smaller figures personifying the malign forces they have overcome, and the skulls or heads of others may hang from their belt or neck as amundamalaor skull garland. There may also be skulls in their crown.

The foundation story of Tibetan Buddhism has much on early leaders, above allPadmasambhava,subduing evil spirits that previously dominated Tibet. TheDharmapalaare one class of these fierce protectors,and one of them,Mahakala,was at various times given a particular role as the national protector, of Tibet and of theMongol Empire.Tibetan Buddhism also arose and consolidated at the same time as Indian Buddhism declined, a process that is still rather unclear, but at times involved considerable violence, perhaps increasing the perceived need for powerful protective figures.

Amitabhain HisPure LandofSukhavati,18th-century.

Narrative depictions of the lives of religious figures are found in thangkas, usually with the various events shown around a much larger central figure. Thelife of Gautama Buddhais depicted,as well as his previous lives,but the other most important buddhas and bodisattvas generally lack biographies. Tibetan figures such asPadmasambhava,Milarepa,and famous monks such asSakya Pandita,and theThird Dalai Lamamay be treated in a similar style.From the 18th century these scenes may be placed in a detailed landscape drawing on Chinese styles.Another style has a main central figure with much smaller portraits around the edge of the composition, either in compartments or in later examples in a landscape setting. These may be divine figures, or monks who were mentors or pupils.

Other portraits of monks are simpler, concentrating on the main figures. Some may date to the lifetime of the subject, though other are of figures long dead.It has been argued that portraits of living and dead figures are distinguished by the dead being shown seated on alotus throne,but a recent study rejects this and instead argues that the side on which thetögagmonastic robe is folded under the arm may indicate this.Small bronze sculpted portraits are also mostly straightforward, showing the subject seated on a base, not always wearing their ceremonial hat. One such bronze has an inscription saying it was made for the bedroom of a senior lama, perhaps the subject.

Another subject for thangkas is the various heavens orPure landsof the main buddhas, especiallyAmitābha'sSukhavati,and the mystic earthly kingdom ofShambhala.In recent centuries, these have also been given panoramic landscape backgrounds.There are also paintings showing monasteries, usually concentrating on the buildings rather than the (often spectacular) settings.

TheAshtamangala,or "Eight Auspicious Symbols" very frequently appear in various contexts, for example held by figures. They belong to wider Buddhist traditions, and originated in India.

Buddhist background

AsMahayana Buddhismemerged as a separate school in the 4th century AD, it emphasized the role ofbodhisattvas,compassionate beings who forgo their personal escape tonirvanain order to assist others. From an early time, various bodhisattvas were also subjects of statuary art. Tibetan Buddhism, as an offspring of Mahayana Buddhism, inherited this tradition. But the additional dominating presence of theVajrayana(or Buddhist tantra) may have had an overriding importance in the artistic culture. A common bodhisattva depicted in Tibetan art is the deityChenrezig(Avalokitesvara), often portrayed as a thousand-armed saint with an eye in the middle of each hand, representing the all-seeing compassionate one who hears our requests. This deity can also be understood as ayidam,or 'meditation Buddha' for Vajrayana practice.

More specifically, Tibetan Buddhism containsTantric Buddhism,also known asVajrayanaBuddhism for its common symbolism of thevajra,the diamond thunderbolt (known inTibetanas thedorje). Most of the typical Tibetan Buddhist art can be seen as part of the practice of tantra. Vajrayana techniques incorporate many visualizations during meditation, and most of the elaborate tantric art can be seen as aids to these visualizations; from representations of meditational deities (yidams) tomandalasand all kinds of ritual implements. There are distinct tantric rituals, mostly originating in India, but some apparently incorporating elements from Tibetanshamanism.These are conducted alone or before a small group of initiates.

Bön

Described byLACMAas "Yellow Yama (?) and Consort on Bull,NyingmapaBuddhist or Bon Ritual Card "(tsakli), 18th or 19th century.

The indigenous shamanistic religion of the Himalayas is known asBön,which has survived in a monastic form, co-existing with Tibetan Buddhism, and producing similar art. Bon contributes a pantheon of local tutelary deities to Tibetan art. In Tibetan temples (known aslhakhang), statues of the Buddha orPadmasambhavaare often paired with statues of the tutelary deity of the district who often appears angry or dark. These gods once inflicted harm and sickness on the local citizens but after the arrival of Padmasambhava these negative forces have been subdued and now must serve Buddha.

Bon images are often extremely similar to Tibetan Buddhist ones, especially those produced by theNyingmaorder, which has the closest connections with Bon monasticism. Indeed, even experts are sometimes unable to be sure for which religion some works were produced. Other works depict the distinct Bon deities and historic teachers, but remain generally close to Buddhist styles; there was evidently considerable interchange between artists in both traditions. In general, Bon sacred figures do not appear in the complicated different forms and aspects of Buddhist ones, and a Bon fierce protective deity is likely only to have that form. Some differences are easier to see: Bon art uses theswastikarather than the vajra as a symbol of wisdom, and although theirchorten(stupas) are "almost identical", Bon devotees walk round them in the opposite direction (anti-clockwise) to Buddhists.

Historical background

First transmission

From left:Bhrikuti Deviof Nepal, KingSongtsen Gampo,Princess Wencheng,Potala,perhaps 830s.

Pre-Buddhist art in Tibet is relatively little understood, apart from small personal items such asthokchaamulets, and prehistoric rock carvings of animals. All are hard to date. Stylistically, Buddhist art tends to be divided, at some periods more than others, into that from Western, Central and Eastern Tibet.

Buddhism achieved its final very strong position in Tibet inseveral stages,with reverses sometimes following periods of strong growth. The first arrival of Buddhism was traditionally with the two princesses, Nepali and Chinese, who came to marry KingSongsten Gampo(reigned c. 627–649). Each came with monks and statues, and both Indian and Chinese styles of Buddhism (both Mahayana, but already somewhat divergent) were encouraged by the court. The core of theJokhangin Lhasa survives from this period, and the ChineseJowostatue, but Buddhism was essentially a court religion for some time after, and whether any Tibetan art survives is uncertain.

The bodhisattvaManjushri,between 1000 and 1200

Songsten Gampo was the first of the "Three Religious Kings" (or "Dharma Kings" ), followed byTrisong DetsenandTri Relwajen,who reigned until about 836 (there are, or may have been, several intervening kings). King Trisong Detsen invited the Indian monkŚāntarakṣita,ofNalanda,who arrived in 761, but whose efforts were, according to Tibetan tradition, frustrated by evil native spirits. After retreating, and spending some years in Nepal, Śāntarakṣita returned with the Tantric adept Padmasambhava, who successfully defeated the evil spirits.

In 791 Buddhism was declared the official religion, and King Trisong Detsen eventually felt he had to make a choice between the Indian and Chinese styles of Buddhism. After hearing both groups of monks making their case, he chose the Indian ones, perhaps for political reasons, and thereafterSanskrittexts have always been regarded in Tibet as the proper foundation for Buddhism. By this time some large monasteries had been built, and theTibetan Empirehad begun to encroach on China's western borders; the Tibetan paintings found inDunhuangare one major group of survivals. This period of expansion was soon followed by theEra of Fragmentationafter 842, which saw the end of the unified kingdom, and much tension between Bon and Buddhism, which declined severely, especially in Central Tibet.

Green Tara,12th century

Second Transmission

The "Later" or "Second Transmission" began under KingYeshe-Öof theGuge Kingdomin Western Tibet, who succeeded in getting the senior Indian monkAtishato come to Tibet in 1042.Spreading over the next decades from Western to Eastern Tibet, Atisha and successors such asDromtönandMarpa Lotsawaestablished many monasteries, and new orders of monks.

At this period Indian Buddhism was still a force in north-east India, though in decline, with large monastic complexes such asNalandain Bengal and modernBihar,to the south of the region around Lhasa. There were considerable monastic interchanges between the two regions, with texts being taken north for copying and translating, and also evidently movement of artworks and probably artists. A greater number of Tibetan works have survived, many showing accomplished styles, with considerable Indian influence. Apart from portable works, the two outstanding survivals in wall paintings are the monasteries ofTaboandAlchiin modernLadakhin India, relatively small establishments in Guge which largely escaped later rebuilding and repainting, and Chinese destruction.

The dominant type of monastic Buddhism in north-west India at the time wasVajrayana(or Tantric Buddhism, Esoteric Buddhism), and various sub-schools of this tradition became the norm in Tibet. Over the next century a number of monastic orders or schools emerged, the four major schools, with their approximate dates of foundation, being theNyingma(c. 8th century),Kagyu(11th century),Sakya(1073), andGelug(1409). These came to produce art with slight differences in both subject-matter and style.

Mongol gold

Vajrabhairavamandala thangka in silkkesitapestry, for the Yuan imperial family, whose portraits are along the bottom. Woven in China, c. 1330–32, doubtless to a design by a monk in the imperial workshop. 245.5 x 209 cm.

The situation transformed dramatically in the second half of the 13th century, as the protracted process of theMongol conquest of China(1215–1294) drew to a close. Tibetan Buddhism had made considerable inroads in Mongolia, and became the official state religion of the new MongolYuan dynastyunderKublai Khan,though other religions were (most of the time) tolerated and sometimes patronized.Drogön Chögyal Phagpa(1235–1280), leader of theSakyaorder, was madeImperial Preceptorand head of the newBureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs.Over the next century monastic Buddhism received "massive financial and material support by the Yuan state (1260-1368), most prominently in the form of several tons of gold and silver, and hundreds of thousands ofboltsof silk ".

Green Tarafrom the Great Lama Temple Beijing,Yongle period,1403-1424

Tibetan monasteries were established in China, mostly staffed by monks from Tibet.A large number of imperial ceremonies using the monks were established—a reform in 1331 reduced the number from 216 to 200 annually. Each of these might last several days, a "short" one taking a hundred monks for seven days, while a long one used forty monks for three years. These were lavishly rewarded: one seven day ritual was paid for with 600 kilos of silver.Large donations were used for building monasteries in Tibet, or commissioning art, but donations were also given to large numbers of individual monks, who might use them to make art. The Sakya order were the largest beneficiaries, but all orders benefited.

The Yuan emperors maintained large imperial workshops, whose main task was producing Buddhist images and designs for them. About half of the senior artists were Newari or Tibetan, with the rest Chinese. Drawings of the design were typically approved by members of the court and the Imperial Preceptor, who checked the details of theiconographywere correct. Often old pieces were copied, and creatively reinterpreted.The Yuan empresses were especially fond of silver statues of female deities, most of which were melted down at some later point, as few of them survive. The records show that in 1329, the year after she became empress during abrief civil war,Budashiri,wife of theWenzong Emperor,commissioned goddess figures that used a total of 2,220 kilos of silver.

Although the nextMing dynastypresented itself as a native Chinese dynasty expelling the foreign Mongol overlords, the founder, theHongwu Emperor(r. 1368–1398) had spent several years in a Chinese Buddhist monastery, and he and his successors continued to patronize Tibetan Buddhism, if not on as extravagant a scale as the Yuan. It suited Chinese governments to keep their neighbour to the West peaceful and largely devoted to religion; when necessary the Chinese intervened militarily in the sometimes fierce disputes between the different orders. The nextQing dynastywereManchus,who kept their elite separate from theHan Chinese.They were largely Tibetan Buddhists, with the older traditions ofManchu shamanismstill strong, and continued to patronize Tibetan Buddhism in China and Tibet until the end of imperial rule.

Collecting

Usnisasitatapatra,Mongolian, 18th century,Hermitage Museum,from the Ukhtomsky collection

There was relatively little Tibetan art outside the country until the end of the 19th century, except that in the Chinese imperial collections and in Tibetan monasteries in China. The first significant foreign collector was PrinceEsper Ukhtomsky(1861–1921), a Russian author, publisher andOriental enthusiast,with close access to the court. Ukhtomsky was strongly attracted to Asian art on aesthetic grounds, and eventually declared himself a Buddhist.During his travels in Tibet and Central Asia he amassed a large collection of Chinese and Tibetan art, that eventually numbered over 2,000 pieces.

In 1902 the collection was given to theEthnographical Department of the Russian Museumin St. Petersburg. In 1933 it was divided between theHermitage Museum,who received the largest and best share, and theMuseum of the History of Religion,both in what was then Leningrad. The Hermitage's share remains the basis of "one of the world's largest collections of Tibetan art". Unlike most Western museums, whose collections tend to be stronger in objects from southern and western Tibet, the Ukhtomsky collection is strongest in objects from northern and eastern Tibet, making it especially valuable.

In 1911, theNewark MuseuminNewark, New Jersey,United States displayed the world's first exhibition dedicated to Tibetan art.The museum continued to add more artifacts until the 1940s, amassing more than 5,000 pieces in its collection including paintings, sculptures, ritual objects, fine textiles and decorative arts. Today the museum houses over 5,500 Tibetan art artifacts, the largest and most distinctive in theWestern Hemisphere,in eight permanent galleries with a Tibetan Buddhistaltaras its centerpiece. The altar was consecrated in 1990 by the14th Dalai Lamain 1990.

The upheavals in Tibet and China in the 20th century brought about large movements of portable art to the West, and the destruction of most that remained in the country. There was large-scale destruction during and after the invasion andannexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of Chinain 1950 to 1951, theCultural Revolutionof 1966 to 1976, and at other times.

While wall paintings, large altar statues and other large art could usually not be moved, and a high proportion were destroyed, smaller thangka and bronzes were relatively easy to carry and left the country in large numbers. These were also the types of objects that probably had the greatest appeal to Western collectors, and were still relatively cheap in the mid-century. Several important private collections were formed, many of which subsequently passed to museums in the West, a process still continuing. The art historical understanding of Tibetan art, and its dating and regional differences also continues to develop.

Apart from museum collections in Tibet, China, St. Petersburg and Newark, many of the larger Western museums have significant collections, though most thangkas and textiles are not on permanent display for conservation reasons.Dedicated museums for Tibetan art in the West are theRubin Museum of ArtandJacques Marchais Museum of Tibetan Art,both in New York City, and theMuseum of Contemporary Tibetan Artin the Netherlands.

Contemporary Tibetan art

Painting bySonam Dolma Brauen,2008 "visionary artists for tibet" exhibition

Contemporary Tibetan art refers to the art of modern Tibet, or Tibet after 1950. It can also refer to art by theTibetan diaspora,which is explicitly political and religious in nature. Contemporary Tibetan art includes modernthangka(religious scroll paintings) that resemble ancientthangka,as well as radical,avant-garde,works.Many artists, especially in monasteries, continue to produce traditional Tibetan styles, which are preferred for religious use, and also have markets inside and outside the Tibetan diaspora.

Popular Contemporary Tibetan artists includeKarma Phuntsok,Tibetan-Swiss painterSonam Dolma BrauenandJamyang Dorjee Chakrishar.

See also

• Architecture of Tibet
• Dzong architecture(Bhutan)
• Kurkihar hoard

References

• Behrend, Kurt A.,Tibet and India: Buddhist Traditions and Transformations,2014, Metropolitan Museum of Art, ISBN 9781588395498, 1588395499,google books
• Berger, Patricia,Empire of Emptiness, Buddhist Art and Political Authority in Qing China,2003, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 9780824862367,google books
• Debreczeny, Karl, "Faith and Empire: An Overview", inFaith and Empire: Art and Politics in Tibetan Buddhism,2019, Rubin Museum, New York
• "HAR",Himalayan Art Resources, education and research database and virtual museum of Tibetan art
• Jing, Anning. “Financial and Material Aspects of Tibetan Art under the Yuan Dynasty.”Artibus Asiae,vol. 64, no. 2, 2004, pp. 213–41.JSTOR
• Kossack, Stephen M, Singer, Jane Casey,Sacred Visions: Early Paintings from Central Tibet,1998, an exhibition catalogue from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF)
• Pal, Pratapaditya(with Hugh Richardson),Art of Tibet: A Catalogue of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art Collection,1983,Los Angeles County Museum of Art,ISBN 9780875871127
• Rhie, Marylin andThurman, Robert(eds):Wisdom And Compassion: The Sacred Art of Tibet,1991, Harry N. Abrams, New York (with 3 institutions),ISBN0810925265
• Rowland, Benjamin,The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain,1967 (3rd edn.), Pelican History of Art, Penguin,ISBN0140561021
• Schaik, Sam van,Tibet: A History,2011, Yale University Press, ISBN 9780300154047,google books

Further reading

• Chandra, Lokesh (1996). Transcendental art of Tibet. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan.
• von Schroeder, Ulrich. 1981.Indo-Tibetan Bronzes.(608 pages, 1244 illustrations). Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications Ltd.ISBN962-7049-01-8
• von Schroeder, Ulrich. 2001.Buddhist Sculptures in Tibet.Vol. One:India & Nepal;Vol. Two:Tibet & China.(Volume One: 655 pages with 766 illustrations; Volume Two: 675 pages with 987 illustrations). Hong Kong: Visual Dharma Publications, Ltd.ISBN962-7049-07-7
• von Schroeder, Ulrich. 2006.Empowered Masters: Tibetan Wall Paintings of Mahasiddhas at Gyantse.(p. 224 pages with 91 colour illustrations). Chicago: Serindia Publications.ISBN1-932476-24-5
• von Schroeder, Ulrich. 2008.108 Buddhist Statues in Tibet.(212 p., 112 colour illustrations) (DVD with 527 digital photographs). Chicago: Serindia Publications.ISBN962-7049-08-5

External links

• [2],Tibetan Art Forms: Menluk, Khyenluk and Gardri
• Mechak Center for Contemporary Tibetan Art
• Tibetan Painting