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Ash pond

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A coal-fired power plant with surface impoundments

Anash pond,also called acoal ash basinorsurface impoundment,[1]is an engineered structure used atcoal-fired power stationsfor the disposal of two types ofcoal combustion products:bottom ashandfly ash.The pond is used as alandfillto prevent the release of ash into the atmosphere. Although the use of ash ponds in combination with air pollution controls (such aswet scrubbers) decreases the amount of airborne pollutants, the structures pose serious health risks for the surrounding environment.[2]

Ash ponds use gravity to settle out large particulates (measured astotal suspended solids) from power plantwastewater.This technology does not treat dissolved pollutants.[3]The ponds generally have not been built aslined landfills,and therefore chemicals in the ash can leach intogroundwaterand surface waters, accumulating in the biomass of the system.[4][5][6]

Design

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Ash ponds are generally formed using a ringembankmentto enclose the disposal site. The embankments are designed using similar design parameters asembankment dams,including zoned construction withclaycores. The design process is primarily focused on handling seepage and ensuring slope stability.

Failure of a pond's earthen embankment can cause ash spills on adjacent land and rivers, with serious environmental damage, as evidenced in the2008 Kingston Fossil Plant spillin Tennessee[7]and the2014 Dan River coal ash spillin North Carolina.[8]

Disposal methods

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The wet disposal of ash into ash ponds is the most common ash disposal method,[9]but other methods include dry disposal inlandfills.Dry-handled ash is often recycled into useful building materials. Wet disposal has been preferred due to economic reasons, but increasing environmental concerns regardingleachatefrom ponds has decreased the popularity of wet disposal.[9]The wet method consists of constructing a large "pond" and filling it with fly ashslurry,allowing the water to drain and evaporate from the fly ash over time.[10]

The flow of water through the fly ash and into ground water is controlled by using low-permeability clay layers and cutoff trenches/walls. Low-permeability clays havepermeabilityon the order of 10−7cm/s. Vertical flows through the foundation are controlled by siting fly ash ponds on areas of thick clay or rock layers that provide suitably low permeability through the base of the pond. Areas with high sub-surface permeability can be improved by importing suitable clay. Horizontal flows through the embankment are controlled using clay zones within the embankment. Cut off trenches and cut off walls are used to connect the embankment clay zones and the foundation clay layers. Cut off trenches are trenches that are dug into the selected low-permeability sub-surface layer and backfilled with clay to key the embankment clay zone into the sub-surface. Cut off trenches are generally used when the low permeability foundation layer(s) are near surface. Cut off walls are similar to cut off trenches, but are generally much deeper and narrower, and use either slurry orgroutinstead of clay.

Health and environmental impacts

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Not all substances present in coal will burn, and hence the non-combustible material is present in more concentrated amounts in coal ash than in coal itself. Substances commonly found in coal ash includearsenic,barium,beryllium,boron,cadmium,nickel,lead,mercury,molybdenum,seleniumandthallium.Elevated levels of radioactivity may also be present.[11]Many of these substances, especially heavy metals, can have negative effects on humans when ingested. Because ofbiomagnification,the concentration of unwanted chemicals in animals can increase up afood chain(similarly to mercury in tuna). Coal ash, a product of combustion, concentrates these elements and can contaminate groundwater or surface waters if there are leaks from an ash pond.[12]

Countries

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Australia

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Coal ash accounts for almost one-fifth of the waste generated in Australia. There are no national regulations requiring recycling of coal ash.[13]About 47% of coal ash was recycled in 2020.[14]Coal ash inNew South Walesis typically stored in landfills ( "dry emplacements" ) or ash ponds ( "ash dams" ).[15]Coal ash storage is regulated by the state Environment Protection Authority and its Dams Safety Committee, which publishes standards for dam design andenvironmental monitoring.[16]

Netherlands

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Ash ponds are not allowed in the Netherlands, as they are a type of landfill. Instead, all coal ash is recycled in the Netherlands.[17]

Turkey

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See also:Coal power in Turkey § Ash

In 2021 inspections were criticized and said to be insufficient.[18]: 75 

United States

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In the United States, coal ash is a major component of the nation's industrial waste stream.[19]As of 2012 there were over 470 operational coal-fired power plants in the US, and approximately 60 percent of US coal ash was disposed in surface impoundments and landfills. The US had 310 active on-site landfills in 2012, averaging more than 120 acres in size with an average depth of over 40 feet, and more than 735 active on-site surface impoundments, averaging more than 50 acres in size with an average depth of 20 feet.[20]In 2017, 38.2 million short tons (34.7×10^6t) of fly ash, and 9.7 million short tons (8.8×10^6t) of bottom ash were generated.[21]As of July 2023, 210 coal-fired power plants were operational in the United States.[22]

In 2018 anenvironmental justiceadvisor to theUS Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) stated that the increased toxic exposures from ash ponds will have disproportionate adverse health effects on low-income and minority communities.[23]

A 2019 report by theEnvironmental Integrity Projectstated that for U.S. coal-fired plants with available monitoring data, 91 percent of them have contaminated groundwater with "unsafe levels of toxic pollutants."[24]

Historically, due to few federal and state regulations concerning ash ponds, most US power plants do not usegeomembranes,leachate collection systems, or other flow controls often found inmunicipal solid wastelandfills.[10]In 1980 theU.S. Congressdefined coal ash as a "special waste" that would not be regulated under the stringent hazardous waste permitting requirements of theResource Conservation and Recovery Act(RCRA).[25]Congress also directed EPA to study the coal ash problem and decide whether further regulation would be appropriate. Pursuant to the Congressional directive, EPA reported in 2000 that coal fly ash did not need to be regulated as ahazardous waste.[26][27]

Following a 2008 failure that caused the Tennessee Valley Authority'sKingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill,EPA began developing regulations that would apply to all ash ponds in the US. EPA published a Coal Combustion Residuals (CCR) regulation in 2015. The agency continued to classify coal ash as non-hazardous (thereby avoiding strict permitting requirements underRCRA Subtitle C), but with new restrictions:

  1. Existing ash ponds that are contaminating groundwater must stop receiving CCR, and close or retrofit with a liner.
  2. Existing ash ponds and landfills must comply with structural and location restrictions, where applicable, or close.
  3. A pond no longer receiving CCR is still subject to all regulations unless it is dewatered and covered by 2018.
  4. New ponds and landfills must include a geomembrane liner over a layer of compacted soil.[28]

Some of the provisions in the 2015 CCR regulation were challenged in litigation, and theUnited States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuitremanded certain portions of the regulation to EPA for further rulemaking.[29]

EPA also published aneffluent guidelines(wastewater) regulation in 2015 pursuant to theClean Water Act.[30]The regulation limits discharges of toxic metals from power plants, including ash ponds and other wastestreams. The Agency estimated that the regulation would reduce the industry's metals discharges of 1.4 billion pounds annually.[31]In 2020 EPA published a final rule that reversed some provisions of the 2015 wastewater regulation. The revised regulation extended the compliance deadline for some power plants, and exempted some others completely from the more stringent 2015 requirements.[32][33]In May 2024 EPA published a final rule that reverses some aspects of the 2020 rule and tightens the wastewater limitations for some facilities.[34]

Following a court remand, EPA published its "CCR Part A" final rule on August 28, 2020 requiring all unlined ash ponds to retrofit with liners or close by April 11, 2021. Some facilities may apply to obtain additional time—up to 2028—to find alternatives for managing ash wastes before closing their surface impoundments.[35][36][37]EPA published its "CCR Part B" rule on November 12, 2020, which allows certain facilities to use an alternative liner, based on a demonstration that human health and the environment will not be affected.[38]

On January 11, 2022 EPA announced an enforcement action involving ash ponds at certain coal-fired plants inIndiana,Ohio,IowaandNew York.The agency's proposal would deny the plants' requests for extensions beyond the 2021 deadline and would require them to close their ash ponds ahead of their proposed schedules. EPA sent warning letters to four additional plants.[39][40]EPA received a total of 57 extension requests. In November 2022 the agency announced its initial final determination on an extension request, denying a request submitted by a plant in Ohio. As of 2024 EPA has published proposed determinations for additional plants and the review process is ongoing. Each proposed determination is subject to a public comment period.[41]

In response to litigation, EPA published a final RCRA rule in May 2024 setting regulatory requirements for active and inactive CCR facilities, including groundwater monitoring, corrective action, closure, and post-closure care requirements.[42][43]

Remediation

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Remediationoptions include "capping, dewatering and/or stabilizing, consolidating into a new landfill, disposing off site, converting to wetlands, or any combination of these options."[44]

There are some initiatives, such as a 2015 initiative byDuke Energy,to excavate existing ash ponds to reduce the environmental effects of coal-burning power facilities on the surrounding environment.[45][46]

See also

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References

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  1. ^U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Washington, D.C. "Hazardous and Solid Waste Management System; Identification and Listing of Special Wastes; Disposal of Coal Combustion Residuals from Electric Utilities." Proposed rule.Federal Register,75FR35130,June 21, 2010.
  2. ^Erickson, Camille (October 7, 2019)."Mi xing water, Powder River Basin coal ash dangerous to human health, new research finds".Casper Star-Tribune.Casper, WY.
  3. ^"Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Steam Electric Power Generating Point Source Category".EPA. 2018-11-30.
  4. ^Brooke, Nelson (June 5, 2019)."New Interactive Maps of Groundwater Pollution Reveal Threats Posed by Alabama Power Coal Ash Pits".Black Warrior Riverkeeper.Birmingham, AL.
  5. ^Springer, Patrick (March 13, 2019)."Report: Unsafe coal ash contamination found in North Dakota groundwater".Bismarck Tribune.Bismarck, ND.
  6. ^Tosheff, Taylor (2019-07-31)."York: Brunner Island power plant owners agree to $1M penalty, coal ash cleanup".Harrisburg, PA: ABC27 News.
  7. ^Dewan, Sheila (2008-12-23)."Water Supplies Tested After Tennessee Spill".The New York Times.
  8. ^"Case Summary: Duke Energy Agrees to $3 Million Cleanup for Coal Ash Release in the Dan River".Enforcement.EPA. 2017-03-15.
  9. ^abMcLaren, R. J. & A. M. DiGioia (1987). "The Typical Engineering Properties of Fly Ash". In Woods, R. D. (ed.).Geotechnical Practice for Waste Disposal.Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers.
  10. ^abKessler, K. A. (1981). "Wet Disposal of Fossil Plant Waste Case History".Journal of the Energy Division.107(2). American Society of Civil Engineers: 199–208.doi:10.1061/JDAEDZ.0000063.
  11. ^Walton, Robert (March 5, 2018)."Utilities find groundwater contamination, radioactivity at unlined coal ash sites".Utility Dive.Washington, D.C.: Industry Dive, Inc.
  12. ^Schlossberg, Tatiana (2017-04-15)."2 Tennessee Cases Bring Coal's Hidden Hazard to Light".The New York Times.
  13. ^Millington, Ben (2019-03-09)."Coal ash has become one of Australia's biggest waste problems — and a solution is being ignored".ABC (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) News.Newcastle, NSW.
  14. ^National Waste Report 2020(PDF)(Report). Docklands, Victoria: Australia Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment. 2020-11-04. p. 36.
  15. ^"Coal ash dams".Sydney NSW: Environment Protection Authority, New South Wales (EPA/NSW). 2021-09-21.
  16. ^Environment Compliance Report: Coal ash dams and emplacements(PDF)(Report). EPA/NSW. June 2017.ISBN978-1-76039-808-8.EPA20170276.
  17. ^"Best practices for managing power plant coal ash".powerengineeringint.Retrieved2019-06-17.
  18. ^Çaltı, Nuray; Bozoğlu, Baran; Aldırmaz, Ahmet Turan; Atalar, Gülşah Deniz (2 June 2021).Özelleştirilmiş Termik Santraller ve Çevre Mevzuatına Uyum Süreçleri[Privatized Thermal Power Plants and Environmental Legislation Compliance Processes] (Report) (in Turkish). İklim Değişikliği Politika ve Araştırma Derneği.Archivedfrom the original on 9 October 2021.Retrieved27 July2021.
  19. ^"Coal Ash Basics".EPA. 2024-04-18.
  20. ^"Frequent Questions about the 2015 Coal Ash Disposal Rule".EPA. 2021-10-13.
  21. ^2017 Coal Combustion Product Production & Use Survey Report(PDF)(Report). Farmington Hills, MI: American Coal Ash Association. 2018. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2019-05-07.Retrieved2019-05-19.
  22. ^"Countries and territories with the largest number of operational coal power plants worldwide as of July 2023".Energy.New York:Statista.July 2023.
  23. ^McKenna, Phil (2018-03-15)."EPA Environmental Justice Adviser Slams Pruitt's Plan to Weaken Coal Ash Rules".New York: Inside Climate News.
  24. ^"Coal's Poisonous Legacy".Washington, D.C.: Environmental Integrity Project. 2019-03-04.
  25. ^"Special Wastes".Hazardous Waste.EPA. 2021-07-06.
  26. ^EPA (2000-05-22). "Notice of Regulatory Determination on Wastes From the Combustion of Fossil Fuels."Federal Register,65FR32214.
  27. ^Luther, Linda (2013-08-06).Background on and Implementation of the Bevill and Bentsen Exclusions in the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act: EPA Authorities to Regulate "Special Wastes"(Report). Washington, D.C.:U.S. Congressional Research Service.R43149.
  28. ^EPA. "Hazardous and Solid Waste Management System; Disposal of Coal Combustion Residuals From Electric Utilities." 80FR21301,2015-04-17.
  29. ^Green, Douglas H.; Houlihan, Michael (2019-04-24)."D.C. Circuit Court Remands CCR Deadline Extension to EPA".Environment, Energy, and Resources Section.Washington, DC: American Bar Association.
  30. ^EPA. "Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Steam Electric Power Generating Point Source Category." 80FR67837.2015-11-03.
  31. ^"Steam Electric Power Generating Effluent Guidelines—2015 Final Rule".EPA. 2020-09-04.
  32. ^Dennis, Brady; Eilperin, Juliet (2020-08-31)."Trump administration rolls back Obama-era rule aimed at limiting toxic wastewater from coal plants".The Washington Post.
  33. ^EPA (2020-10-13). "Steam Electric Reconsideration Rule." Final rule.Federal Register,85FR64650
  34. ^EPA (2024-05-09). "Supplemental Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Steam Electric Power Generating Point Source Category." Final rule. 89FR40198
  35. ^"EPA Letting Some Hazardous Coal Ash Ponds Stay Open Longer".U.S. News.2020-10-16.
  36. ^EPA. "Hazardous and Solid Waste Management System: Disposal of Coal Combustion Residuals From Electric Utilities; A Holistic Approach to Closure Part A: Deadline To Initiate Closure." 85FR53516.2020-08-28.
  37. ^"Revisions to the Coal Combustion Residuals (CCR) Closure Regulations; Fact sheet".EPA. July 2020.
  38. ^EPA (2020-11-12). "Hazardous and Solid Waste Management System: Disposal of CCR; A Holistic Approach to Closure Part B: Alternate Demonstration for Unlined Surface Impoundments." Final rule. 85FR72506
  39. ^Daly, Matthew (2022-01-11)."EPA moves to crack down on dangerous coal ash storage ponds".The Washington Post.
  40. ^"EPA Takes Key Steps to Protect Groundwater from Coal Ash Contamination".EPA. 2022-01-11. Press release.
  41. ^"Coal Combustion Residuals Part A Implementation".EPA. 2024-07-11.
  42. ^EPA (2024-05-08). "Hazardous and Solid Waste Management System: Disposal of Coal Combustion Residuals From Electric Utilities; Legacy CCR Surface Impoundments." Final rule. 89FR38950
  43. ^"Final Rule–Legacy Coal Combustion Residuals Surface Impoundments and CCR Management Units".EPA. 2024-06-04.
  44. ^Johnson, Mark; Nillson, Kent (2014-12-01)."Construction Considerations Are Key in Closure Planning for Coal Ash Ponds".Power Magazine.Rockville, MD: Access Intelligence, LLC.
  45. ^"Coal Ash".Charlotte, NC: Catawba Riverkeeper Foundation. Archived fromthe originalon 2017-03-03.Retrieved2020-02-22.
  46. ^"Ash Management & Safe Basin Closure".Charlotte, NC: Duke Energy.
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