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"Cosmonaut" redirects here. For other uses, seeAstronaut (disambiguation)andCosmonaut (disambiguation).

NASAastronautBruce McCandless IIusing aManned Maneuvering UnitoutsideSpace ShuttleChallengeron shuttle missionSTS-41-Bin 1984

Anastronaut(from theAncient Greekἄστρον(astron), meaning 'star', andναύτης(nautes), meaning 'sailor') is a person trained, equipped, and deployed by ahuman spaceflight programto serve as a commander or crew member aboard aspacecraft.Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the term is sometimes applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists, andtourists.[1][2]

"Astronaut" technically applies to all human space travelers regardless of nationality. However, astronauts fielded byRussiaor theSoviet Unionare typically known instead ascosmonauts(from the Russian "kosmos" (космос), meaning "space", also borrowed from Greekκόσμος).[3]Comparatively recent developments in crewed spaceflight made by China have led to the rise of the termtaikonaut(from theMandarin"tàikōng" (Vũ trụ), meaning "space" ), although its use is somewhat informal and its origin is unclear. In China, thePeople's Liberation Army Astronaut Corpsastronautsand their foreign counterparts are all officially calledhángtiānyuán(Hàng thiên viên,meaning "heaven navigator" or literally "heaven-sailingstaff ").

Since 1961, 600 astronauts have flown in space.[4]Until 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, either by the military or by civilian space agencies. With the suborbital flight of the privately fundedSpaceShipOnein 2004, a new category of astronaut was created: thecommercial astronaut.

Definition

Alan ShepardaboardFreedom 7(1961)

The criteria for what constituteshuman spaceflightvary, with some focus on the point where the atmosphere becomes so thin thatcentrifugal force,rather thanaerodynamic force,carries a significant portion of the weight of the flight object. TheFédération Aéronautique Internationale(FAI) Sporting Code for astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed theKármán line,at an altitude of 100 kilometers (62 mi).[5]In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of 80 kilometres (50 mi)[6]are awardedastronaut wings.

As of 17 November 2016,552 people from36 countrieshave reached 100 km (62 mi) or more in altitude, of whom 549 reachedlow Earth orbitor beyond.[7] Of these,24 peoplehave traveled beyond low Earth orbit, either to lunar orbit, the lunar surface, or, in one case, a loop around theMoon.[note 1]Three of the 24—Jim Lovell,John YoungandEugene Cernan—did so twice.[8]

As of 17 November 2016,under the U.S. definition, 558 people qualify as having reached space, above 50 miles (80 km) altitude. Of eightX-15pilots who exceeded 50 miles (80 km) in altitude, only one,Joseph A. Walker,exceeded 100 kilometers (about 62.1 miles) and he did it two times, becoming the first person in space twice.[7]Space travelers have spent over 41,790man-days(114.5-man-years) in space, including over 100 astronaut-days ofspacewalks.[9][10]As of 2016,the man with the longest cumulative time in space isGennady Padalka,who has spent 879 days in space.[11]Peggy A. Whitsonholds the record for the most time in space by a woman, at 675 days.[12]

Terminology

See also:Astronaut ranks and positions

In 1959, when both the United States andSoviet Unionwere planning, but had yet to launch humans into space,NASAAdministratorT. Keith Glennanand his Deputy Administrator,Hugh Dryden,discussed whether spacecraft crew members should be calledastronautsorcosmonauts.Dryden preferred "cosmonaut", on the grounds that flights would occur in and to the broadercosmos,while the "astro" prefix suggested flight specifically to thestars.[13]Most NASASpace Task Groupmembers preferred "astronaut", which survived by common usage as the preferred American term.[14]When the Soviet Union launched the first man into space,Yuri Gagarinin 1961, they chose a term whichanglicizesto "cosmonaut".[15][16]

Astronaut

The first sixteen NASA astronauts to be selected, February 1963. Back row:White,McDivitt,Young,See,Conrad,Borman,Armstrong,Stafford,Lovell.Front row:Cooper,Grissom,Carpenter,Schirra,Glenn,Shepard,Slayton.

A professional space traveler is called anastronaut.[17]The first known use of the term "astronaut" in the modern sense was byNeil R. Jonesin his 1930 short story "The Death's Head Meteor". The word itself had been known earlier; for example, inPercy Greg's 1880 bookAcross the Zodiac,"astronaut" referred to a spacecraft. InLes Navigateurs de l'infini(1925) byJ.-H. Rosny aîné,the wordastronautique(astronautics) was used. The word may have been inspired by "aeronaut", an older term for an air traveler first applied in 1784 toballoonists.An early use of "astronaut" in a non-fiction publication isEric Frank Russell's poem "The Astronaut", appearing in the November 1934Bulletin of theBritish Interplanetary Society.[18]

The first known formal use of the termastronauticsin the scientific community was the establishment of the annualInternational Astronautical Congressin 1950, and the subsequent founding of theInternational Astronautical Federationthe following year.[19]

NASAapplies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond. NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join itsAstronaut Corps.[20]TheEuropean Space Agencysimilarly uses the term astronaut for members of itsAstronaut Corps.[21]

Cosmonaut

The first eleven Soviet cosmonauts to fly, July 1965. Back row, left to right:Leonov,Titov,Bykovsky,Yegorov,Popovich;front row:Komarov,Gagarin,Tereshkova,Nikolayev,Feoktistov,Belyayev.
Main article:Soviet space program
For a more comprehensive list, seeList of cosmonauts.

By convention, an astronaut employed by theRussian Federal Space Agency(or its predecessor, theSoviet space program) is called acosmonautin English texts.[20]The word is anAnglicizationofkosmonavt(Russian:космонавтRussian pronunciation:[kəsmɐˈnaft]).[22]Other countries of the formerEastern Blocuse variations of the Russian kosmonavt, such as thePolish:kosmonauta(althoughPolesalso usedastronauta,and the two words are considered synonyms).[23]

Coinage of the termкосмонавтhas been credited to Soviet aeronautics (or "cosmonautics") pioneerMikhail Tikhonravov(1900–1974).[15][16]The first cosmonaut wasSoviet Air ForcepilotYuri Gagarin,also the first person in space. He was part of the first six Soviet citizens, withGerman Titov,Yevgeny Khrunov,Andriyan Nikolayev,Pavel Popovich,andGrigoriy Nelyubov,who were given the title of pilot-cosmonaut in January 1961.[24]Valentina Tereshkovawas the first female cosmonaut and the first and youngestwoman to have flown in spacewith a solo mission on theVostok 6in 1963.[25]On 14 March 1995,[26]Norman Thagardbecame the first American to ride to space on board a Russian launch vehicle, and thus became the first "American cosmonaut".[27][28]

Taikonaut

The first Chinese taikonauts on a 2010 Somalia stamp
Main articles:People's Liberation Army Astronaut CorpsandChina Manned Space Program
For a more comprehensive list, seeList of Chinese astronauts.

In Chinese, the termYǔ háng yuán(Du hành vũ trụ viên,"cosmos navigating personnel" ) is used for astronauts and cosmonauts in general,[29][30]whilehángtiān yuán(Hàng thiên viên,"navigating celestial-heaven personnel" ) is used for Chinese astronauts. Here,hángtiān(Hàng thiên,literally "heaven-navigating", orspaceflight) is strictly[31]defined as the navigation ofouter spacewithin the localstar system,i.e.Solar System.The phrasetàikōng rén(Vũ trụ người,"spaceman" ) is often used in Hong Kong andTaiwan.[32]

The termtaikonautis used by some English-language news media organizations for professionalspace travelers from China.[33]The word has featured in theLongmanandOxford Englishdictionaries, and the term became more common in 2003 when China sent its first astronautYang Liweiinto space aboard theShenzhou 5spacecraft.[34]This is the term used byXinhua News Agencyin the English version of the ChinesePeople's Dailysince the advent of the Chinese space program.[35]The origin of the term is unclear; as early as May 1998, Chiew Lee Yih (Triệu dục) fromMalaysiaused it innewsgroups.[36][37]

Parastronaut

For its2022 Astronaut Group,the European Space Agency envisioned recruiting an astronaut with a physical disability, a category they called "parastronauts", with the intention but not guarantee of spaceflight.[38]The categories of disability considered for the program were individuals with lower limb deficiency (either through amputation or congenital), leg length difference, or a short stature (less than 130 centimetres or 4 feet 3 inches).[39]On 23 November 2022,John McFallwas selected to be the first ESA parastronaut.[40]

Other terms

With the rise ofspace tourism,NASAand theRussian Federal Space Agencyagreed to use the term "spaceflight participant"to distinguish those space travelers from professional astronauts on missions coordinated by those two agencies.

Finnish AmericanastronautTimothy Kopra

While no nation other than Russia (and previously the Soviet Union), the United States, and China have launched a crewed spacecraft, several other nations have sent people into space in cooperation with one of these countries, e.g. the Soviet-ledInterkosmosprogram. Inspired partly by these missions, other synonyms for astronaut have entered occasional English usage. For example, the termspationaut(French:spationaute) is sometimes used to describe French space travelers, from theLatinwordspatiumfor "space"; theMalaytermangkasawan(deriving fromangkasameaning 'space') was used to describe participants in theAngkasawan program(note its similarity with theIndonesiantermantariksawan). Plans of theIndian Space Research Organisationto launch its crewedGaganyaanspacecraft have spurred at times public discussion if another term thanastronautshould be used for the crew members, suggestingvyomanaut(from theSanskritwordvyomanmeaning 'sky' or 'space') orgagannaut(from the Sanskrit wordgaganfor 'sky').[41][42]InFinland,the NASA astronautTimothy Kopra,aFinnish American,has sometimes been referred to assisunautti,from theFinnishwordsisu.[43]Across Germanic languages, the word for "astronaut" typically translates to "space traveler", as it does with German'sRaumfahrer,Dutch'sruimtevaarder,Swedish'srymdfarare,and Norwegian'sromfarer.

As of 2021 in the United States, astronaut status is conferred on a person depending on the authorizing agency:

  • one who flies in a vehicle above 50 miles (80 km) for NASA or the military is considered anastronaut(with no qualifier)
  • one who flies in a vehicle to the International Space Station in a mission coordinated by NASA and Roscosmos is aspaceflight participant
  • one who flies above 50 miles (80 km) in a non-NASA vehicle as a crewmember and demonstrates activities during flight that are essential to public safety, or contribute to human space flight safety, is considered acommercial astronautby theFederal Aviation Administration[44]
  • one who flies to the International Space Station as part of a "privately funded, dedicated commercial spaceflight on a commercial launch vehicle dedicated to the mission... to conduct approved commercial and marketing activities on the space station (or in a commercial segment attached to the station)" is considered aprivate astronautby NASA[45](as of 2020, nobody has yet qualified for this status)
  • a generally-accepted but unofficial term for a paying non-crew passenger who flies a private non-NASA or military vehicles above 50 miles (80 km) is aspace tourist(as of 2020[needs update],nobody has yet qualified for this status)

On July 20, 2021, the FAA issued an order redefining the eligibility criteria to be an astronaut in response to the private suborbital spaceflights ofJeff BezosandRichard Branson.[46][47]The new criteria states that one must have "[d]emonstrated activities during flight that were essential to public safety, or contributed to human space flight safety" to qualify as an astronaut. This new definition excludes Bezos and Branson.

Space travel milestones

See also:Spaceflight recordsandTimeline of space travel by nationality
Yuri Gagarin,first human in space (1961)
Valentina Tereshkova,firstwoman in space(1963)
Neil Armstrong,first human to walk on the Moon (1969)
Vladimír Remek,aCzechoslovakwho became the first non-American and non-Soviet cosmonaut in space (1978)
Yang Liwei,first person sent into space by China (2003)
Map of countries whose citizens have flown in space

The first human in space was SovietYuri Gagarin,who was launched on 12 April 1961, aboardVostok 1and orbited around the Earth for 108 minutes. The first woman in space was SovietValentina Tereshkova,who launched on 16 June 1963, aboardVostok 6and orbited Earth for almost three days.

Alan Shepardbecame the first American and second person in space on 5 May 1961, on a 15-minute sub-orbital flight aboardFreedom 7.The first American to orbit the Earth wasJohn Glenn,aboardFriendship 7on 20 February 1962. The first American woman in space wasSally Ride,duringSpace ShuttleChallenger's missionSTS-7,on 18 June 1983.[48]In 1992,Mae Jemisonbecame the first African American woman to travel in space aboardSTS-47.

CosmonautAlexei Leonovwas the first person to conduct anextravehicular activity(EVA), (commonly called a "spacewalk" ), on 18 March 1965, on the Soviet Union's Voskhod 2 mission. This was followed two and a half months later by astronautEd Whitewho made the first American EVA on NASA's Gemini 4 mission.[49]

The first crewed mission to orbit the Moon,Apollo 8,included AmericanWilliam Anderswho was born in Hong Kong, making him the first Asian-born astronaut in 1968.

The Soviet Union, through itsIntercosmosprogram, allowed people from other "socialist"(i.e.Warsaw Pactand other Soviet-allied) countries to fly on its missions, with the notable exceptions of France andAustriaparticipating inSoyuz TM-7andSoyuz TM-13,respectively. An example isCzechoslovakVladimír Remek,the first cosmonaut from a country other than theSoviet Unionor theUnited States,who flew to space in 1978 on aSoyuz-Urocket.[50]Rakesh Sharmabecame the first Indian citizen to travel to space. He was launched aboardSoyuz T-11,on 2 April 1984.

On 23 July 1980,Pham TuanofVietnambecame the firstAsianin space when he flew aboardSoyuz 37.[51]Also in 1980,CubanArnaldo Tamayo Méndezbecame the first person ofHispanicand black African descent to fly in space, and in 1983,Guion Blufordbecame the first African American to fly into space. In April 1985,Taylor Wangbecame the first ethnic Chinese person in space.[52][53]The first person born in Africa to fly in space wasPatrick Baudry(France), in 1985.[54][55]In 1985, Saudi ArabianPrince Sultan Bin Salman Bin AbdulAziz Al-Saudbecame the first Arab Muslim astronaut in space.[56]In 1988,Abdul Ahad Mohmandbecame the first Afghan to reach space, spending nine days aboard theMirspace station.[57]

With the increase of seats on the Space Shuttle, the U.S. began taking international astronauts. In 1983,Ulf Merboldof West Germany became the first non-US citizen to fly in a US spacecraft. In 1984,Marc Garneaubecame the first of eightCanadian astronautsto fly in space (through 2010).[58] In 1985,Rodolfo Neri Velabecame the first Mexican-born person in space.[59]In 1991,Helen Sharmanbecame the first Briton to fly in space.[60] In 2002,Mark Shuttleworthbecame the first citizen of an African country to fly in space, as a paying spaceflight participant.[61]In 2003,Ilan Ramonbecame the first Israeli to fly in space, although he died during are-entry accident.

On 15 October 2003,Yang Liweibecame China's first astronaut on theShenzhou 5spacecraft.

On 30 May 2020,Doug HurleyandBob Behnkenbecame the first astronauts to launch on a private crewed spacecraft,Crew Dragon.

Age milestones

The youngest person to reach space isOliver Daemen,who was 18 years and 11 months old when he made asuborbitalspaceflight onBlue Origin NS-16.[62]Daemen, who was a commercial passenger aboard theNew Shepard,broke the record of SovietcosmonautGherman Titov,who was 25 years old when he flewVostok 2.Titov remains the youngest human to reachorbit;he rounded the planet 17 times. Titov was also the first person to sufferspace sicknessand the first person to sleep in space, twice.[63][64]The oldest person to reach space isWilliam Shatner,who was 90 years old when he made a suborbital spaceflight onBlue Origin NS-18.[65]The oldest person to reach orbit isJohn Glenn,one of theMercury 7,who was 77 when he flew onSTS-95.[66]

Duration and distance milestones

The longest time spent in space was by RussianValeri Polyakov,who spent 438 days there.[9] As of 2006, the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut is seven, a record held by bothJerry L. RossandFranklin Chang-Diaz.The farthest distance from Earth an astronaut has traveled was 401,056 km (249,205 mi), whenJim Lovell,Jack Swigert,andFred Haisewent around the Moon during theApollo 13emergency.[9]

Civilian and non-government milestones

The first civilian in space wasValentina Tereshkova[67]aboardVostok 6(she also became the first woman in space on that mission). Tereshkova was only honorarily inducted into the USSR's Air Force, which did not accept female pilots at that time. A month later,Joseph Albert Walkerbecame the first American civilian in space when hisX-15 Flight 90crossed the 100 kilometers (54 nautical miles) line, qualifying him by the international definition of spaceflight.[68][69]Walker had joined the US Army Air Force but was not a member during his flight. The first people in space who had never been a member of any country's armed forces were bothKonstantin FeoktistovandBoris YegorovaboardVoskhod 1.

The first non-governmental space traveler wasByron K. Lichtenberg,a researcher from theMassachusetts Institute of Technologywho flew onSTS-9in 1983.[70]In December 1990,Toyohiro Akiyamabecame the first paying space traveler and the first journalist in space forTokyo Broadcasting System,a visit toMiras part of an estimated $12 million (USD) deal with a Japanese TV station, although at the time, the term used to refer to Akiyama was "Research Cosmonaut".[71][72][73]Akiyama suffered severespace sicknessduring his mission, which affected his productivity.[72]

The first self-fundedspace touristwasDennis Titoon board the Russian spacecraft Soyuz TM-3 on 28 April 2001.

Self-funded travelers

Further information:Space tourism

The first person to fly on an entirely privately funded mission wasMike Melvill,pilotingSpaceShipOne flight 15Pon a suborbital journey, although he was atest pilotemployed byScaled Compositesand not an actual paying space tourist.[74][75]Jared Isaacmanwas the first person to self-fund a mission to orbit, commandingInspiration4in 2021.[76]Nine others have paidSpace Adventuresto fly to theInternational Space Station:

  1. Dennis Tito(American): 28 April – 6 May 2001
  2. Mark Shuttleworth(South African): 25 April – 5 May 2002
  3. Gregory Olsen(American): 1–11 October 2005
  4. Anousheh Ansari(Iranian / American): 18–29 September 2006
  5. Charles Simonyi(Hungarian / American): 7–21 April 2007, 26 March – 8 April 2009
  6. Richard Garriott(British / American): 12–24 October 2008
  7. Guy Laliberté(Canadian): 30 September 2009 – 11 October 2009
  8. Yusaku MaezawaandYozo Hirano(both Japanese): 8 – 24 December 2021

Training

Elliot Seeduring water egress training with NASA (1965)
Main article:Astronaut training
See also:Astronaut ranks and positions

The first NASA astronauts were selected for training in 1959.[77]Early in the space program, military jet test piloting and engineering training were often cited as prerequisites for selection as an astronaut at NASA, although neither John Glenn nor Scott Carpenter (of theMercury Seven) had any university degree, in engineering or any other discipline at the time of their selection. Selection was initially limited to military pilots.[78][79]The earliest astronauts for both the US and the USSR tended to bejet fighterpilots, and were often test pilots.

Once selected, NASA astronauts go through twenty months of training in a variety of areas, including training forextravehicular activityin a facility such as NASA'sNeutral Buoyancy Laboratory.[1][78]Astronauts-in-training (astronaut candidates) may also experience short periods ofweightlessness(microgravity) in an aircraft called the "Vomit Comet,"the nickname given to a pair of modifiedKC-135s(retired in 2000 and 2004, respectively, and replaced in 2005 with aC-9) which performparabolicflights.[77]Astronauts are also required to accumulate a number of flight hours in high-performance jet aircraft. This is mostly done inT-38 jet aircraftout ofEllington Field,due to its proximity to theJohnson Space Center.Ellington Field is also where theShuttle Training Aircraftis maintained and developed, although most flights of the aircraft are conducted fromEdwards Air Force Base.

Astronauts in training must learn how to control and fly the Space Shuttle; further, it is vital that they are familiar with the International Space Station so they know what they must do when they get there.[80]

NASA candidacy requirements

Unless otherwise noted, the following data are incorporated from the Astronaut Requirements article by NASA
  • The candidate must be a citizen of the United States.
  • The candidate must complete a master's degree in aSTEMfield, including engineering,biological science,physical science,computer scienceor mathematics.
  • The candidate must have at least two years of related professional experience obtained after degree completion or at least 1,000 hourspilot-in-commandtime onjet aircraft.
  • The candidate must be able to pass the NASA long-duration flight astronaut physical.
  • The candidate must also have skills in leadership, teamwork and communications.

The master's degree requirement can also be met by:

Mission Specialist Educator

Main article:Educator Astronaut Project
  • Applicants must have a bachelor's degree with teaching experience, including work at the kindergarten through twelfth grade level. An advanced degree, such as a master's degree or a doctoral degree, is not required, but is strongly desired.[81]

Mission Specialist Educators,or "Educator Astronauts", were first selected in 2004; as of 2007, there are three NASA Educator astronauts:Joseph M. Acaba,Richard R. Arnold,andDorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger.[82][83] Barbara Morgan,selected as back-up teacher toChrista McAuliffein 1985, is considered to be the first Educator astronaut by the media, but she trained as a mission specialist.[84] The Educator Astronaut program is a successor to theTeacher in Spaceprogram from the 1980s.[85][86]

Health risks of space travel

See also:Effect of spaceflight on the human bodyandSpace medicine
Gennady Padalkaperforming ultrasound onMichael Finckeduring ISSExpedition 9

Astronauts are susceptible to a variety of health risks includingdecompression sickness,barotrauma,immunodeficiencies,loss ofboneandmuscle,loss ofeyesight,orthostatic intolerance,sleep disturbances,andradiationinjury.[87][88][89][90][91][92][93][94][95][96]A variety of large scale medical studies are being conducted in space via theNational Space Biomedical Research Institute(NSBRI) to address these issues. Prominent among these is theAdvanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in MicrogravityStudy in which astronauts (including former ISS commandersLeroy ChiaoandGennady Padalka) performultrasoundscans under the guidance of remote experts to diagnose and potentially treat hundreds of medical conditions in space. This study's techniques are now being applied to cover professional and Olympicsports injuriesas well as ultrasound performed by non-expert operators in medical and high school students. It is anticipated that remote guided ultrasound will have application on Earth in emergency andrural caresituations, where access to a trained physician is often rare.[97][98][99]

A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found thatSalmonella typhimurium,a bacterium that can causefood poisoning,became more virulent when cultivated in space.[100]More recently, in 2017, bacteria were found to be more resistant toantibioticsand to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space.[101]Microorganismshave been observed to survive thevacuumof outer space.[102][103]

On 31 December 2012, aNASA-supported study reported thathuman spaceflightmay harm the brain and accelerate the onset ofAlzheimer's disease.[104][105][106]

In October 2015, theNASA Office of Inspector Generalissued ahealth hazards reportrelated tospace exploration,including ahuman mission to Mars.[107][108]

Over the last decade, flight surgeons and scientists at NASA have seen a pattern of vision problems in astronauts on long-duration space missions. The syndrome, known asvisual impairment intracranial pressure (VIIP),has been reported in nearly two-thirds of space explorers after long periods spent aboard the International Space Station (ISS).[109]

On 2 November 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the brain have been found in astronauts who have takentrips in space,based onMRI studies.Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes.[110][111]

Being in space can be physiologically deconditioning on the body. It can affect theotolithorgans and adaptive capabilities of thecentral nervous system.Zero gravityandcosmic rayscan cause many implications for astronauts.[112]

In October 2018,NASA-funded researchers found that lengthy journeys intoouter space,including travel to theplanet Mars,may substantially damage thegastrointestinal tissuesof astronauts. The studies support earlier work that found such journeys could significantly damage the brains of astronauts, andagethem prematurely.[113]

Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence on theInternational Space Station(ISS) of fiveEnterobacter bugandensisbacterial strains, nonepathogenicto humans, thatmicroorganismson ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for astronauts.[114][115]

A study by Russian scientists published in April 2019 stated that astronauts facing spaceradiationcould face temporary hindrance of theirmemorycenters. While this does not affect their intellectual capabilities, it temporarily hinders formation of new cells in brain's memory centers. The study conducted by Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (MIPT) concluded this after they observed that mice exposed to neutron and gamma radiation did not impact the rodents' intellectual capabilities.[116]

A 2020studyconducted on the brains of eight male Russian cosmonauts after they returned from long stays aboard theInternational Space Stationshowed that long-durationspaceflightcauses manyphysiologicaladaptions, including macro- andmicrostructuralchanges. While scientists still know little about the effects ofspaceflighton brain structure, this study showed that space travel can lead to newmotor skills (dexterity),but also slightly weakervision,both of which could possibly be long lasting. It was the first study to provide clear evidence ofsensorimotor neuroplasticity,which is the brain's ability to change through growth and reorganization.[117][118]

Food and drink

Main article:Space food
Astronauts making and eating hamburgers on board the ISS, 2002[119]

An astronaut on the International Space Station requires about 830g(29oz) mass of food per meal each day (inclusive of about 120 g or 4.2 oz packaging mass per meal).

Space Shuttle astronauts worked with nutritionists to select menus that appealed to their individual tastes. Five months before flight, menus were selected and analyzed for nutritional content by the shuttle dietician. Foods are tested to see how they will react in a reduced gravity environment. Caloric requirements are determined using a basal energy expenditure (BEE) formula. On Earth, the average American uses about 35 US gallons (130 L) of water every day. On board the ISS astronauts limit water use to only about three US gallons (11 L) per day.[120]

Insignia

NASA Astronaut lapel pin

In Russia, cosmonauts are awardedPilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federationupon completion of their missions, often accompanied with the award ofHero of the Russian Federation.This follows the practice established in the USSR where cosmonauts were usually awarded the titleHero of the Soviet Union.

At NASA, those who complete astronaut candidate training receive a silverlapel pin.Once they have flown in space, they receive a gold pin. U.S. astronauts who also have active-duty military status receive a special qualification badge, known as theAstronaut Badge,after participation on a spaceflight. TheUnited States Air Forcealso presents an Astronaut Badge to its pilots who exceed 50 miles (80 km) in altitude.

Deaths

For a more comprehensive list, seeList of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents § Astronaut fatalities.
Space Mirror Memorial

As of 2020,eighteen astronauts (fourteen men and four women) have died during four space flights. By nationality, thirteen were American, four were Russian (Soviet Union), and one was Israeli.

As of 2020,eleven people (all men) have died training for spaceflight: eight Americans and three Russians. Six of these were in crashes of training jet aircraft, one drowned during water recovery training, and four were due to fires in pure oxygen environments.

AstronautDavid Scottleft a memorial consisting of a statuette titledFallen Astronauton the surface of the Moon during his 1971Apollo 15mission, along with a list of the names of eight of the astronauts and six cosmonauts known at the time to have died in service.[121]

TheSpace Mirror Memorial,which stands on the grounds of theKennedy Space Center Visitor Complex,is maintained by the Astronauts Memorial Foundation and commemorates the lives of the men and women who have died during spaceflight and during training in the space programs of the United States. In addition to twenty NASA career astronauts, the memorial includes the names of anX-15test pilot, aU.S. Air Forceofficer who died while training for a then-classified military space program, and a civilianspaceflight participant.

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ^Apollo 13had to abort an intended lunar landing, and looped around the Moon to return its three astronauts to Earth.

References

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