Automation

For a hierarchical presentation of automation topics, seeOutline of automation.For other uses, seeAutomation (disambiguation).

"Automate" redirects here. For other uses, seeAutomate (disambiguation).

Not to be confused withAutomaton.

Minimum human intervention is required to control many large facilities, such as this electrical generating station.

Automationdescribes a wide range of technologies that reduce human intervention in processes, mainly by predetermining decision criteria, subprocess relationships, and related actions, as well as embodying those predeterminations in machines.Automation has been achieved by various means includingmechanical,hydraulic,pneumatic,electrical,electronic devices,andcomputers,usually in combination. Complicated systems, such as modernfactories,airplanes,and ships typically use combinations of all of these techniques. The benefit of automation includes labor savings, reducing waste, savings inelectricitycosts, savings in material costs, and improvements to quality, accuracy, and precision.

Automation includes the use of various equipment andcontrol systemssuch asmachinery,processes infactories,boilers,and heat-treatingovens,switching ontelephone networks,steering,stabilization of ships,aircraftand other applications andvehicleswith reduced human intervention.Examples range from a householdthermostatcontrolling a boiler to a large industrial control system with tens of thousands of input measurements and output control signals. Automation has also found a home in the banking industry. It can range from simple on-off control to multi-variable high-level algorithms in terms of control complexity.

In the simplest type of an automaticcontrol loop,a controller compares a measured value of a process with a desired set value and processes the resulting error signal to change some input to the process, in such a way that the process stays at its set point despite disturbances. This closed-loop control is an application ofnegative feedbackto a system. The mathematical basis ofcontrol theorywas begun in the 18th century and advanced rapidly in the 20th. The termautomation,inspired by the earlier wordautomatic(coming fromautomaton), was not widely used before 1947, whenFordestablished an automation department.It was during this time that the industry was rapidly adoptingfeedback controllers,which were introduced in the 1930s.

TheWorld Bank'sWorld Development Reportof 2019 shows evidence that the new industries and jobs in the technology sector outweigh the economic effects of workers being displaced by automation.Job lossesanddownward mobilityblamed on automation have been cited as one of many factors in the resurgence ofnationalist,protectionistandpopulistpolitics in the US, UK and France, among other countries since the 2010s.

History

Early history

Ctesibius's clepsydra (3rd century BC)

It was a preoccupation of the Greeks and Arabs (in the period between about 300 BC and about 1200 AD) to keep accurate track of time. InPtolemaic Egypt,about 270 BC,Ctesibiusdescribed a float regulator for awater clock,a device not unlike the ball and cock in a modern flush toilet. This was the earliest feedback-controlled mechanism.The appearance of the mechanical clock in the 14th century made the water clock and its feedback control system obsolete.

ThePersianBanū Mūsābrothers, in theirBook of Ingenious Devices(850 AD), described a number of automatic controls.Two-step level controls for fluids, a form of discontinuousvariable structure controls,were developed by the Banu Musa brothers.They also described afeedback controller.The design of feedback control systems up through the Industrial Revolution was by trial-and-error, together with a great deal of engineering intuition. It was not until the mid-19th century that the stability of feedback control systems was analyzed using mathematics, the formal language of automatic control theory.

Thecentrifugal governorwas invented byChristiaan Huygensin the seventeenth century, and used to adjust the gap betweenmillstones.

Industrial Revolution in Western Europe

Steam enginespromoted automation through the need to control engine speed and power.

The introduction ofprime movers,or self-driven machines advanced grain mills, furnaces, boilers, and thesteam enginecreated a new requirement for automatic control systems includingtemperature regulators(invented in 1624; seeCornelius Drebbel),pressure regulators(1681),float regulators(1700) andspeed controldevices. Another control mechanism was used to tent the sails of windmills. It was patented by Edmund Lee in 1745.Also in 1745,Jacques de Vaucansoninvented the first automated loom. Around 1800,Joseph Marie Jacquardcreateda punch-card systemto program looms.

In 1771Richard Arkwrightinvented the first fully automated spinning mill driven by water power, known at the time as thewater frame.An automatic flour mill was developed byOliver Evansin 1785, making it the first completely automated industrial process.

Aflyball governoris an early example of a feedback control system. An increase in speed would make the counterweights move outward, sliding a linkage that tended to close the valve supplying steam, and so slowing the engine.

A centrifugal governor was used by Mr. Bunce of England in 1784 as part of a modelsteam crane.The centrifugal governor was adopted byJames Wattfor use on a steam engine in 1788 after Watt's partner Boulton saw one at a flour millBoulton & Wattwere building.The governor could not actually hold a set speed; the engine would assume a new constant speed in response to load changes. The governor was able to handle smaller variations such as those caused by fluctuating heat load to the boiler. Also, there was a tendency for oscillation whenever there was a speed change. As a consequence, engines equipped with this governor were not suitable for operations requiring constant speed, such as cotton spinning.

Several improvements to the governor, plus improvements to valve cut-off timing on the steam engine, made the engine suitable for most industrial uses before the end of the 19th century. Advances in the steam engine stayed well ahead of science, both thermodynamics and control theory.The governor received relatively little scientific attention untilJames Clerk Maxwellpublished a paper that established the beginning of a theoretical basis for understanding control theory.

20th century

Relay logic was introduced with factoryelectrification,which underwent rapid adaption from 1900 through the 1920s. Central electric power stations were also undergoing rapid growth and the operation of new high-pressure boilers, steam turbines and electrical substations created a large demand for instruments and controls. Central control rooms became common in the 1920s, but as late as the early 1930s, most process controls were on-off. Operators typically monitored charts drawn by recorders that plotted data from instruments. To make corrections, operators manually opened or closed valves or turned switches on or off. Control rooms also used color-coded lights to send signals to workers in the plant to manually make certain changes.

The development of the electronic amplifier during the 1920s, which was important for long-distance telephony, required a higher signal-to-noise ratio, which was solved by negative feedback noise cancellation. This and other telephony applications contributed to the control theory. In the 1940s and 1950s, German mathematicianIrmgard Flügge-Lotzdeveloped the theory of discontinuous automatic controls, which found military applications during theSecond World Wartofire control systemsand aircraftnavigation systems.

Controllers, which were able to make calculated changes in response to deviations from a set point rather than on-off control, began being introduced in the 1930s. Controllers allowed manufacturing to continue showing productivity gains to offset the declining influence of factory electrification.

Factory productivity was greatly increased by electrification in the 1920s. U.S. manufacturing productivity growth fell from 5.2%/yr 1919–29 to 2.76%/yr 1929–41. Alexander Field notes that spending on non-medical instruments increased significantly from 1929 to 1933 and remained strong thereafter.

The First and Second World Wars saw major advancements in the field ofmass communicationandsignal processing.Other key advances in automatic controls includedifferential equations,stability theoryandsystem theory(1938),frequency domain analysis(1940),ship control(1950), andstochastic analysis(1941).

Starting in 1958, various systems based onsolid-statedigital logicmodules for hard-wired programmed logic controllers (the predecessors ofprogrammable logic controllers[PLC]) emerged to replace electro-mechanical relay logic inindustrial control systemsforprocess controland automation, including earlyTelefunken/AEGLogistat,SiemensSimatic,Philips/Mullard/ValvoNorbit,BBCSigmatronic,ACECLogacec,AkkordEstacord,Krone Mibakron, Bistat, Datapac, Norlog, SSR, or Procontic systems.

In 1959Texaco'sPort Arthur Refinerybecame the first chemical plant to usedigital control. Conversion of factories to digital control began to spread rapidly in the 1970s as the price ofcomputer hardwarefell.

Significant applications

The automatictelephone switchboardwas introduced in 1892 along with dial telephones. By 1929, 31.9% of the Bell system was automatic.Automatic telephone switching originally used vacuum tube amplifiers and electro-mechanical switches, which consumed a large amount of electricity. Call volume eventually grew so fast that it was feared the telephone system would consume all electricity production, promptingBell Labsto begin research on thetransistor.

The logic performed by telephone switching relays was the inspiration for the digital computer. The first commercially successful glass bottle-blowing machine was an automatic model introduced in 1905.The machine, operated by a two-man crew working 12-hour shifts, could produce 17,280 bottles in 24 hours, compared to 2,880 bottles made by a crew of six men and boys working in a shop for a day. The cost of making bottles by machine was 10 to 12 cents per gross compared to $1.80 per gross by the manual glassblowers and helpers.

Sectional electric drives were developed using control theory. Sectional electric drives are used on different sections of a machine where a precise differential must be maintained between the sections. In steel rolling, the metal elongates as it passes through pairs of rollers, which must run at successively faster speeds. In paper making paper, the sheet shrinks as it passes around steam-heated drying arranged in groups, which must run at successively slower speeds. The first application of a sectional electric drive was on a paper machine in 1919.One of the most important developments in the steel industry during the 20th century was continuous wide strip rolling, developed by Armco in 1928.

Automated pharmacology production

Before automation, many chemicals were made in batches. In 1930, with the widespread use of instruments and the emerging use of controllers, the founder of Dow Chemical Co. was advocatingcontinuous production.

Self-acting machine tools that displaced hand dexterity so they could be operated by boys and unskilled laborers were developed byJames Nasmythin the 1840s.Machine toolswere automated withNumerical control(NC) using punched paper tape in the 1950s. This soon evolved into computerized numerical control (CNC).

Today extensive automation is practiced in practically every type of manufacturing and assembly process. Some of the larger processes include electrical power generation, oil refining, chemicals, steel mills, plastics, cement plants, fertilizer plants, pulp and paper mills, automobile and truck assembly, aircraft production, glass manufacturing, natural gas separation plants, food and beverage processing, canning and bottling and manufacture of various kinds of parts. Robots are especially useful in hazardous applications like automobile spray painting. Robots are also used to assemble electronic circuit boards. Automotive welding is done with robots and automatic welders are used in applications like pipelines.

Space/computer age

With the advent of the space age in 1957, controls design, particularly in the United States, turned away from the frequency-domain techniques of classical control theory and backed into the differential equation techniques of the late 19th century, which were couched in the time domain. During the 1940s and 1950s, German mathematicianIrmgard Flugge-Lotzdeveloped the theory of discontinuous automatic control, which became widely used inhysteresis control systemssuch asnavigation systems,fire-control systems,andelectronics.Through Flugge-Lotz and others, the modern era saw time-domain design fornonlinear systems(1961),navigation(1960),optimal controlandestimation theory(1962),nonlinear control theory(1969),digital controlandfiltering theory(1974), and thepersonal computer(1983).

Advantages, disadvantages, and limitations

Perhaps the most cited advantage of automation in industry is that it is associated with faster production and cheaper labor costs. Another benefit could be that it replaces hard, physical, or monotonous work.Additionally, tasks that take place inhazardous environmentsor that are otherwise beyond human capabilities can be done by machines, as machines can operate even under extreme temperatures or in atmospheres that are radioactive or toxic. They can also be maintained with simple quality checks. However, at the time being, not all tasks can be automated, and some tasks are more expensive to automate than others. Initial costs of installing the machinery in factory settings are high, and failure to maintain a system could result in the loss of the product itself.

Moreover, some studies seem to indicate that industrial automation could impose ill effects beyond operational concerns, including worker displacement due to systemic loss of employment and compounded environmental damage; however, these findings are both convoluted and controversial in nature, and could potentially be circumvented.

The mainadvantagesof automation are:

• Increased throughput or productivity
• Improved quality
• Increasedpredictability
• Improvedrobustness(consistency), of processes or product
• Increased consistency of output
• Reduced direct human labor costs and expenses
• Reducedcycle time
• Increased accuracy
• Relieving humans of monotonously repetitive work
• Required work in development, deployment, maintenance, and operation of automated processes — often structured as "jobs"
• Increased human freedom to do other things

Automation primarily describes machines replacing human action, but it is also loosely associated with mechanization, machines replacing human labor. Coupled with mechanization, extending human capabilities in terms of size, strength, speed, endurance, visual range & acuity, hearing frequency & precision, electromagnetic sensing & effecting, etc., advantages include:

• Relieving humans of dangerous work stresses andoccupational injuries(e.g., fewer strained backs from lifting heavy objects)
• Removing humans from dangerous environments (e.g. fire, space, volcanoes, nuclear facilities, underwater, etc.)

The maindisadvantagesof automation are:

• High initial cost
• Faster production without human intervention can mean faster unchecked production of defects where automated processes are defective.
• Scaled-up capacities can mean scaled-up problems when systems fail — releasing dangerous toxins, forces, energies, etc., at scaled-up rates.
• Human adaptiveness is often poorly understood by automation initiators. It is often difficult to anticipate every contingency and develop fully preplanned automated responses for every situation. The discoveries inherent in automating processes can require unanticipated iterations to resolve, causing unanticipated costs and delays.
• People anticipating employment income may be seriously disrupted by others deploying automation where no similar income is readily available.

Paradox of automation

Theparadoxof automation says that the more efficient the automated system, the more crucial the human contribution of the operators. Humans are less involved, but their involvement becomes more critical.Lisanne Bainbridge,a cognitive psychologist, identified these issues notably in her widely cited paper "Ironies of Automation."If an automated system has an error, it will multiply that error until it is fixed or shut down. This is where human operators come in.A fatal example of this wasAir France Flight 447,where a failure of automation put the pilots into a manual situation they were not prepared for.

Limitations

• Current technology is unable to automate all the desired tasks.
• Many operations using automation have large amounts of invested capital and produce high volumes of products, making malfunctions extremely costly and potentially hazardous. Therefore, some personnel is needed to ensure that the entire system functions properly and that safety and product quality are maintained.
• As a process becomes increasingly automated, there is less and less labor to be saved or quality improvement to be gained. This is an example of bothdiminishing returnsand thelogistic function.
• As more and more processes become automated, there are fewer remaining non-automated processes. This is an example of the exhaustion of opportunities. New technological paradigms may, however, set new limits that surpass the previous limits.

Current limitations

Many roles for humans in industrial processes presently lie beyond the scope of automation. Human-levelpattern recognition,language comprehension,and language production ability are well beyond the capabilities of modern mechanical and computer systems (but seeWatson computer). Tasks requiring subjective assessment or synthesis of complex sensory data, such as scents and sounds, as well as high-level tasks such as strategic planning, currently require human expertise. In many cases, the use of humans is morecost-effectivethan mechanical approaches even where the automation of industrial tasks is possible. Therefore,algorithmic managementas the digital rationalization of human labor instead of its substitution has emerged as an alternative technological strategy.Overcoming these obstacles is a theorized path topost-scarcityeconomics.

Societal impact and unemployment

Main article:Technological unemployment

Increased automation often causes workers to feel anxious about losing their jobs as technology renders their skills or experience unnecessary. Early in theIndustrial Revolution,when inventions like thesteam enginewere making some job categories expendable, workers forcefully resisted these changes.Luddites,for instance, were Englishtextile workerswho protested the introduction ofweaving machinesby destroying them.More recently, some residents ofChandler, Arizona,have slashed tires and pelted rocks atself-driving car,in protest over the cars' perceived threat to human safety and job prospects.

The relative anxiety about automation reflected in opinion polls seems to correlate closely with the strength oforganized laborin that region or nation. For example, while a study by thePew Research Centerindicated that 72% of Americans are worried about increasing automation in the workplace, 80% of Swedes see automation andartificial intelligence(AI) as a good thing, due to the country's still-powerful unions and a more robust nationalsafety net.

In the U.S., 47% of all current jobs have the potential to be fully automated by 2033, according to the research of expertsCarl Benedikt Freyand Michael Osborne. Furthermore, wages and educational attainment appear to be strongly negatively correlated with an occupation's risk of being automated.Even highly skilled professional jobs like alawyer,doctor,engineer,journalistare at risk of automation.

Prospects are particularly bleak for occupations that do not presently require a university degree, such as truck driving.Even in high-tech corridors likeSilicon Valley,concern is spreading about a future in which a sizable percentage of adults have little chance of sustaining gainful employment."InThe Second Machine Age,Erik Brynjolfsson and Andrew McAfee argue that "...there's never been a better time to be a worker with special skills or the right education, because these people can use technology to create and capture value. However, there's never been a worse time to be a worker with only 'ordinary' skills and abilities to offer, because computers, robots, and other digital technologies are acquiring these skills and abilities at an extraordinary rate."As the example of Sweden suggests, however, the transition to a more automated future need not inspire panic, if there is sufficient political will to promote the retraining of workers whose positions are being rendered obsolete.

According to a 2020 study in theJournal of Political Economy,automation has robust negative effects on employment and wages: "One more robot per thousand workers reduces the employment-to-population ratio by 0.2 percentage points and wages by 0.42%."

Research byCarl Benedikt Freyand Michael Osborne of theOxford Martin Schoolargued that employees engaged in "tasks following well-defined procedures that can easily be performed by sophisticated algorithms" are at risk of displacement, and 47% of jobs in the US were at risk. The study, released as aworking paperin 2013 and published in 2017, predicted that automation would put low-paid physical occupations most at risk, by surveying a group of colleagues on their opinions.However, according to a study published inMcKinsey Quarterlyin 2015 the impact of computerization in most cases is not the replacement of employees but the automation of portions of the tasks they perform.Themethodologyof the McKinsey study has been heavily criticized for being intransparent and relying on subjective assessments.The methodology of Frey and Osborne has been subjected to criticism, as lacking evidence, historical awareness, or credible methodology.Additionally, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) found that across the 21 OECD countries, 9% of jobs are automatable.

TheObama administrationpointed out that every 3 months "about 6 percent of jobs in the economy are destroyed by shrinking or closing businesses, while a slightly larger percentage of jobs are added."A recentMIT economicsstudy of automation in the U.S. from 1990 to 2007 found that there may be a negative impact on employment and wages when robots are introduced to an industry. When one robot is added per one thousand workers, the employment to population ratio decreases between 0.18 and 0.34 percentages and wages are reduced by 0.25–0.5 percentage points. During the time period studied, the US did not have many robots in the economy which restricts the impact of automation. However, automation is expected to triple (conservative estimate) or quadruple (a generous estimate) leading these numbers to become substantially higher.

Based on a formula byGilles Saint-Paul,an economist atToulouse 1 University,the demand for unskilled human capital declines at a slower rate than the demand for skilled human capital increases.In the long run and for society as a whole it has led to cheaper products,lower average work hours,and new industries forming (i.e., robotics industries, computer industries, design industries). These new industries provide many high salary skill-based jobs to the economy. By 2030, between 3 and 14 percent of the global workforce will be forced to switch job categories due to automation eliminating jobs in an entire sector. While the number of jobs lost to automation is often offset by jobs gained from technological advances, the same type of job loss is not the same one replaced and that leading to increasing unemployment in the lower-middle class. This occurs largely in the US and developed countries where technological advances contribute to higher demand for highly skilled labor but demand for middle-wage labor continues to fall. Economists call this trend "income polarization" where unskilled labor wages are driven down and skilled labor is driven up and it is predicted to continue in developed economies.

Unemployment is becoming a problem in the U.S. due to the exponential growth rate of automation and technology. According to Kim, Kim, and Lee (2017:1), "[a] seminal study by Frey and Osborne in 2013 predicted that 47% of the 702 examined occupations in the U.S. faced a high risk of decreased employment rate within the next 10–25 years as a result of computerization." As many jobs are becoming obsolete, which is causing job displacement, one possible solution would be for the government to assist with auniversal basic income(UBI) program. UBI would be a guaranteed, non-taxed income of around 1000 dollars per month, paid to all U.S. citizens over the age of 21. UBI would help those who are displaced take on jobs that pay less money and still afford to get by. It would also give those that are employed with jobs that are likely to be replaced by automation and technology extra money to spend on education and training on new demanding employment skills. UBI, however, should be seen as a short-term solution as it doesn't fully address the issue of income inequality which will be exacerbated by job displacement.

Lights-out manufacturing

Main article:Lights out (manufacturing)

Lights-out manufacturing is a production system with no human workers, to eliminate labor costs.

Lights out manufacturing grew in popularity in the U.S. when General Motors in 1982 implemented humans "hands-off" manufacturing to "replace risk-averse bureaucracy with automation and robots". However, the factory never reached full "lights out" status.

The expansion of lights out manufacturing requires:

• Reliability of equipment
• Long-term mechanic capabilities
• Planned preventive maintenance
• Commitment from the staff

Health and environment

The costs of automation to the environment are different depending on the technology, product or engine automated. There are automated engines that consume more energy resources from the Earth in comparison with previous engines and vice versa.Hazardous operations, such asoil refining,the manufacturing ofindustrial chemicals,and all forms ofmetal working,were always early contenders for automation.

The automation of vehicles could prove to have a substantial impact on the environment, although the nature of this impact could be beneficial or harmful depending on several factors. Becauseautomated vehiclesare much less likely to get into accidents compared to human-driven vehicles, some precautions built into current models (such asanti-lock brakesorlaminated glass) would not be required for self-driving versions. Removal of these safety features reduces the weight of the vehicle, and coupled with more precise acceleration and braking, as well as fuel-efficient route mapping, can increasefuel economyand reduce emissions. Despite this, some researchers theorize that an increase in the production of self-driving cars could lead to a boom in vehicle ownership and usage, which could potentially negate any environmental benefits of self-driving cars if they are used more frequently.

Automation of homes and home appliances is also thought to impact the environment. A study of energy consumption of automated homes in Finland showed thatsmart homescould reduce energy consumption by monitoring levels of consumption in different areas of the home and adjusting consumption to reduce energy leaks (e.g. automatically reducing consumption during the nighttime when activity is low). This study, along with others, indicated that the smart home's ability to monitor and adjust consumption levels would reduce unnecessary energy usage. However, some research suggests that smart homes might not be as efficient as non-automated homes. A more recent study has indicated that, while monitoring and adjusting consumption levels do decrease unnecessary energy use, this process requires monitoring systems that also consume an amount of energy. The energy required to run these systems sometimes negates their benefits, resulting in little to no ecological benefit.

Convertibility and turnaround time

Main article:Turnaround time

Another major shift in automation is the increased demand forflexibilityand convertibility inmanufacturing processes.Manufacturers are increasingly demanding the ability to easily switch from manufacturing Product A to manufacturing Product B without having to completely rebuild theproduction lines.Flexibility and distributed processes have led to the introduction ofAutomated Guided Vehicleswith Natural Features Navigation.

Digital electronics helped too. Former analog-basedinstrumentationwas replaced by digital equivalents which can be more accurate and flexible, and offer greater scope for more sophisticatedconfiguration,parametrization,and operation. This was accompanied by thefieldbusrevolution which provided a networked (i.e. a single cable) means of communicating between control systems and field-level instrumentation, eliminating hard-wiring.

Discrete manufacturingplants adopted these technologies fast. The more conservative process industries with their longer plant life cycles have been slower to adopt and analog-based measurement and control still dominate. The growing use ofIndustrial Etherneton the factory floor is pushing these trends still further, enabling manufacturing plants to be integrated more tightly within the enterprise, via the internet if necessary. Global competition has also increased demand forReconfigurable Manufacturing Systems.

Automation tools

Engineers can now havenumerical controlover automated devices. The result has been a rapidly expanding range of applications and human activities.Computer-aided technologies(or CAx) now serve as the basis for mathematical and organizational tools used to create complex systems. Notable examples of CAx includecomputer-aided design(CAD software) andcomputer-aided manufacturing(CAM software). The improved design, analysis, and manufacture of products enabled by CAx has been beneficial for industry.

Information technology,together withindustrial machineryandprocesses,can assist in the design, implementation, and monitoring of control systems. One example of anindustrial control systemis aprogrammable logic controller(PLC). PLCs are specialized hardened computers which are frequently used to synchronize the flow of inputs from (physical)sensorsand events with the flow of outputs to actuators and events.

Anautomated online assistanton a website, with anavatarfor enhancedhuman–computer interaction

Human-machine interfaces(HMI) orcomputer human interfaces(CHI), formerly known asman-machine interfaces,are usually employed to communicate with PLCs and other computers. Service personnel who monitor and control through HMIs can be called by different names. In the industrial process and manufacturing environments, they are called operators or something similar. In boiler houses and central utility departments, they are calledstationary engineers.

Different types of automation tools exist:

• ANN –Artificial neural network
• DCS –Distributed control system
• HMI –Human machine interface
• RPA –Robotic process automation
• SCADA –Supervisory control and data acquisition
• PLC –Programmable logic controller
• Instrumentation
• Motion control
• Robotics

Hostsimulation software(HSS) is a commonly used testing tool that is used to test the equipment software. HSS is used to test equipment performance concerning factory automation standards (timeouts, response time, processing time).

Cognitive automation

Cognitive automation, as a subset of AI, is an emerging genus of automation enabled bycognitive computing.Its primary concern is the automation of clerical tasks and workflows that consist of structuringunstructured data.Cognitive automation relies on multiple disciplines:natural language processing,real-time computing,machine learning algorithms,big data analytics,andevidence-based learning.

According toDeloitte,cognitive automation enables the replication of human tasks and judgment "at rapid speeds and considerable scale."Such tasks include:

• Document redaction
• Data extractionand document synthesis / reporting
• Contract management
• Natural language search
• Customer, employee, andstakeholderonboarding
• Manual activities and verifications
• Follow-up and email communications

Recent and emerging applications

Main article:Emerging technologies

CAD AI

Artificially intelligentcomputer-aided design(CAD) can use text-to-3D, image-to-3D, and video-to-3D to automate in3D modeling.AiCAD librariescould also be developed usinglinkedopen dataofschematicsanddiagrams.Ai CADassistantsare used as tools to help streamline workflow.

Automated power production

Technologies likesolar panels,wind turbines,and otherrenewable energysources—together withsmart grids,micro-grids,battery storage—can automate power production.

Agricultural production

Main article:Agriculture

Many agricultural operations are automated withmachinery and equipmentto improve their diagnosis, decision-making and/or performing. Agricultural automation can relieve the drudgery of agricultural work, improve the timeliness and precision of agricultural operations, raise productivity and resource-use efficiency, build resilience, and improve food quality and safety.Increased productivity can free up labour, allowing agricultural households to spend more time elsewhere.

The technological evolution in agriculture has resulted in progressive shifts to digital equipment and robotics.Motorized mechanization using engine power automates the performance of agricultural operations such as ploughing and milking.With digital automation technologies, it also becomes possible to automate diagnosis and decision-making of agricultural operations.For example, autonomous crop robots can harvest and seed crops, while drones can gather information to help automate input application.Precision agriculture often employs such automation technologies

Motorized mechanization has generally increased in recent years.Sub-Saharan Africa is the only region where the adoption of motorized mechanization has stalled over the past decades.

Automation technologies are increasingly used for managing livestock, though evidence on adoption is lacking. Global automatic milking system sales have increased over recent years,but adoption is likely mostly in Northern Europe,and likely almost absent in low- and middle-income countries.Automated feeding machines for both cows and poultry also exist, but data and evidence regarding their adoption trends and drivers is likewise scarce.

Retail

Main article:Automated retail

Manysupermarketsand even smaller stores are rapidly introducingself-checkoutsystems reducing the need for employing checkout workers. In the U.S., the retail industry employs 15.9 million people as of 2017 (around 1 in 9 Americans in the workforce). Globally, an estimated 192 million workers could be affected by automation according to research byEurasia Group.

A soft drinkvending machinein Japan, an example of automated retail

Online shoppingcould be considered a form of automated retail as the payment and checkout are through an automatedonline transaction processingsystem, with the share of online retail accounting jumping from 5.1% in 2011 to 8.3% in 2016.However, two-thirds of books, music, and films are now purchased online. In addition, automation and online shopping could reduce demands for shopping malls, and retail property, which in the United States is currently estimated to account for 31% of all commercial property or around 7 billion square feet (650 million square metres).Amazonhas gained much of the growth in recent years for online shopping, accounting for half of the growth in online retail in 2016.Other forms of automation can also be an integral part of online shopping, for example, the deployment of automated warehouse robotics such as that applied byAmazonusingKiva Systems.

Food and drink

Main article:Automated restaurant

KUKAindustrial robotsbeing used at a bakery for food production

The food retail industry has started to apply automation to the ordering process;McDonald'shas introduced touch screen ordering and payment systems in many of its restaurants, reducing the need for as many cashier employees.The University of Texas at Austinhas introduced fully automated cafe retail locations.Some Cafes and restaurants have utilized mobile and tablet "apps"to make the ordering process more efficient by customers ordering and paying on their device.Some restaurants have automated food delivery to tables of customers using aConveyor belt system.The use ofrobotsis sometimes employed to replacewaiting staff.

Construction

Main article:Automation in construction

Automation in construction is the combination of methods, processes, and systems that allow for greater machine autonomy in construction activities. Construction automation may have multiple goals, including but not limited to, reducingjobsiteinjuries, decreasing activity completion times, and assisting withquality controlandquality assurance.

Mining

Main article:Automated mining

Automated mining involves the removal of human labor from theminingprocess.Themining industryis currently in the transition towards automation. Currently, it can still require a large amount ofhuman capital,particularly in thethird worldwhere labor costs are low so there is less incentive for increasing efficiency through automation.

Video surveillance

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) started the research and development of automated visualsurveillanceand monitoring (VSAM) program, between 1997 and 1999, and airborne video surveillance (AVS) programs, from 1998 to 2002. Currently, there is a major effort underway in the vision community to develop a fully-automatedtracking surveillancesystem. Automated video surveillance monitors people and vehicles in real-time within a busy environment. Existing automated surveillance systems are based on the environment they are primarily designed to observe, i.e., indoor, outdoor or airborne, the number of sensors that the automated system can handle and the mobility of sensors, i.e., stationary camera vs. mobile camera. The purpose of a surveillance system is to record properties and trajectories of objects in a given area, generate warnings or notify the designated authorities in case of occurrence of particular events.

Highway systems

Main articles:Automated highway systemsandVehicular automation

As demands for safety and mobility have grown and technological possibilities have multiplied, interest in automation has grown. Seeking to accelerate the development and introduction of fully automated vehicles and highways, theU.S. Congressauthorized more than $650 million over six years forintelligent transport systems(ITS) and demonstration projects in the 1991Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act(ISTEA). Congress legislated in ISTEA that:

[T]heSecretary of Transportationshall develop an automated highway and vehicle prototype from which future fully automated intelligent vehicle-highway systems can be developed. Such development shall include research in human factors to ensure the success of the man-machine relationship. The goal of this program is to have the first fully automated highway roadway or an automated test track in operation by 1997. This system shall accommodate the installation of equipment in new and existing motor vehicles.

Full automation commonly defined as requiring no control or very limited control by the driver; such automation would be accomplished through a combination of sensor, computer, and communications systems in vehicles and along the roadway. Fully automated driving would, in theory, allow closer vehicle spacing and higher speeds, which could enhance traffic capacity in places where additional road building is physically impossible, politically unacceptable, or prohibitively expensive. Automated controls also might enhance road safety by reducing the opportunity for driver error, which causes a large share of motor vehicle crashes. Other potential benefits include improved air quality (as a result of more-efficient traffic flows), increased fuel economy, and spin-off technologies generated during research and development related to automated highway systems.

Waste management

Automated side loader operation

Automated waste collection trucks prevent the need for as many workers as well as easing the level of labor required to provide the service.

Business process

Main article:Business process automation

Business process automation (BPA) is the technology-enabled automation of complexbusiness processes.It can help to streamline a business for simplicity, achievedigital transformation,increaseservice quality,improve service delivery or contain costs. BPA consists of integrating applications, restructuring labor resources and using software applications throughout the organization.Robotic process automation(RPA; or RPAAI for self-guided RPA 2.0) is an emerging field within BPA and uses AI. BPAs can be implemented in a number of business areas including marketing, sales and workflow.

Home

Main article:Home automation

Home automation (also calleddomotics) designates an emerging practice of increased automation of household appliances and features in residential dwellings, particularly through electronic means that allow for things impracticable, overly expensive or simply not possible in recent past decades. The rise in the usage of home automation solutions has taken a turn reflecting the increased dependency of people on such automation solutions. However, the increased comfort that gets added through these automation solutions is remarkable.

Laboratory

Main article:Laboratory automation

Automated laboratory instrument

Automation is essential for many scientific and clinical applications.Therefore, automation has been extensively employed in laboratories. From as early as 1980 fully automated laboratories have already been working.However, automation has not become widespread in laboratories due to its high cost. This may change with the ability of integrating low-cost devices with standard laboratory equipment.Autosamplersare common devices used in laboratory automation.

Logistics automation

Main article:Logistics automation

Logistics automation is the application ofcomputer softwareor automated machinery to improve the efficiency oflogisticsoperations. Typically this refers to operations within awarehouseordistribution center,with broader tasks undertaken bysupply chain engineeringsystems andenterprise resource planningsystems.

Industrial automation

See also:Building automationandLaboratory automation

Industrial automation deals primarily with the automation ofmanufacturing,quality control,andmaterial handlingprocesses. General-purpose controllers for industrial processes includeprogrammable logic controllers,stand-alone I/O modules,and computers. Industrial automation is to replace the human action and manual command-response activities with the use of mechanized equipment and logical programming commands. One trend is increased use ofmachine visionto provide automatic inspection and robot guidance functions, another is a continuing increase in the use of robots. Industrial automation is simply required in industries.

Industrial Automation and Industry 4.0

See also:Work 4.0

The rise of industrial automation is directly tied to the "Fourth Industrial Revolution",which is better known now as Industry 4.0. Originating from Germany, Industry 4.0 encompasses numerous devices, concepts, and machines,as well as the advancement of theindustrial internet of things(IIoT). An "Internet of Thingsis a seamless integration of diverse physical objects in the Internet through a virtual representation. "These new revolutionary advancements have drawn attention to the world of automation in an entirely new light and shown ways for it to grow to increase productivity and efficiency in machinery and manufacturing facilities. Industry 4.0 works with the IIoT and software/hardware to connect in a way that (throughcommunication technologies) add enhancements and improve manufacturing processes. Being able to create smarter, safer, and more advanced manufacturing is now possible with these new technologies. It opens up a manufacturing platform that is more reliable, consistent, and efficient than before. Implementation of systems such asSCADAis an example of software that takes place in Industrial Automation today. SCADA is a supervisory data collection software, just one of the many used in Industrial Automation.Industry 4.0 vastly covers many areas in manufacturing and will continue to do so as time goes on.

Industrial robotics

Automated milling machines

Industrial roboticsis a sub-branch in industrial automation that aids in various manufacturing processes. Such manufacturing processes include machining, welding, painting, assembling and material handling to name a few.Industrial robots use various mechanical, electrical as well as software systems to allow for high precision, accuracy and speed that far exceed any human performance. The birth of industrial robots came shortly after World War II as the U.S. saw the need for a quicker way to produce industrial and consumer goods.Servos, digital logic and solid-state electronics allowed engineers to build better and faster systems and over time these systems were improved and revised to the point where a single robot is capable of running 24 hours a day with little or no maintenance. In 1997, there were 700,000 industrial robots in use, the number has risen to 1.8M in 2017In recent years, AI withroboticsis also used in creating an automatic labeling solution, using robotic arms as the automatic label applicator, and AI for learning and detecting the products to be labelled.

Programmable Logic Controllers

Industrial automation incorporates programmable logic controllers in the manufacturing process.Programmable logic controllers(PLCs) use a processing system which allows for variation of controls of inputs and outputs using simple programming. PLCs make use of programmable memory, storing instructions and functions like logic, sequencing, timing, counting, etc. Using a logic-based language, a PLC can receive a variety of inputs and return a variety of logical outputs, the input devices being sensors and output devices being motors, valves, etc. PLCs are similar to computers, however, while computers are optimized for calculations, PLCs are optimized for control tasks and use in industrial environments. They are built so that only basic logic-based programming knowledge is needed and to handle vibrations, high temperatures, humidity, and noise. The greatest advantage PLCs offer is their flexibility. With the same basic controllers, a PLC can operate a range of different control systems. PLCs make it unnecessary to rewire a system to change the control system. This flexibility leads to a cost-effective system for complex and varied control systems.

PLCs can range from small "building brick" devices with tens of I/O in a housing integral with the processor, to large rack-mounted modular devices with a count of thousands of I/O, and which are often networked to other PLC andSCADAsystems.

They can be designed for multiple arrangements of digital and analoginputs and outputs(I/O), extended temperature ranges, immunity toelectrical noise,and resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed-up ornon-volatile memory.

It was from the automotive industry in the United States that the PLC was born. Before the PLC, control, sequencing, and safety interlock logic for manufacturing automobiles was mainly composed ofrelays,cam timers,drum sequencers,and dedicated closed-loop controllers. Since these could number in the hundreds or even thousands, the process for updating such facilities for the yearly modelchange-overwas very time-consuming and expensive, aselectriciansneeded to individually rewire the relays to change their operational characteristics.

When digital computers became available, being general-purpose programmable devices, they were soon applied to control sequential and combinatorial logic in industrial processes. However, these early computers required specialist programmers and stringent operating environmental control for temperature, cleanliness, and power quality. To meet these challenges, the PLC was developed with several key attributes. It would tolerate the shop-floor environment, it would support discrete (bit-form) input and output in an easily extensible manner, it would not require years of training to use, and it would permit its operation to be monitored. Since many industrial processes have timescales easily addressed by millisecond response times, modern (fast, small, reliable) electronics greatly facilitate building reliable controllers, and performance could be traded off for reliability.

Agent-assisted automation

Main article:Agent-assisted automation

Agent-assisted automation refers to automation used by call center agents to handle customer inquiries. The key benefit of agent-assisted automation is compliance and error-proofing. Agents are sometimes not fully trained or they forget or ignore key steps in the process. The use of automation ensures that what is supposed to happen on the call actually does, every time. There are two basic types: desktop automation and automated voice solutions.

Control

Main article:Control system

Open-loop and closed-loop

This section is an excerpt fromControl loop § Open-loop and closed-loop.[edit]

Fundamentally, there are two types of control loop:open-loop control(feedforward), andclosed-loop control(feedback).

An electromechanical timer, normally used for open-loop control based purely on a timing sequence, with no feedback from the process

In open-loop control, the control action from the controller is independent of the "process output" (or "controlled process variable" ). A good example of this is a central heating boiler controlled only by a timer, so that heat is applied for a constant time, regardless of the temperature of the building. The control action is the switching on/off of the boiler, but the controlled variable should be the building temperature, but is not because this is open-loop control of the boiler, which does not give closed-loop control of the temperature.

In closed loop control, the control action from the controller is dependent on the process output. In the case of the boiler analogy this would include a thermostat to monitor the building temperature, and thereby feed back a signal to ensure the controller maintains the building at the temperature set on the thermostat. A closed loop controller therefore has a feedback loop which ensures the controller exerts a control action to give a process output the same as the "reference input" or "set point". For this reason, closed loop controllers are also called feedback controllers.

The definition of a closed loop control system according to theBritish Standards Institutionis "a control system possessing monitoring feedback, the deviation signal formed as a result of this feedback being used to control the action of a final control element in such a way as to tend to reduce the deviation to zero."

Likewise; "AFeedback Control Systemis a system which tends to maintain a prescribed relationship of one system variable to another by comparing functions of these variables and using the difference as a means of control. "

Discrete control (on/off)

One of the simplest types of control ison-offcontrol. An example is a thermostat used on household appliances which either open or close an electrical contact. (Thermostats were originally developed as true feedback-control mechanisms rather than the on-off common household appliance thermostat.)

Sequence control, in which a programmed sequence ofdiscreteoperations is performed, often based on system logic that involves system states. An elevator control system is an example of sequence control.

PID controller

Main article:PID controller

Ablock diagramof a PID controller in a feedback loop, where r(t) is the desired process value or "set point", and y(t) is the measured process value

A proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID controller) is acontrol loopfeedback mechanism(controller) widely used inindustrial control systems.

In a PID loop, the controller continuously calculates anerror value$e(t)$as the difference between a desiredsetpointand a measuredprocess variableand applies a correction based onproportional,integral,andderivativeterms, respectively (sometimes denotedP,I,andD) which give their name to the controller type.

The theoretical understanding and application date from the 1920s, and they are implemented in nearly all analog control systems; originally in mechanical controllers, and then using discrete electronics and latterly in industrial process computers.

Sequential control and logical sequence or system state control

Main article:Programmable logic controller

Sequential control may be either to a fixed sequence or to a logical one that will perform different actions depending on various system states. An example of an adjustable but otherwise fixed sequence is a timer on a lawn sprinkler.

States refer to the various conditions that can occur in a use or sequence scenario of the system. An example is an elevator, which uses logic based on the system state to perform certain actions in response to its state and operator input. For example, if the operator presses the floor n button, the system will respond depending on whether the elevator is stopped or moving, going up or down, or if the door is open or closed, and other conditions.

Early development of sequential control wasrelay logic,by whichelectrical relaysengage electrical contacts which either start or interrupt power to a device. Relays were first used in telegraph networks before being developed for controlling other devices, such as when starting and stopping industrial-sized electric motors or opening and closingsolenoid valves.Using relays for control purposes allowed event-driven control, where actions could be triggered out of sequence, in response to external events. These were more flexible in their response than the rigid single-sequencecam timers.More complicated examples involved maintaining safe sequences for devices such as swing bridge controls, where a lock bolt needed to be disengaged before the bridge could be moved, and the lock bolt could not be released until the safety gates had already been closed.

The total number of relays and cam timers can number into the hundreds or even thousands in some factories. Earlyprogrammingtechniques and languages were needed to make such systems manageable, one of the first beingladder logic,where diagrams of the interconnected relays resembled the rungs of a ladder. Special computers calledprogrammable logic controllerswere later designed to replace these collections of hardware with a single, more easily re-programmed unit.

In a typical hard-wired motor start and stop circuit (called acontrol circuit) a motor is started by pushing a "Start" or "Run" button that activates a pair of electrical relays. The "lock-in" relay locks in contacts that keep the control circuit energized when the push-button is released. (The start button is a normally open contact and the stop button is a normally closed contact.) Another relay energizes a switch that powers the device that throws the motor starter switch (three sets of contacts for three-phase industrial power) in the main power circuit. Large motors use high voltage and experience high in-rush current, making speed important in making and breaking contact. This can be dangerous for personnel and property with manual switches. The "lock-in" contacts in the start circuit and the main power contacts for the motor are held engaged by their respective electromagnets until a "stop" or "off" button is pressed, which de-energizes the lock in relay.

This state diagram shows howUMLcan be used for designing a door system that can only be opened and closed.

Commonlyinterlocksare added to a control circuit. Suppose that the motor in the example is powering machinery that has a critical need for lubrication. In this case, an interlock could be added to ensure that the oil pump is running before the motor starts. Timers, limit switches, and electric eyes are other common elements in control circuits.

Solenoid valves are widely used oncompressed airorhydraulic fluidfor poweringactuatorsonmechanicalcomponents. Whilemotorsare used to supply continuousrotary motion,actuators are typically a better choice for intermittently creating a limited range of movement for a mechanical component, such as moving various mechanical arms, opening or closingvalves,raising heavy press-rolls, applying pressure to presses.

Computer control

Computers can perform both sequential control and feedback control, and typically a single computer will do both in an industrial application.Programmable logic controllers(PLCs) are a type of special-purposemicroprocessorthat replaced many hardware components such as timers and drum sequencers used in relay logic–type systems. General-purpose process control computers have increasingly replaced stand-alone controllers, with a single computer able to perform the operations of hundreds of controllers. Process control computers can process data from a network of PLCs, instruments, and controllers to implement typical (such as PID) control of many individual variables or, in some cases, to implement complex controlalgorithmsusing multiple inputs and mathematical manipulations. They can also analyze data and create real-time graphical displays for operators and run reports for operators, engineers, and management.

Control of anautomated teller machine(ATM) is an example of an interactive process in which a computer will perform a logic-derived response to a user selection based on information retrieved from a networked database. The ATM process has similarities with other online transaction processes. The different logical responses are calledscenarios.Such processes are typically designed with the aid ofuse casesandflowcharts,which guide the writing of the software code. The earliest feedback control mechanism was the water clock invented by Greek engineer Ctesibius (285–222 BC).

See also

• Artificial Intelligence
• Automate This
• Automated storage and retrieval system
• Automation engineering
• Automation technician
• Cognitive computing
• Control engineering
• Critique of work
• Cybernetics
• Data-driven control system
• Dirty, dangerous and demeaning
• Feedforward control
• Fully Automated Luxury Communism
• Futures studies
• The Human Use of Human Beings
• Industrial Revolution
• Industry 4.0
• Intelligent automation
• Inventing the Future: Postcapitalism and a World Without Work
• Machine to machine
• Mobile manipulator
• Multi-agent system
• Post-work society
• Process control
• Productivity improving technologies
• The Right to Be Lazy
• Right to repair
• Robot tax
• Robotic process automation
• Semi-automation
• Technological unemployment
• The War on Normal People

References

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Further reading

• Acemoglu, Daron, and Pascual Restrepo. "Automation and New Tasks: How Technology Displaces and Reinstates Labor." The Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 33, no. 2,American Economic Association,2019, pp. 3–30,JSTOR26621237.
• Norton, Andrew. Automation and Inequality: The Changing World of Work in the Global South.International Institute for Environment and Development,2017,JSTORresrep02662.
• Danaher, John. "The Case for Technological Unemployment." Automation and Utopia: Human Flourishing in a World without Work,Harvard University Press,2019, pp. 25–52,doi:10.2307/j.ctvn5txpc.4.
• Reinsch, William, and Jack Caporal. "The Digital Economy & Data Governance." Key Trends in the Global Economy through 2030, edited by Matthew P. Goodman and Scott Miller,Center for Strategic and International Studies(CSIS), 2020, pp. 18–21,JSTORresrep26050.6.
• Shiller, Robert J. "Automation and Artificial Intelligence Replace Almost All Jobs." Narrative Economics: How Stories Go Viral and Drive Major Economic Events,Princeton University Press,2019, pp. 196–211,doi:10.2307/j.ctvdf0jm5.19.
• Wolf-Meyer, Matthew J. "The Revolutionary Horizons of Labor and Automation: Blue Collar and Player Piano." Theory for the World to Come: Speculative Fiction and Apocalyptic Anthropology,University of Minnesota Press,2019, pp. 41–50,doi:10.5749/j.ctvdtphr3.6.
• Dombalagian, Onnig H. "Automation." Chasing the Tape: Information Law and Policy in Capital Markets, TheMIT Press,2015, pp. 163–78,JSTORj.ctt17kk8ps.16.
• Diakopoulos, Nicholas. "HYBRIDIZATION: COMBINING ALGORITHMS, AUTOMATION, AND PEOPLE IN NEWSWORK." Automating the News: How Algorithms Are Rewriting the Media,Harvard University Press,2019, pp. 13–40,JSTORj.ctv24w634d.4.
• HOLZER, HARRY J. "Automation, Jobs, and Wages: Should Workers Fear the New Automation?" Shifting Paradigms: Growth, Finance, Jobs, and Inequality in the Digital Economy, edited by ZIA QURESHI and CHEONSIK WOO,Brookings Institution Press,2022, pp. 123–50,JSTOR10.7864/j.ctv13xpqtd.9.
• CLAYPOOL, MOLLIE, JANE BURRY, JENNY SABIN, BOB SHEIL, and MARILENA SKAVARA. "TOWARDS DISCRETE AUTOMATION." In Fabricate 2020: Making Resilient Architecture, 272–79.UCL Press,2020.doi:10.2307/j.ctv13xpsvw.39.
• TYSON, LAURA D., and Christine Lagarde. "Trade and Policy Adjustment to Automation Challenges." Meeting Globalization's Challenges: Policies to Make Trade Work for All, edited by LUÍS A. V. CATÃO and MAURICE OBSTFELD,Princeton University Press,2019, pp. 229–36,doi:10.2307/j.ctvh1dr13.22.
• McAfee, Andrew, and Erik Brynjolfsson. "Human Work in the Robotic Future: Policy for the Age of Automation." Foreign Affairs, vol. 95, no. 4,Council on Foreign Relations,2016, pp. 139–50,JSTOR43946940.
• FREY, CARL BENEDIKT. "ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE." The Technology Trap: Capital, Labor, and Power in the Age of Automation, Princeton University Press, 2019, pp. 301–41,doi:10.2307/j.ctvc77cz1.21.
• ATANASOSKI, NEDA, and KALINDI VORA. "Automation and the Invisible Service Function: Toward an 'Artificial Artificial Intelligence.'" Surrogate Humanity: Race, Robots, and the Politics of Technological Futures,Duke University Press,2019, pp. 87–107,doi:10.2307/j.ctv1198x3v.7.
• BORRIE, JOHN. "Cold War Lessons for Automation in Nuclear Weapon Systems." The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Strategic Stability and Nuclear Risk: Volume I Euro-Atlantic Perspectives, edited by VINCENT BOULANIN,Stockholm International Peace Research Institute,2019, pp. 41–52,JSTORresrep24525.11.
• Estlund, C. (2021).Automation Anxiety: Why and How to Save Work.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-197-56610-7.LCCN2021011887.
• Dowd, C. (2020).Digital Journalism, Drones, and Automation: The Language and Abstractions behind the News.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-190-65589-1.LCCN2019036451.
• Winfield, A. (2012).Robotics: A Very Short Introduction.Very Short Introductions.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-191-64648-5.
• Munn, L. (2022).Automation Is a Myth.Stanford University Press.ISBN978-1-503-63142-7.LCCN2021034838.
• Nilsson, N.J. (2009).The Quest for Artificial Intelligence.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-139-64282-8.