Theavocado,alligator pearoravocado pear(Persea americana) is a medium-sized,evergreentree in the laurel family (Lauraceae). It is native tothe Americasand was first domesticated inMesoamericamore than 5,000 years ago. It was prized for its large and unusuallyoily fruit.[3]The tree likely originated in the highlands bridging south-central Mexico andGuatemala.[4][5][6]Avocado trees have a native growth range from Mexico toCosta Rica.[7]Its fruit, sometimes also referred to as analligator pearoravocado pear,is botanically a largeberrycontaining a single large seed.[8]Sequencing of its genome showed that the evolution of avocados was shaped bypolyploidyevents and that commercial varieties have anhybridorigin.[9]Avocado trees are partlyself-pollinating,and are oftenpropagatedthroughgraftingto maintain consistent fruit output.[10]Avocados are presently cultivated in the tropical andMediterranean climatesof many countries.[4]Mexicois the world'sleading producerof avocados as of 2020, supplying nearly 30% of the global harvest in that year.[11]
The fruit of domestic varieties have smooth, buttery, golden-green flesh when ripe. Depending on thecultivar,avocados have green, brown, purplish, or black skin, and may be pear-shaped, egg-shaped, or spherical. For commercial purposes the fruits are picked while unripe and ripened after harvesting. The nutrient density and extremely high fat content of avocado flesh are useful to a variety of cuisines and are often eaten to enrich vegetarian diets.[12]
Persea americanais a tree that grows to 9–20 m (30–66 ft) with a trunk diameter between 0.3–0.6 m (1–2 ft). The leaves are 8–25 cm (3–10 in) long and alternately arranged.[20][21]
Flower
Panicles of flowers with deciduous bracts arise from new growth or the axils of leaves. The tree flowers thousands of blossoms every year. Avocado blossoms sprout from racemes near the leaf axils; they are small and inconspicuous5–10 mm (3⁄16–3⁄8in) wide. They have no petals but instead 2 whorls of 3 pale-green or greenish-yellow downyperianthlobes, each blossom has 9 stamens with 2 basal orange nectar glands.[20][4]
Avocado flowerPollen grains of avocado
Fruit
The avocado fruit is aclimacteric,[22]single-seededberry,due to the imperceptibleendocarpcovering the seed,[8][23]rather than adrupe.[24]The pear-shaped fruit is usually 7–20 cm (3–8 in) long, weighs between100 and 1,000 g (3+1⁄2and35+1⁄2oz), and has a large centralseed,5–6.4 cm (2–2+1⁄2in) long.[4]
The species produces various cultivars with larger, fleshier fruits with a thinnerexocarpbecause ofselective breedingby humans.[25]
Taxonomy
Persea americanais regarded as anevolutionary anachronism,having likelycoevolveddispersal of its large seed by now-extinctmegafaunainSouth America,notablygiant ground slothsand thegomphotheregenus of the elephant lineage.[26][27][28][29]Following extinction of these original seed dispersers, humans migrating into the region are thought to have become primary long-distance dispersers, eventuating in domestication of the species.[27][30]
In 1982, evolutionary biologistDaniel H. Janzenconcluded that the avocado is an example of an "evolutionary anachronism", a fruit adapted for ecological relationship with now-extinct large mammals (such as giantground slothsor gomphotheres).[26][31]Most large fleshy fruits serve the function ofseed dispersal,accomplished by their consumption by large animals. There are some reasons to think that the fruit, with its mildly toxic pit, may have coevolved withPleistocene megafaunato be swallowed whole and excreted in their dung, ready to sprout.[30]No extant native animal is large enough to effectively disperse avocado seeds in this fashion.[32][33]
The wordavocadocomes from the Spanishaguacate,which derives from theNahuatl(Mexican) wordāhuacatl[aːˈwakat͡ɬ],[37]which goes back to theproto-Aztecan*pa:wa.[38]InMolina's Nahuatl dictionary"auacatl" is given also as the translation forcompañón"testicle",[39]and this has been taken up in popular culture where a frequent claim is that testicle was the word's original meaning. This is not the case, as the original meaning can be reconstructed as "avocado" – rather the word seems to have been used in Nahuatl as a euphemism for "testicle".[40][41][42]
The modern English name comes from a rendering of the Spanishaguacateasavogato.The earliest known written use in English is attested from 1697 asavogato pear,lateravocado pear(due to its shape), a term sometimes corrupted toalligator pear.[43][44][4]
Regional names
In Central American, Caribbean Spanish-speaking countries, and Spain[45]it is known by the Mexican Spanish nameaguacate,while South American Spanish-speaking countries Argentina, Chile, Perú and Uruguay use aQuechua-derived word,palta.[46]In Portuguese, it isabacate.The Nahuatlāhuacatlcan be compounded with other words, as inahuacamolli,meaning avocado soup or sauce, from which the Spanish wordguacamolederives.[47]
In the United Kingdom the termavocado pear,applied when avocados first became commonly available in the 1960s, is sometimes used.[48]
It is known as "butter fruit" in parts of India[50]and Hong Kong.[51]
Cultivation
History
Domestication, leading to genetically distinct cultivars, possibly originated in theTehuacan Valley[52]in the state ofPuebla,Mexico.[53]There is evidence for three possible separate domestications of the avocado, resulting in the currently recognized Guatemalan (quilaoacatl), Mexican (aoacatl) and West Indian (tlacacolaocatl)landraces.[36][54]The Guatemalan and Mexican and landraces originated in the highlands of those countries, while the West Indian landrace is a lowland variety that ranges from Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador to Peru,[36]achieving a wide range through human agency before the arrival of the Europeans.[54]The three separate landraces were most likely to have already intermingled[a]in pre-Columbian America and were described in theFlorentine Codex.[54]
The earliest residents of northern coastal Peru were living in temporary camps in an ancient wetland and eating avocados, along with chilies, mollusks, sharks, birds, and sea lions.[55]The oldest discovery of an avocado pit comes fromCoxcatlan Cave,dating from around 9,000 to 10,000 years ago.[52][54]Other caves in theTehuacan Valleyfrom around the same time period also show early evidence for the presence and consumption of avocado.[52]There is evidence for avocado use atNorte Chico civilizationsites in Peru by at least 3,200 years ago and atCaballo Muertoin Peru from around 3,800 to 4,500 years ago.[52]
NativeOaxacacriolloavocados, the ancestral form of today's domesticated varieties
The avocado tree also has a long history of cultivation in Central and South America, likely beginning as early as 5,000 BC.[53]A water jar shaped like an avocado, dating to AD 900, was discovered in the pre-Incacity ofChan Chan.[56]
The plant was introduced to Spain in 1601, Indonesia around 1750, Mauritius in 1780, Brazil in 1809, the United States mainland in 1825, South Africa and Australia in the late 19th century, and the Ottoman Empire in 1908.[54]In the United States, the avocado was introduced to Florida and Hawaii in 1833 and in California in 1856.[54]
The nameavocadohas been used in English since at least 1764, with minor spelling variants such asavogatoattested even earlier.[57][58][59]The avocado was commonly referred to in California asahuacateand in Florida asalligator pearuntil 1915, when theCalifornia Avocado Associationpopularized the termavocado.[54]
Requirements
Persea americana,young avocado plant (seedling), complete with parted pit and roots
As asubtropicalspecies, avocados need a climate without frost and with little wind. High winds reduce the humidity, dehydrate the flowers, and affect pollination.[original research?]When even a mild frost occurs, premature fruit drop may occur; although the 'Hass'cultivarcan tolerate temperatures down to −1 °C.[original research?]Several cold-hardy varieties[specify][which?]are planted in the region ofGainesville, Florida,which survive temperatures as low as −6.5 °C (20 °F) with only minor leaf damage. The trees also need well-aerated soils, ideally more than 1 m deep.[original research?]However, Guatemalan varieties such as "MacArthur", "Rincon", or "Nabal" can withstand temperatures down to −1.6 °C (29 °F)[60]
According to information published by theWater Footprint Network,it takes an average of approximately 70 litres (18 US gallons; 15 imperial gallons) of applied fresh ground or surface water, not including rainfall or natural moisture in the soil, to grow one avocado (283 L/kg [33.9 US gal/lb; 28.2 imp gal/lb]). However, the amount of water needed depends on where it is grown; for example, in the main avocado-growing region of Chile, about 320 L (85 US gal; 70 imp gal) of applied water are needed to grow one avocado (1,280 L/kg [153 US gal/lb; 128 imp gal/lb]).[61]
Increasing demand and production of avocados may causewater shortagesin some avocado production areas, such as the Mexican state ofMichoacán.[13][62]Avocados may also cause environmental andsocioeconomicimpacts in major production areas, illegaldeforestation,andwater disputes.[13][62]Water requirements for growing avocados are three times higher than for apples, and 18 times higher than for tomatoes.[62]
Harvest and postharvest
Commercial orchards produce an average of seven tonnes per hectare each year, with some orchards achieving 20 tonnes per hectare.[63]Biennial bearingcan be a problem, with heavy crops in one year being followed by poor yields the next.
Like the banana, the avocado is aclimactericfruit, which matures on the tree, but ripens off the tree. Avocados used in commerce are picked hard and green and kept in coolers at 3.3 to 5.6 °C (37.9 to 42.1 °F) until they reach their final destination. Avocados must be mature to ripen properly. Avocados that fall off the tree ripen on the ground. Generally, the fruit is picked once it reaches maturity; Mexican growers pick 'Hass' avocados when they have more than 23% dry matter, and other producing countries have similar standards. Once picked, avocados ripen in one to two weeks (depending on the cultivar) atroom temperature(faster if stored with other fruits such as apples or bananas, because of the influence ofethylenegas). Some supermarkets sell ripened avocados which have been treated with synthetic ethylene to hasten ripening.[64]The use of an ethylene gas "ripening room", which is now an industry standard, was pioneered in the 1980s by farmer Gil Henry ofEscondido, California,in response to footage from a hidden supermarket camera which showed shoppers repeatedly squeezing hard, unripe avocados, putting them "back in the bin", and moving on without making a purchase.[65]In some cases, avocados can be left on the tree for several months, which is an advantage to commercial growers who seek the greatest return for their crop, but if the fruit remains unpicked for too long, it falls to the ground.
Breeding
A seedless avocado, or cuke, growing next to two regular Ettinger avocados
The species is only partially able toself-pollinatebecause ofdichogamyin its flowering. This limitation, added to the long juvenile period, makes the species difficult to breed. Most cultivars are propagated bygrafting,having originated from random seedling plants or minormutationsderived from cultivars. Modern breeding programs tend to use isolation plots where the chances of cross-pollinationare reduced. That is the case for programs at theUniversity of California, Riverside,as well as theVolcani Centreand the Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias in Chile.
The avocado is unusual in that the timing of the male and female flower phases differs among cultivars. The two flowering types are A and B. A-cultivar flowers open as female on the morning of the first day and close in late morning or early afternoon. Then they open as male in the afternoon of the second day. B varieties open as female on the afternoon of the first day, close in late afternoon and reopen as male the following morning.
A cultivars: 'Hass', 'Gwen', 'Lamb Hass', 'Pinkerton', 'Reed'
Certain cultivars, such as the 'Hass', have a tendency to bear well only in alternate years. After a season with a low yield, due to factors such as cold (which the avocado does not tolerate well), the trees tend to produce abundantly the next season. In addition, due to environmental circumstances during some years, seedless avocados may appear on the trees.[68]Known in the avocado industry as "cukes", they are usually discarded commercially due to their small size.[69]
Propagation and rootstocks
A common technique to germinate avocados at home is to use toothpicks poked into the avocado pit to suspend the pit partially in water.Young avocado sprout
Avocados can be propagated by seed, taking roughly four to six years to bear fruit, although in some cases seedlings can take 10 years to come into bearing.[70]The offspring is unlikely to be identical to the parent cultivar in fruit quality. Prime quality varieties are therefore propagated by grafting torootstocksthat are propagated by seed (seedling rootstocks) or bylayering(clonal rootstocks). After about a year of growing in a greenhouse, the young rootstocks are ready to be grafted. Terminal and lateral grafting is normally used. Thescioncultivar grows for another 6–12 months before the tree is ready to be sold. Clonal rootstocks are selected for tolerance of specific soil and disease conditions, such as poor soil aeration or resistance to the soil-borne disease (root rot) caused byPhytophthora cinnamomi.Advances in cloning techniques that can produce up to 500 new plants from a single millimetre of tree cutting have the potential to increase the availability of rootstocks.[71]
Commercial avocado production is limited to a small fraction of the vast genetic diversity in the species. Conservation of this genetic diversity has relied largely on field collection, as avocado seeds often do not survive storage in seed banks. This is problematic, as field preservation of living cultivars is expensive, and habitat loss threatens wild cultivars. More recently, an alternate method of conservation has been developed based on cryopreservation of avocado somatic embryos with reliable methods for somatic embryogenesis and reconstitution into living trees.[72][73]
As a houseplant
Avocado houseplant leaf with ruler to indicate size
The avocado tree can be grown domestically and used as a decorativehouseplant.The pit germinates in normal soil conditions or partially submerged in a small glass (or container) of water. In the latter method, the pit sprouts in four to six weeks, at which time it is planted in standard houseplant potting soil. The plant normally grows large enough to be prunable; it does not bear fruit unless it has ample sunlight. Home gardeners cangrafta branch from a fruit-bearing plant to speed maturity, which typically takes four to six years to bear fruit.[74]
Avocado trees are vulnerable to bacterial,viral,fungal,and nutritional diseases (excesses and deficiencies of key minerals). Disease can affect all parts of the plant, causing spotting, rotting, cankers, pitting, and discoloration.[75]Thepyriform scale insect(Protopulvinaria pyriformis) is known from Australia, South Africa, Israel, Italy, France, Spain, Cuba, Florida,[76]and Peru. It is normally found on avocado, and in Peru it is said to be the worst insect pest of the fruit. Certain cultivars of avocado seem more susceptible to attack by the scale than others.[77]
Mexico is by far the world's largest avocado growing country, producing several times more than the second largest producer.[78]In 2013, the total area dedicated to avocado production was 188,723 hectares (466,340 acres), and the harvest was 2.03 million tonnes in 2017.[11]The states that produce the most areMéxico,Morelos,Nayarit,Puebla,and Michoacan, accounting for 86% of the total. In Michoacán, the cultivation is complicated by the existence ofdrug cartelsthat extort protection fees from cultivators. They are reported to exact 2,000 Mexicanpesosper hectare from avocado farmers and 1 to 3 pesos/kg of harvested fruit.[79]It is such a problem that the phraseblood guacamolehas been adopted to describe the social effects in Mexico of the vast worldwide demand for its fruits.[80]
Cultivation in California
Avocados were introduced to California fromNicaraguain the early 1850s, when avocado trees imported from theCentral Americancountry were observed and reported growing near San Gabriel.[81][82][83]The avocado has since become a successfulcash crop.About 24,000 hectares (59,000 acres) – as of 2015, some 80% of United States avocado production – is located inSouthern California.[80]
Avocado is the official fruit of the state of California.[84]Fallbrook, California,claims, without official recognition, the title of "Avocado Capital of the World" (also claimed by the town ofUruapanin Mexico[85]), and both it andCarpinteria, California,host annual avocado festivals.
'Hass' avocado production in Peru encompasses thousands of hectares in central and western Peru.[86]Peru has now become the largest supplier of avocados imported to theEuropean Unionand the second largest supplier to Asia and the United States.[87]The country's location near theequatorand along the Pacific Ocean creates consistently mild temperatures all year.
'Hass' avocados from Peru are seasonally available to consumers from May through September and are promoted under the auspices of the Peruvian Avocado Commission, headquartered in Washington, D.C.
Chile has produced avocados for over 100 years with production increasing dramatically in the early 1980s due to global demand.New Yorkmagazinereported in 2015 that "Large avocado growers are draining the country'sgroundwaterand rivers faster than they can replenish themselves. "[80]88% of total production and 99% of exported avocados from Chile are Hass avocados. Avocados are a staple fruit in Chile with 30% of production destined for the domestic market. No import tariffs are imposed on Chilean avocados by China, the United States, or the European Union due to free trade agreements.[88][89]
'Choquette':Avocado 'Choquette' graftedA seedling from Miami, Florida. 'Choquette' bore large fruit of good eating quality in large quantities and had good disease resistance, and thus became a major cultivar. Today 'Choquette' is widely propagated in south Florida both for commercial growing and for home growing.[90]
'Gwen': A seedling bred from 'Hass' x 'Thille' in 1982, 'Gwen' is higher yielding and more dwarfing than 'Hass' in California. The fruit has an oval shape, slightly smaller than 'Hass' (100–200 g or3+1⁄2–7 oz), with a rich, nutty flavor. The skin texture is more finely pebbled than 'Hass', and is dull green when ripe. It is frost-hardy down to −1 °C (30 °F).[91]
'Hass':Two 'Hass' avocadosThe 'Hass' is the most common cultivar of avocado. It produces fruit year-round and accounts for 80% of cultivated avocados in the world.[35][92]All 'Hass' trees are descended from a single "mother tree" raised by a mail carrier namedRudolph Hass,ofLa Habra Heights, California.[34][92]Hass patented the productive tree in 1935. The "mother tree", of uncertain subspecies, died ofroot rotand was cut down in September 2002.[35][92][93]
'Lula':A seedling reportedly grown from a 'Taft' avocado planted in Miami on the property of George Cellon, it is named after Cellon's wife, Lula. It was likely a cross between Guatemalan and Mexican types. 'Lula' was recognized for its flavor and high oil content and propagated commercially in Florida.
'Maluma':A relatively new cultivar, it was discovered in South Africa in the early 1990s by Mr. A.G. (Dries) Joubert. It is a chance seedling of unknown parentage.
'Pinkerton': First grown on the Pinkerton Ranch inSaticoy, California,in the early 1970s, 'Pinkerton' is a seedling of 'Hass' x 'Rincon'. The large fruit has a small seed, and its green skin deepens in color as it ripens. The thick flesh has a smooth, creamy texture, pale green color, good flavor, and high oil content. It shows some cold tolerance, to −1 °C (30 °F) and bears consistently heavy crops. A hybrid Guatemalan type, it has excellent peeling characteristics.[citation needed]
'Reed': Developed from a chance seedling found in 1948 by James S. Reed in California, this cultivar has large, round, green fruit with a smooth texture and dark, thick, glossy skin. Smooth and delicate, the flesh has a slightly nutty flavor. The skin ripens green. A Guatemalan type, it is hardy to −1 °C (30 °F). Tree size is about5 by 4 m (16+1⁄2by 13 ft).[citation needed]
B cultivars
'Fuerte':Commercialized in the U.S. from budwood imported fromAtlixco,Mexico in 1911,[94]Fuerte was the dominant commercial variety in the U.S. for the first half of the 20th century.[95]
'Sharwil': Developed by James Cockburn Wilson (died 1990) with Frank Victor Sharpe inTamborine Mountain,Queensland, Australia, in the 1950s, aportmanteauof Sharpe and Wilson.[96]Wilson also developed the Willard variety (Wilson and Hazzard), imported the Reed variety into Australia, and developed the Shepard variety. SharpeOBEwas later awarded aCMGin1972for services to the avocado industry. The variety originated in Guatemala.[97]
Other cultivars
Other avocado cultivars include'Spinks'.Historically attested varieties (which may or may not survive amonghorticulturists) include the 'Challenge', 'Dickinson', 'Kist', 'Queen', 'Rey', 'Royal', 'Sharpless', and 'Taft'.[98]
Stoneless avocado
A stoneless avocado, marketed as a "cocktail avocado", which does not contain a pit, is available on a limited basis. They are five to eight centimetres long; the whole fruit may be eaten, including the skin. It is produced from an unpollinated blossom in which the seed does not develop.[99]Seedless avocados regularly appear on trees.[100]Known in the avocado industry as "cukes", they are usually discarded commercially due to their small size.[101]
In 2020, world production of avocados was 8.1 milliontonnes,led by Mexico with 30% (2.4 million tonnes) of the total (table). Other major producers wereColombia,Dominican Republic,Peru,andIndonesia,together producing 35% of the world total.[11]Despite market effects of the 2020COVID-19 pandemic,volume production of avocados in Mexico increased by 40% over 2019 levels.[102]
In 2018, theUS Department of Agricultureestimated that 231,028 hectares (570,880 acres) in total were under cultivation for avocado production in Mexico, a 6% increase over the previous year, and that 2 million tonnes would be exported.[103]The Mexican state ofMichoacánis the world leader in avocado production, accounting for 80% of all Mexican output.[103][104]Most Mexican growers produce theHass varietydue to its longershelf lifefor shipping and high demand among consumers.[103]
First international air shipment of avocados from Los Angeles to Toronto for theCanadian National Exhibition,1927
Market
Seventy-six percent of Mexico's avocado exports go to the United States,[105]with thefree trade agreementbetween the US, Canada and Mexico in July 2020 facilitating avocado shipments within the North Americanfree trade zone.[104]The Mexican domestic market was expanding during 2020.[104]Mexican avocado exports are challenged by growth of production by Peru and theDominican Republicto supply the US and European markets.[104][102]
During theCOVID-19 pandemic,Mexican avocado farmers restricted harvesting as the overall demand andsupply chainslowed due to labor and shipping restrictions.[104][102]Later in 2020, demand in the United States and within Mexico increased at a time when American retail prices continued to rise.[102][105]During 2020 in the United States, month-to-month volume sales of avocados were similar to those of tomatoes at about 250 million pounds (110 million kg) per month.[105]A report issued in mid-2020 forecast that the worldwide market, which was US$13.7 billion in 2018, would recover after the end of the pandemic and rise to US$21.6 billion by 2026.[104]
Toxicity
Allergies
Some people haveallergicreactions to avocado. There are two main forms of allergy: those with a tree-pollen allergy develop local symptoms in the mouth and throat shortly after eating avocado; the second, known as latex-fruit syndrome,[106]is related tolatex allergy[107]and symptoms include generalisedurticaria,abdominal pain, and vomiting and can sometimes be life-threatening.[108]
Toxicity to animals
Avocado leaves,bark,skin, orpitare documented to be harmful to animals; cats, dogs, cattle, goats, rabbits,[109]rats, guinea pigs, birds, fish, and horses[110]can be severely harmed or even killed when they consume them. The avocado fruit is poisonous to some birds, and theAmerican Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals(ASPCA) lists it as toxic to horses.[111]
Avocado leaves contain a toxic fatty acid derivative,persin,which in sufficient quantity can causecolic in horsesand without veterinary treatment, death.[112]The symptoms include gastrointestinal irritation, vomiting, diarrhea, respiratory distress, congestion, fluid accumulation around the tissues of the heart, and even death. Birds also seem to be particularly sensitive to this toxic compound.
The leaves of the Guatemalan variety ofP. americanaare toxic to goats, sheep, and horses.[113]
Typical total fat composition is roughly: 1%ω-3,14%ω-6,71%ω-9(65% oleic and 6% palmitoleic), and 14%saturated fat(palmitic acid).[117]
Although costly to produce, nutrient-rich avocado oil has a multitude of uses for salads or cooking and in cosmetics and soap products.[4]
Research
In 2022, aprospective cohort studyfollowing 110,487 people for 30 years found that eating two servings of avocado per week reduced the risk of developingcardiovascular diseasesby 16–22%.[118]The study involved replacing half a daily serving of saturated fat sources, including margarine, butter, egg, yogurt, cheese, or processed meats, with an equivalent amount of avocado.[118]
The fruit of horticultural cultivars has a markedly higher fat content than most other fruit, mostlymonounsaturated fat,and as such serves as an important staple in the diet of consumers who have limited access to other fatty foods (high-fat meats and fish, dairy products). Having a highsmoke point,avocado oilis expensive compared to commonsaladandcooking oils,and is mostly used for salads ordips.
A ripe avocado yields to gentle pressure when held in the palm of the hand and squeezed. The flesh is prone toenzymatic browning,quickly turning brown after exposure to air.[119]To prevent this,limeor lemon juice can be added to avocados after peeling.
The fruit is not sweet, but distinctly and subtly flavored, with smooth texture.[4]It is used in both savory and sweet dishes, though in many countries not for both. The avocado is common invegetarian cuisineas a substitute for meats in sandwiches and salads because of its high fat content.
Generally, avocado is served raw, though some cultivars, including the common 'Hass', can be cooked for a short time without becoming bitter. The flesh of some avocados may be rendered inedible by heat. Prolonged cooking induces this chemical reaction in all cultivars.[120]
It is used as the base for the Mexican dip known asguacamole,[4]as well as a spread oncorn tortillasor toast, served with spices. Avocado is a primary ingredient inavocado soup.Avocado slices are frequently added to hamburgers andtortasand is a key ingredient inCalifornia rollsand othermakizushi( "maki", or rolledsushi).
A mocha almond fudge avocado layer cake. Avocado is present within the layers of the cake.
International
In Mexico and Central America, avocados are served mixed with white rice, in soups, salads, or on the side of chicken and meat. They are also commonly added topozole.In Peru, they are consumed withtequeñosas mayonnaise, served as a side dish withparrillas,used in salads and sandwiches, or as a whole dish when filled with tuna, shrimp, or chicken. In Chile, it is used as a puree-like sauce with chicken,hamburgers,andhot dogs;and in slices forceleryor lettuce salads. The Chilean version ofCaesar saladcontains large slices of mature avocado.[citation needed]
Avocados in savory dishes, often seen as exotic, are a relative novelty in Portuguese-speaking countries, such as Brazil, where the traditional preparation is mashed with sugar and lime, and eaten as a dessert or snack. This contrasts with Spanish-speaking countries such as Chile, Mexico, orArgentina,where the opposite is true and sweet preparations are rare. With the exception of the Philippines, a former Spanish colony where avocados are traditionally used in sweet preparations and savory uses are seen as exotic.[121]
In thePhilippines(where avocados were introduced fromMexicosince before the 1700s),[121]Brazil,Indonesia,Vietnam,and southern India (especially the coastalKerala,Tamil Nadu andKarnatakaregion), avocados are frequently used for milkshakes and occasionally added toice creamand other desserts.[122]In Brazil, the Philippines[123]Vietnam, and Indonesia, a dessert drink is made with sugar, milk or water, and pureed avocado.Chocolate syrupis sometimes added. InMorocco,a similar chilled avocado and milk drink is sweetened withconfectioner's sugarand flavored with a touch oforange flower water.
InEthiopia,avocados are made into juice by mi xing them with sugar and milk or water, usually served withVimtoand a slice of lemon. It is also common to serve layered multiple fruit juices in a glass (locally calledSpris) made of avocados, mangoes, bananas, guavas, and papayas. Avocados are also used to make salads. InKenyaand Nigeria, the avocado is often eaten as a fruit alone or mixed with other fruits in a fruit salad, or as part of a vegetable salad. InGhana,they are often eaten alone on sliced bread as a sandwich. InSri Lanka,their well-ripened flesh, thoroughly mashed or pureed with milk andkitultreacle (a liquidjaggerymade from the sap of the inflorescence ofjaggery palms), is a common dessert.[124]InHaiti,they are often consumed withcassavaor regular bread for breakfast.
In the United Kingdom, the avocado became available during the 1960s when introduced bySainsbury'sunder the name 'avocado pear'.[48]Much of the success of avocados in the UK is attributed to a long-running promotional campaign initiated by South African growers in 1995.[125]In Australia and New Zealand, avocados are commonly served on sandwiches, sushi, toast, or with chicken.
In addition to the fruit, the leaves of Mexican avocados (Persea americanavar.drymifolia) are used in some cuisines as a spice, with a flavor somewhat reminiscent ofanise.[126]They are sold both dried and fresh, toasted before use, and either crumbled or used whole, commonly in bean dishes.[127]
^Intermingled in a trade or cultural sense, but not necessarily a genetic one.
References
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^Bravo-Espinosa, M., Mendoza, M.E., Carlo ́n Allende, T., Medina, L., S ́aenz-Reyes, J.T., Pa ́ez, R., 2014. Effects of converting forest to avocado orchards on topsoil properties in the trans-Mexican volcanic system, Mexico. Land Degrad. Dev. 25 (5), 452–467.https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2163.
^abcdAyala Silva, Tomas; Ledesma, Noris (2014). "Avocado History, Biodiversity and Production".Sustainable Horticultural Systems.Sustainable Development and Biodiversity. Vol. 2. pp. 157–205.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-06904-3_8.ISBN978-3-319-06903-6.
^abc"How green are avocados? (Yes, that's a trick question)".CBC.25 January 2019.Retrieved11 April2021.Producing avocados is very water-intensive. The Water Footprint Network estimates it takes an average of 2,000 litres of water to produce one kilogram of avocados
^O'Brien, Christopher, Jayeni CA Hiti-Bandaralage, Alice Hayward, and Neena Mitter. "Avocado (Persea americana Mill.)." In Step Wise Protocols for Somatic Embryogenesis of Important Woody Plants, pp. 305–328. Springer, Cham, 2018.
^"Talking avocados"(PDF).Avocados Australia.Australian Avocado Growers' Federation. June 1990.Retrieved16 January2022.
^"Research plants stolen".Hamersley News.Vol. X, no. 17. Western Australia. 8 September 1977. p. 2.Retrieved16 January2022– via National Library of Australia.
^Overholser, E. L. (1924–1925)."Cold Storage Behavior of Avocados"(PDF).California Avocado Association Annual Report.10.San Diego, California: California Avocado Association: 32–40. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 30 July 2013.Retrieved19 August2009.
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Mexico
Colombia
Dominican Republic
Peru
Indonesia
Kenya
Sliced avocado
Aguacamolemix (right) used as a dip fortortilla chips(left)
Avocado in milk and sugar,a traditional dish from the Philippines where avocados are regarded as a dessert fruit, rather than savory
Indonesian-styleavocado milkshake with chocolate syrup
Unusual avocado variety from Cebu, Philippines
A mocha almond fudge avocado layer cake. Avocado is present within the layers of the cake.
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